HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM COPORATION

LIMITED

MUMBAI REFINERY

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

FOR

HEAT EXCHANGERS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Description

1. Heat Exchanger Design

2. Heat exchanger terminology

3. Heat Exchange Equipment

4. Design consideration for shell & tube heat exchangers

Configuration of shell and tube heat exchangers

Design temperature & pressure:
Fouling factor
Shell selection
Tube selection
Tube layout
Baffle spacing
Seal strips
Impingement baffle

Nozzles
Economic Pressure drop consideration
Means of increasing heat transfer
Means of decreasing pressure drop
Allocation of shell and tube side fluid

5. Heat Exchanger design procedure

6. Design Calculation format

7. Attachments

8. References
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
FOR
HEAT EXCHANGERS

1.0 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN:

Heat Exchanger is the critical equipment in a refinery. Economics of the plant is

often controlled by the effective utlisation of heat exchange equipment. Design of
heat exchanger is more than just calculation

• Judgement and understanding.

• Flexibility
• Experience
• Current and future operation
• Fouling potential
• Corrosion potential
• Allowable pressure drop
• Range of normal operation
• Max weight and size limitations
• Preferred geometry
• Economics

2.0 HEAT EXCHANGER TERMINOLOGY :

Baffle Plate: Higher Heat Transfer Coefficients are obtained when the
liquid is in turbulent condition. To introduce turbulence outside the tubes,
baffles are used. Also called support plate. A plate in which the tubes pass
through for support. Also provides a blocked path for the shellside medium.
This blocked path forces the shellside medium across the tubes providing
better heat exchanger performance.

Baffle Spacing: The center-to-center distance between baffles is called

Baffle Pitch or Baffle Spacing. The space in-between the baffle plates on a
tube bundle. Baffle spacing is adjusted to achieve maximum heat exchanger
performance.

Bundle Assembly: The name of the tubing assembly in removable bundle

heat exchangers. It usually consists of tubes, tubesheets, baffles, spacers,
and tierods.
Cover/Cover Assembly: The name of the part, which is used to cover an
opening on a heat exchanger. Channel covers are used in conjunction with
channels to seal off the tubeside of the heat exchanger. Nozzle covers can
be used to cover nozzle openings to keep heat exchanger internals clean
during shipping and storage. Covers are different from end plates in the
sense that they can be removed from the heat exchanger to clean the interior
of the tubeside, without disturbing any piping.

Dome: The name of a type of nozzle connection. A dome provides a larger

nozzle opening between the customer's pipe size and heat exchanger tube
bundle, usually to prevent tube erosion due to high inlet velocities.

End Plate:
End plates are covers, which have been welded to the heat exchanger. Most
end plates are used on bonnet assemblies.

End Zone:
The first baffle space on a tube bundle. It is the space between the tubesheet
and the first baffle plate. The end zone is adjusted to keep the baffle plates
within the two shell side nozzles.

Ferrule:
A small piece of tubing approximately 1 inch long made of copper or
stainless steel. The ferrule is crimped or squeezed onto the tie tube, up
against the last baffle, thus locking all the baffles into position.

Fixed Tubesheet: A non-removable tubesheet. The tubesheet on a core

assembly. Any tubesheet that is an integral part of the shell assembly.

Floating Tubesheet: The tubesheet at one end of a removable tube bundle.

The floating tubesheet will always have a smaller diameter than the
stationary. The floating tubesheet is allowed to move freely with the
expansion and contraction of the tube bundle due to temperature changes in
operation.

Fouling Factor: Fouling factors represents resistance to heat transfer

caused by dirt, sludge and other deposits which form on inner and outerside
of tubes.

Impingement Plate :A small perforated plate or bar assembly placed

inside of the shellside nozzle, usually a dome type nozzle. They can also be
attached directly to the bundle by being tack welded to the tierods. The
impingement plate protects and prolongs the life of the tubes. The
impingement plate breaks up and slows down the shellside fluid, which
otherwise would erode the tubing.

In and Out End: The end of the heat exchanger which contains the
tubeside inlet and outlet connections in a multi-pass unit.

Outer Tube Limit: The O.T.L. is the diameter created by encircling the
outer most tubes in a tube layout. The design O.T.L. is used by engineers to
calculate clearances between bundle parts. The actual O.T.L. is usually a
few thousandths less than the design O.T.L.

Protector Rod : Also called a zinc. A sacrificial anode usually placed in

the tubeside of a heat exchanger. The zinc protects the tubes, tubesheets and
bonnets against corrosion. When water is flowing through the tubeside the
zinc is consumed instead of the other heat exchanger parts.

Removable Bundle : A type of heat exchanger in which the tube bundle

can be removed from the shell pipe. The removable bundle provides easy
cleaning of the shellside and also a less expensive way of replacing worn
out tubes.

Reversing End: The end of a heat exchanger where the tubeside fluid
reverses its flow in a multi-pass unit. It usually contains only small vent and
drain connections.

Seal strips: This are flat strip of metal that extend the length of the shell in
order to prevent shell side fluid from flowing through the clearance
between tube bundle and inner wall of shell.

Shell Assembly: The name of the assembly into which the tube bundle fits.
The shell also contains the shellside connections.

Shell Head: A shell head is a formed plate which is welded to the shell (or
bonnet) pipe. The shell head can be many styles or shapes, including
flanged and dished, elliptical, ellipsoidal, and hemispherical. Generally, as
a head gets flatter it gets weaker, therefore designers can use a flat end plate
or a thinner formed head to do the same job.

Shell Side: The side of a heat exchanger where the fluid circulates around
the outside of the tubes.
Spacer: A piece of tubing that slides over the tie rod or tie tube between the
baffle plates. The spacer holds the baffle plate in a permanent position.

Stacking: Two or more heat exchangers which have been stacked together
either side by side or one on top of the other. These units have
interconnecting piping hooking them together.

Stationary Tubesheet: The tubesheet at one end of a removable bundle. It

has a larger diameter than the floating tubesheet. The stationary tubesheet is
held together in a permanent position between the bonnet and shell flanges.

Temperature approach : Temperature difference between stream outlet

temperatures(hot outlet – cold outlet).

Temperature cross : If hot stream outlet temperature < cold stream outlet
temperature is called temperature cross.

Test Pressure: Generally 1.5 times the design pressure. The pressure used
during a hydrostatic test. The test is made to detect leaks at any joint on the
heat exchanger.

Tie Rod: A small diameter rod which threads into the stationary end
tubesheet. This rod ties the baffles and spacers together.

Tie Tube: A tie tube takes the place of the tie rod in a small diameter heat
exchanger. It serves the same purpose as a tie rod.

Tube Layout: The tube layout drawing shows the positioning of the tubes
inside the heat exchanger. It also shows the locations of the tierods.

Tube pitch: Tube pitch is shortest center to center distance between

adjacent tubes. Pitch is related to the angle based on direction of flow.

Tube counts : Number of tubes in the layout is the tube count. For a given
shell ID with specified tube OD for particular type of pitch, number of
tubes (tube count) is given in heat exchanger standards

Tubesheet: The tubesheet is a plate that secures both ends of the tube in a
heat exchanger. Both the shellside and tubeside mediums come in contact
with it.

Tube Side: The side of a heat exchanger where the fluid circulates through
the inside of the tubes..
1,2,4 Pass : The number of times the fluid passed through the tube bundle.
In a one pass unit the tube side medium passes through all the tubes once.
In a two pass unit it passes through one half of the tubes and returns
through the other half. A four pass unit goes through approximately one
quarter of the tubes, down and back four times. Greater than 1 Pass is
referred to as a multi-pass unit.
3.0 HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT:

Heat transfer equipment is defined by the function it full fills in a process.

Hexchanger : Heat transfer equipment which exchanges the heat

between two process streams.

Cooler : To cool process fluid, water is the main cooling medium. Cooling
media can be air also called air cooler or by other process fluid.

Chiller: Cools process stream by refrigerant at temperature lower than

prevailing water, can be chilled water chilling the process fluid or
by refrigerant such as propane, propylene, ammonia

Condenser : Condenser is cooler used for removal of latent heat instead

of sensible heat. Condenses all vapors(pure or mixture)

Condensers are of two types i.e.Total condensers and partial

condensers). Condensers rely on turbulence induced by flow and
diffusion(important for partial condensers)

Total condensers : Total condensers condense 100 % of fluid flow.

Generally have higher coeeficients, no diffusion involved.
In total condensers, the only problem in condensing is that, as
condensing molecules try to get to the cold tube wall, they are
blocked by the previously condensed liquid film. Condenser design
should try to drain this material away quickly. Some single pass
condensers are sloped to improve this. Even total condensers get
small amount of noncondensables. Hence total condensers must have
vent for noncendensables at the top and/or at outlet end of
exchangers.

Partial condensers : Partial condensers condense less than 100 % of

fluid flow. Material that is not condensable at cooling conditions are
called non-condensables. Partial condensers have the same
 restrictions as the total condensers plus one more. The non-
condensables that travel with the previously condensed material may
have also tend to block the new material from getting the tube wall.
Therefore a diffusion barrier is also created and this effect is
substantial.
Reboiler : To supply the heat for distillation process as latent heat.

Horizontal thermosiphon
This reboilers work on natural circulation due to difference in
density of the liquid column from the tower to the reboiler and the
vapor/liquid column back to the tower. Density difference is the
driving force for process flow through the reboiler. Material being
boiled is normally on the shell side.

Design reboilers to vaporize 25 % to 33 % of throughput (i.e. total

circulation rate 3 to 4 times required vapour rate). Vaporisation
limits deal with return pressure drop, flow regime on boiling side,
minimising shell side deposition.

Size process lines carefully or else friction will restrict boil-up rate.

Vertical thermosiphon

Vertical thermosiphon reboilers work similar to horizontal

themosiphon reboilers except boiling material in on tube side.
This reboilers are used to boil dirty fluids on tube side.

Characteristics

This are more expensive than equivalent duty horizontal

thermosyphon.

Tube lengths usually 16 feet maximum(total tube length

needs to be short to avoid elevating the tower)
Diameter larger, two larger tube sheets
Usually more flanges than
Uses very little plot space
 Kettle Reboiler

This is better suited for steam generators or refrigerant

vaporises since they produce a dry product.

More expensive than horizontal thermosiphon

Larger diameter shell for same duty
More nozzles(separate liquid and vapor outlet nozzles)
TEMA types are (A or B)K (T or U)
Uses lots of plot space

Evaporator : Evaporates process fluid by heating media such as steam

Evaporate refrigerant such as ammonia, propylene etc whil
cooling(chilling or condensing) process fluid.
Evaporates part of process mixture while concentrating
remaining liquid.
Vapouriser : Used for vapourising any fluid other that water is called
vapouriser by heating media such as steam, dowtherm etc..

Steam generator : Produces steam from condensate or boiler feed water by

removal of sinsible heat from high temperature process or
waste gas streams
4.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR SHELL & TUBE HEAT
EXCHANGERS:

4. 1 CONFIGURATION OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT

EXCHANGERS

TEMA standard describes overall configuration, represented by 3 letters, which

indicate the type of front head, shell and rear head of exchangers. Selection of
configuration depends on type of fluid handled, maintenance requirements and
economics.

Following are the components of the Shell & Tube exchanger :-

FRONT STATIONANY HEAD:

A –Channel & removal cover

B – Bonnet (Integral cover)
C – Integral with tube sheet removal cover
N – Channel integral with tube sheet & removal cover
D – Special high pressure enclosure

SHELL:

E – One shell pass

F – Two shell passes with longitudinal baffles
G – Split flow
H – Double split flow
J – Divided flow
K - Kettle type reboiler
X - Cross flow

REAR HEAD:

L – Fixed tube sheet like ‘A’ stationary head

M- Fixed tube sheet like ‘B’ stationary head
N- Fixed tube sheet like ‘C’ stationary head
P- Outside packed floating head
S- Floating head with backing device
T- Pull through floating head
U- U tube bundle
W- Externally sealed floating tube sheet
Some of the TEMA designated exchangers are as follow

AEL - Low cost, Min leakage but Temp limitations.

AES - Most commonly used in refinery
BEU - Used for clean service in tube
CFU - Two pass shell
AKT - Kettle reboiler

Significant features of some of the types of heat exchangers are enclosed.

TEMA standard also lists three mechanical standard classes of exchanger

construction: R, C & B. Normally in refinery services heat exchangers are
fabricated in accordance with requirement of class R. For low maintenance
exchangers such as water-water and light duty hydrocarbon services class C can
be considered which offers cost saving of upto 5 % over class R.

4.2 DESIGN TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE:

All exchangers shall have two design temperature for each side, a
maximum design temperature and minimum design metal temperature
(MDMT).

High pressure at low temperature may result in failure of brittle materials.

Lowest ambient or auto-refrigeration temperature normally used.

Consider worst case conditions for hot and cold fluids. This may not be the
highest temperature, but a combination of high temperature and higher
pressure.

For external bolting and components exposed to both shell side and tube
side fluids, the design temperature shall be the same as the shell side or
tube side design temperature, whichever is more severe.

Typical safety margins are

Temperature 28 deg C margin on maximum operating temperature.

Pressure – 25 psi(170 kpa) or 10 % margin on maximum operating

pressure(whichever is greater)

Design Temperature: Normal Operating Temperature plus a certain margin

or, if cryogenic application could be minus a margin.
 Normal Oper. Design
Temperature, oC Temperature, oC
< 93 120
>93 (Oper T) + 28
Cryogenic (Oper T) – 14

Minimum Design Metal Temperature (for Cryogenic): Lowest value of

i. (Oper T) -14
ii. 24 hour ambient temperature
iii. Auto-refrigeration temperature
For systems operating below 0 deg C, the mechanical design temperature
shall be equal to the lowest anticipated operating temperature.

For cooling water services normally used design pressure is 100 psig and
design temperature is 150 deg F

Design Pressure: Maximum Operating Pressure plus a certain margin.

ASME considers design pressure at the top of the vessel.

Max. Oper. Design Pressure,

Pressure, Kg/cm2g
Kg/cm2g
< 1.75 3.50
1.75 to 17.5 (M Oper P) + 1.75
17.5 to 70.0 (M Oper P) * 1.1
70.0 to 140 (M Oper P) + 7.0
> 140 (M Oper P) * (1.05)

Hydrostatic test pressure as per ASME is 130% of Design P.

For a full liquid system at the discharge of a positive displacement pump,
the mechanical design pressure shall be the higher of :
Pdes = Prated discharge + 2 kg/cm2
Pdes = 1.1 x Prated discharge

4.3 FOULING FACTOR

Following facts are important in exchanger design.

Fouling is not severe below 121 deg C

Fouling is more severe when hydrocarbons are heated than they are cooled
Vaporisation in an exchanger can cause severe fouling by concentrating
the foulants in remaining liquids.
High velocities tend to reduce fouling.
4.4 NUMBER OF SHELLS

Temperature correction factor is applied to mean temperature difference for

accounting non-countercurrent flow in an exchanger. Fn, the temperature
correction factor, must always be equal to or greater than 0.800. (The value
of Fn drops slowly between 1.00 and 0.800, but then quickly approaches
zero. A value of Fn less than 0.800 cannot be predicted accurately from
the usual information used in process designs.) In a one shell exchanger,
Fn is at least 0.800 when the cross is 0 F. Increasing the number of shells
permits increasing the extent of the cross and the value of Fn.

The maximum area per shell is usually limited to a unit having a shell
inside diameter of 48 inches or tube bundle weight of 15 tons.

If a temperature cross occurs, the F factor for correcting the LMTD will be
0.8 or less. When this occurs, it is necessary to use two shells in series it
two or more tube passes are present.

If the cross (T cold outlet) – (T hot outlet) is greater 5 to 10 % Tlm, then

more than one exchanger is required.

F < 0.8 consider more exchangers

Generally Th. out > tc, out = F < or = 0.8

In special cases, such as reboilers and fixed tube sheet exchangers, larger
areas per shell are occasionally used. Areas up to 25,000 sq. ft. have been
used in fixed tube sheet exchangers.

4.5 TUBE SELECTION

Heat Exchanger tube metals viz. Carbon Steel, SS, Copper, Admiralty,
Brass, 70-30 copper-nickel, etc. are available. Specific metal is used for
specific service.

Tube OD are generally ¾” or 1 inch(i.e. 19 or 25 mm)

Smaller tube diameter provides better heat transfer but higher pressure drop
and harder to clean.

FCC flue gas coolers (firetube often uses 1.75 “ OD x 0.2” thick
The wall thickness of tubes is defined by Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG).
Wall thickness specified as minimum or average

Tube thickness is generally 14 or 12 BWG(2.11 to 2.77 mm)

Higher BWG = thinner tubewall

Use of BWG is becoming obsolete as it is not used by API or ISO standard

for heat exchangers.

The mean radius of U bends shall not be less than 1 and ½ times the
nominal outside diameter of the tube.

Each U-tube shall be formed from a single length having no

circumferential welds.

The number of tubes in any pass shall not be greater than 10 % above or
below the average number of tubes per pass.

Tube length: TEMA suggest 8, 10, 12, 16 & 20 feet tubes are common.
UOP’s upper limit is 65 feet
16 feet and 20 foot are probably the most common for horizontal unit and
longer for vertical units. Mumbai Refinery uses normally16 foot. A U-tube
exchanger uses many different tube length.

The selection of tube length is affected by availability and economics.

The cost of exchanger surface depends upon the tube length, in that the
longer the tube, the smaller the bundle diameter for the same area. The
savings result from a decrease in the cost of shell flanges with only an
annual increase in the cost of the longer shell. In the practical range of
tube lengths, there is no cost penalty for the longer length extras are added
for steel only over 24 feet and for copper alloys over 30 feet.

A disadvantage of longer tubes in units (such as condensers) located in a

structure is the increased cost of the longer platforms and additional
structure required. Longer tube bundles also require greater tube pulling
area, thereby possibly increasing the plot area requirements.
Diameter and wall thickness:
Following tube diameters and wall thicknesses are preferred in exchangers
fabricated by rolling tubes into the tube sheets for the services indicated :

Water Service - Nonferrous Tubes ¾ inch OD, 0.065 in. wall

Oil Service – Ferrous Tubes

Severity of Service OD, in Minimum wall

Thickness, in

Non-fouling or fouling ¾ 0.083

(<0.003), mildy corrosive

Non-fouling or fouling ¾ (1)

(<0.003), corrosive

Extremely fouling 1 (1)

(>0.003), midly corrosive

Extremely fouling 1 (1)

(>0.003), corrosive

General Service Alloy Tubes

Non-fouling or fouling (<0.003) ¾ 0.065
Extremely fouling (>0.003) 1 0.083
Titaninum 0.049

(1) See the Construction Material Manual for minimum thickness as a

function of corrosion rate and service.

Tube layout:
There are four types of tube layouts with respect to the shell side cross flow
direction between baffle tips; square (90°), rotated square (45°), triangular
(30°), and rotated triangular (60°). The four types are illustrated in fig 3,
Appendix. The 60° triangular layout is seldom used, since its heat transfer
characteristics are poor compared to the pressure drop expenditure.
However, some vendors still use this layout occasionally.

Use of triangular layout (30°) is preferred for all exchangers (except

reboilers with a heat flux Btu/hr sq. ft.) with shell side fouling factors of
0.0020 or less, provided the deposit is subject to chemical cleaning. An
exchanger with triangular layout costs less per square foot and transfers
more heat per sq. ft. than one with a square layout. For this reason,
triangular layout is referred where applicable.

Square or rotated square tube layout should be for all shell and tube
exchangers when the shell aide fouling factor is over 0.0020, whenever
mechanical cleaning of the outside of the tubes is required, or when
requested by the refinery and for reboilers with a heat flux exceeding 6000
Btu/hr sq ft. Rotated square layouts are preferable for laminar flow,
because of higher heat transfer coefficient caused by induced turbulance.
In turbulent flow, especially for pressure drop limited cases, square layout
is preferred since the heat transfer coefficient is equivalent to that for
rotated square layout while the pressure drop is somewhat less.

Tube layout for removable bundles may be either square (90°), rotated
square (45°), or triangular (30°). Non removable bundles (fixed tube sheet
exchangers) are always triangular (30°) layout.

Tube pitch:
Tube Pitch/ Tube Pattern may be square pitch or triangular pitch. Square pitch is
much easier to clean but triangular tube layouts are cheaper. The tube holes can
not be drilled very close together, since it will weaken the tube sheet. The
shortest center-to-center distance between two tubes is called Tube Pitch
(PT). Square or triangular pitch can be used.

Square pitch: Shell side fluid has straight lanes between tube layers.
Unlike triangular where alternate tube layers are offset. This pattern
makes for easy cleaning since a lance can be run completely
through the bundle with out interference. This pattern has less
pressure drop than triangular but shell requirements are larger and
there is a lower heat transfer coefficient for a given velocity at many
velocity levels. Joining the centers of a 4 adjacent tubes forms a
square. Any side of this square is the tube pitch.

Triangular pitch: Joining the centers of 3-adjacent tube forms an

equilateral triangle. Any side of this triangle is tube pitch.
 Tube pitch features:
Feature Use pattern
Lower pressure drop on Square(effective only at low Reynolds
shell side number)
Shell side fouling Square - easier cleaning
Horizontal shell side Square – prevent vapor blanketing
boiling
Decrease shell size Fit 15 % more tubes if triangular pitch
used

4.6 BAFFLE SPACING:

The Baffle Spacing is usually not greater than the Shell ID or closer than
one fifth of Shell ID. Segmental baffles having 20 -30 % cut are common.
The thickness of transverse baffles and support plates shall not be less than
the specified shell side corrosion allowance.

Types of baffles used in heat exchanges.

SEGMENTAL : Segmental baffles are most commonly used.

a) horizontal baffles (up-and-down flow) b) vertical baffles
(side-to-side flow). Horizontal baffles used for liquid service.
Vertical baffles used for vapor and 2 phase application.
Angled baffles rarely used.

Large baffle cut

Lower shellside pressure drop

Smaller cross flow worse heat transfer
Larger shell and tubesheet diameter
More expensive exchanger

Smaller baffle cut

Higher shell side pressure drop

Higher acceleration loss through window

Select baffle cut so that Delta P all windows = 20- to 25 % Delta P total

Double segmental cut is expressed as window area to exchanger cross

sectional area in %.
 Disc & doughnut baffle pitch or spacing: Centre to centre
distance between baffles is called the baffle pitch or spacing.
the baffle spacing is usually not greater than a distance equal
to the inside diameter of the shell or closer than a distance
equal to the one-fifth the inside diameter of the shell.

Baffle cut changes heat transfer efficiency. The smaller the

cut the greater the pressure drop causing more internal
leakage. The larger baffle cut reduces the crossflow
component making the exchanger larger.

4.7 SEAL STRIPS:

Seal strips shall be used for non isothermal services when bypass clearance
exceed 5/8”.

4.8 IMPINGEMENT BAFFLE:

Impingement baffles are required on shell side inlet nozzles to protect the
bundle against impingement by the incoming fluid when the fluid is : a) is
condensing b) is a liquid vapor mixture, c) contains abrasive material, or is
entering at high velocity. In addition, TEMA requires bundle impingement
protection when nozzle values of ρv2 (fluid density, lb/cuft, times velocity
squared sqft/sec) exceeds:

1. 1500 lb/ft sq sec for non corrosive, non abrasive, single phase liquids
2. 500 lb/ft sq sec for all other liquids

Also, the min. bundle entrance area should equal or exceed the inlet nozzle
area and should not produce a value of ρv2 greater than 4000 lb/ft sq sec,
as per TEMA.

An impingement baffle shall extend at least 1 inch(25 mm) beyond the

projection of the nozzle bore.

The nominal thickness of the impingement plate baffle shall not be less
than ¼ inch(6 mm).

Perforated impingement plates shall not be used. The impingement plate

material should be atleast as good as that of the tubes.
4.9 NOZZLES :

Nozzles for exchangers are normally made the same line as the
corresponding line because of pressure drop and velocity considerations
size of lines and nozzles in vapor service is more critical than liquid
service.

Following guidelines are followed for locating heat exchangers nozzle.

Stream being heated or vaporised should flow from bottom to top

whether on tube or shell side.

Stream being condensed from top to bottom.

Maximum nozzle size should not exceed half the diameter of shell dia due
to mechanical considerations.

When chemical cleaning connections are specified, the size shall not be less
than NPS 2.

4.10 ECONOMIC PRESSURE DROP CONSIDERATION:

The design pressure drop to use is usually determined by an economic

balance between (1) the increased cost of pumping and of certain exchanger
components and (2) the decreased surface area. As the number of tube
passes is increased or the baffle pitch is decreased, the fluid velocity
becomes greater, thereby increasing the pressure drop and the film
coefficient. Another advantage of increased velocity is that the rate of
fouling is decreased.

For pressure streams, the pressure drop should be maximized. When there
are no material or process restrictions on maximum velocity, a reasonable
limitation for liquids is about 10 to 15 ft./sec. For gases and vapors,
velocities up to 100 ft/sec are common.

Tube side (Number of Passes) – For coolers and condensers using water,
specify enough tube passes to maximize the utilization of the available
pressure drop as limited by materials. The permissible maximum and
 minimum water velocities vary with the tube material and water type as
shown in attachment.

For hydrocarbon services, specify sufficient passes to make the tube

velocity high enough to prevent streamline or transitional flow, Re > 3700).

Ordinarily, no fewer than 2 nor more than 8 tube passes are used. With
more than 8 or less than 2 passes, the construction becomes complicated
and fabrication costs tend to become excessive. Note that 2, 4, or 8 tube
pass arrangements are easily interchanged.

Shell side
Number of Shell Passes - Exchangers may have more than one shell pass
(one pass is the most common.) Multiple shell passes per shell require the
use of a longitudinal baffle of either welded or removable design.

Cross Baffles – Segmental baffles are normally specified, unless shell side
pressure drop is excessive, even at maximum baffle spacing. In such
cases, double segmental baffles should be used because tray result in lower
pressure drop with only a slight decrease in the shell side heat transfer
coefficient.

Nozzles - Use two shell outlet nozzles (one at each end of the shell) and a
center inlet nozzle or vice versa, if other means of reducing pressure drop
are ineffective. This is termed a “divided flow” (TEMA J) shell.

4.11 MEANS OF INCREASING HEAT TRANSFER WHEN PRESSURE

DROP IS LESS THAN MAXIMUM ALLOWED

A design with optimum parameters which satisfies heat transfer requirements

but does not use up the total allowable pressure drop is considered inefficient.
For these cases, one can always make the exchanger smaller by taking one or
more of the following steps to increase pressure drop and heat transfer:

a. Increase tube length up to maximum allowed by constructional or

maintenance limitations.
b. Decrease tube pitch to minimum allowed by constructional or
maintenance limitations.
c. Decrease tube diameter to minimum allowed by tube side pressure
drop and maintenance limitations.
 d. Try low finned tubes if the shell side coefficient is less than 1/3 of
the tube side coefficient and the shell side Reynolds Number is
greater than 1000.

4.12 MEANS OF MOST EFFICIENTLY DECREASING PRESSURE DROP

If a design requires more surface than is necessary for heat transfer simply to
provide sufficient low area to prevent exceeding the allowable pressure drop,
two courses of correction are possible.

a. Adjust the “Allowable” pressure drop. Possibly the pressure drop to

which the unit is designed is arbitrarily chosen and can be increased.

b. Adjust the geometry in such a way as to provide the least decrease in

heat transfer per unit decrease in pressure drop by making one or
more of the following changes :

• Increase baffle pitch

• Decrease tube length
• Increase tube pitch
• Use double segmental baffles
• Use TEMA J-shell

If none of the above give the desired results, consider the use of units in parallel.
4.13 ALLOCATION OF SHELLSIDE AND TUBESIDE:

Factors affecting selection are :

a. Temperature &. Pressure, b. Pressure drop, c. Viscosity, d. Fouling and

cleaning, e. Corrosion & f. Flow rate

a. Temperature and pressure

High temperature stream-> costlier MOC’s: preferable on tubeside as fewer

components on tubeside.
High pressure stream favored on tubeside: (a) fewer components on tubeside,
(b) tubes can withstand much higher internal pressure.

b. Pressure drop

Pressure drop higher on tubeside for the same HTC, especially for viscous
liquids. Thus viscous liquids are better handled on the shellside.

Gas pr. drop often lower on tubeside if a single tube pass can be used, e.g.,
FTS exch’s. However, if tube diameter has to be increased, not worthwhile.

c. Viscosity

1. Viscous liquids far better handled on shellside: much higher HTC for
same pr. drop
2. The greater the viscosity, the greater the difference between the HTC’s.

d. Fouling and cleaning

Dirtier fluid preferably routed tubeside: shellside more susceptible to

fouling, also more difficult to clean.

Dirtier stream is invariably more viscous

There is thus a direct contradictory demand between viscosity and fouling.

Final selection depends on overall economics: which allocation produces

the cheaper overall cost, initial + operating.
Very common problem in crude preheat trains
Fouling resistances for oil refinery streams is enclosed.
 e. Corrosion

If more corrosive stream is on tubeside, costlier MOC for tubes, channel

and channel cover, floating-head cover and tubeside tubesheet face.

On the shellside, shell, shell cover, tubes, floating-head cover and shellside
tubesheet face have to be of costlier metallurgy.

Hence, better to route more corrosive fluid through tubeside.

f. Flow rate

Low flow rate streams better handled on tubeside: number of tube passes
can be increased

On the shellside, baffle spacing and cut can be reduced only to a certain
extent. Thereafter, multiple shells in series are required: costly.

Guideline for allocating fluid on tube side – whichever fluid appears higher
on following list will normally be passed thru tubes.

Cooling water (sea water) is normally put in tube side.

Corrosive fluid or fluid likely to deposit coke/sediment etc.
Fluid which is fouling
Less viscous of the two fluids
Fluid under high pressure
Hotter fluid
Liquid of less volume

Exception to above list are

Condensing vapors are normally passed thru shell side

Condensing steam is normally passed thru tubes
If temperature change of one fluid is very large, fluid is passed thru shell
If one of the fluid is clean and is mildly corrosive to material selected then
it is passed thru tubes.
5.0 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROCEDURE

5.1 OVERALL AIM OF THERMAL DESIGN

1. Achieve the specified duty at minimum overall cost

2. Overall cost = initial cost + operating cost
3. Operating cost = pumping cost + maintenance cost.
4. To minimise initial cost, achieve highest htc within allowable pressure
drops.
5. Allowable pressure drops should be assigned judiciously.

5.2 DESIGN STEPS:

1) Finalise process fluid conditions for cold as well as hot fluid: Stream
composition, Flow rates, Temperatures, pressure etc.
2) Establish the required properties of the fluids such as following:-
Specific heat (c), Specific gravity (s) or density, viscosity (µ), thermal
conductivity (k).
3) Establish the heat duty of the exchanger from heat balance.
4) Determine the LMTD.
5) Determine LMTD correction factor from fig.2. If temp. correction factor
is less than 0.8, increase no of shells required
6) Specify the type of the exchanger including TEMA type.
7) Determine corrected mean temp diff.ce MTD
8) Determine which fluid will pass thru shell & which thru tube side as per
criteria outlined in design considerations
9) Establish allowable pressure drops
10) Specify fouling factors for both shell & tube side fluids (refer enclosed
table).
11) Determine design temp. & press. required for both shell & tube side
12) Determine nozzle sizes based on velocity criteria
13) Assume the overall duty coefficient based on fluids handled
14) Calculate assumed area from the above overall duty coefficient

Tube side calculations:

15) Determine physical dimension of applicable heat exchangers from
calculated area such as tube ID, thickness, tube length
16) Select material of tubes & its thermal conductivity
17) Determine no of tubes required
18) Assume no of tube side passes & calculate velocity of fluid in tubes
19) Calculate heat transfer co-efficient from physical properties of fluid,
fouling factor and exchanger layout
 20) Calculate total pressure drop on tube side including nozzle losses and
modify internals, if required to obtain reasonable balance between
pressure drop and exchanger size.
21) Determine tube layout, tube pitch based on htc, cleaning requirement
Shell side Calculations:
22) Determine shell dia. from tube bundle outer limit & clearance between
shell & bundle
23) Determine type of baffles, baffle spacing, no of baffles & baffle cut
24) Determine whether sealing strips are required
25) Evaluate crossflow fraction from total effective bundle bypass area
ratios
26) Calculate total pressure drop on shell side including nozzle losses 1
27) Calculate heat transfer co-efficient from physical properties of fluid,
fouling factor and exchanger layout

28) Calculate overall HTC Uo from above determined tube, shell side htc’s,
assumed fouling factors & wall resistance
29) Calculate effective mean temp. diff.ce MTDe from temp. diffce.
correction factor
30) Calculate required surface area from calculated overall HTC Uo &
MTDe. Compare area calculated with area assumed and repeat calculation
until they are equal.
31) Final design should meet process requirement without resulting in future
penalties.
6.0 REFERENCES:

1. API STANDARD 660 - Shell and Heat Exchangers for General

Refinery Services
2. UOP standard specifications
3. UOP Training Manual
4. Exchanger Design practice by Exxon
5. Process Heat Transfer - Donald Q Kern
6. Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants -
Ernest E Ludwig
7. Design Basis Part-B of EIL used for GFEC
8. Rules of Thumb for chemical Engineers
 HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPE

TYPE SIGNIFICANT APPLICATION LIMITATIONS

FEATURE BEST SUITED
Fixed Both tube sheets Condensers, L-L, G-G, Temperature
Tube fixed to shell Cooling, Heating, H or V, difference at
Sheet Reboiling extremes of about
200 °F
Floating One tube sheet High temperature Internal gasket
Head or floats in shell or differentials above about 200 offer danger of
Tube with shell °F extremes, dirty fluids leaking
Sheet requiring cleaning of inside
as well as outside of shell, H
or V
U Bundle Only one tube High temperature Bends must be
sheet required differentials which might carefully made to
require provision for avoid mechanical
expansion in fixed tube damage and
units, Clean serve, H or V danger of rupture.
Kettle Tube bundle Boiling fluid on shell side For horizontal
removable as U installation
type or floating
head shell enlarged
to allow boiling
and vapor
disengaging
Double -- Relatively small transfer Service suitable
Pipe area for finned tubes
Pipe Coil Box cooler Condensing or low heat Transfer
loads coefficient is low
Air Cooled No shell required Condensing, High level heat Transfer
transfer coefficient is low
if natural
convection
circulation but
improved with
forced air flow.