metals

Article
FEM Simulation of Dissimilar Aluminum Titanium
Fiber Laser Welding Using 2D and 3D Gaussian
Heat Sources
Sonia D’Ostuni 1 , Paola Leo 1 and Giuseppe Casalino 2, * ID

1 Innovation Engineering Department, University of Salento, Via per Arnesano s.n., 73100 Lecce, Italy;
sonia.dostuni@unisalento.it (S.D.); paola.leo@unisalento.it (P.L.)
2 DMMM Politecnico di Bari, Viale Japigia, 182, 70126 Bari, Italy
* Correspondence: giuseppe.casalino@poliba.it; Tel.: +39-080-5962753

Received: 1 June 2017; Accepted: 8 August 2017; Published: 10 August 2017

Abstract: For a dissimilar laser weld, the model of the heat source is a paramount boundary condition
for the prediction of the thermal phenomena, which occur during the welding cycle. In this paper,
both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) Gaussian heat sources were studied for
the thermal analysis of the fiber laser welding of titanium and aluminum dissimilar butt joint.
The models were calibrated comparing the fusion zone of the experiment with that of the numerical
model. The actual temperature during the welding cycle was registered by a thermocouple and used
for validation of the numerical model. When it came to calculate the fusion zone dimensions in the
transversal section, the 2D heat source showed more accurate results. The 3D heat source provided
better results for the simulated weld pool and cooling rate.

Keywords: dissimilar welding; fiber laser; finite element analysis

1. Introduction
Laser welding is recognized as an effective process to weld metals with a laser beam of high-power,
high-energy density. In fact, the power density of a laser beam is much higher than that of arc or
plasma. Consequently, a deep narrow penetration weld can be effectively produced. These properties
have made laser welding a suitable technology for weldments that are made from metals of different
compositions and properties [1,2]. A dissimilar joint is as strong as the weaker of the two metals being
joined, i.e., possesses sufficient tensile strength and ductility so that the joint will not fail in the weld,
has good fatigue behavior [3].
Among them, Al/Ti dissimilar joints are of major interest in aeronautics and automotive
applications, where weight reduction, coupled with high mechanical strength and corrosion resistance,
are paramount. Between the different Al/Ti welding processes laser welding offers numerous
advantages. Especially in aluminum alloys when used in keyhole mode improves the absorption of
the beam due to the multiple reflections in the cavity [4]. Moreover, high energy density, high cooling
and heating rate allow for reducing the importance of mixing and diffusion phenomena, and thus
reduce the formation of intermetallic compounds in the case of dissimilar joints. An Al/Ti joint has a
remarkably lower elongation due to the high residual stresses, which facilitate the crack ignition and
propagation. Therefore, the quality depends heavily on the process parameters, which determine the
magnitude of thermal stresses [5].
The selection of the welding parameters is crucial for obtaining a satisfactory quality weld.
Residual stresses and temperature field in laser welding joints can be predicted by numerical analysis
such as a finite element one. The Finite Element Method has been one of the performing techniques

Metals 2017, 7, 307; doi:10.3390/met7080307 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2017, 7, 307 2 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 2 of 15

predict the
to predict the joint
joint properties
properties in in the
the welding
welding process,
process, which
which involves
involves thermal,
thermal, metallurgical
metallurgical and and
mechanical phenomena.
mechanical phenomena.
The computation
computation of thermal thermal field relies relies strongly
strongly on on the
the heat
heat source
source model.
model. Rosenthal
Rosenthal was the the
researcher who
first researcher who proposed
proposed aa modelmodel for for the
the heat
heat source
source in in welding
welding [6]. [6]. He
He proposed
proposed an an analytical
analytical
solution considering a punctual or a line line heat
heat source.
source. Since then, other more realistic realistic models
models havehave
been proposed. For arc welding, several heat source configurations have also been proposed. TwoTwo
been proposed. For arc welding, several heat source configurations have also been proposed. and
and three-dimensional
three-dimensional approaches
approaches can becan used.be Zeng
used.etZeng et al. described
al. described the thermalthe elastic-plastic
thermal elastic-plastic
analysis
analysis
using using
finite finitetechniques
element element techniques
to analyze to theanalyze the thermos-mechanical
thermos-mechanical behavior and behavior
evaluateand the evaluate
residual
the residual
stresses stresses and
and welding welding
distortion ondistortion
the AZ31Bonmagnesium
the AZ31B alloymagnesium
and 304L alloy and
steel butt304L steel
joint butt joint
in laser-TIG
in laser-TIG
hybrid weldinghybrid[7]. welding
A modified [7]. three-dimensional
A modified three-dimensionalconical heat conicalsource heat source
was used forwas used for
performing
performing the simulation in arc welding [8,9]. In certain cases, the finite
the simulation in arc welding [8,9]. In certain cases, the finite element model is integrated with element model is integrated
with other
other computational
computational techniques
techniques likelike artificial
artificial intelligence
intelligence to to establish
establish ananautomated
automatedand and iterative
iterative
optimization algorithm
optimization algorithm [10]. [10]. Zeng et al. calculated the thermal cycles and temperature distribution distribution of
MIG welding
welding of of 5A06
5A06 aluminum
aluminum alloy alloy structure
structure during
during discontinuous
discontinuous welding.welding. The finite finite element
element
method transient heat transfer analysis was used to save save computing
computing time time andand improve
improve calculation
calculation
accuracy [11].
[11].
For the fiber laser,laser, Casalino
Casalino et et al.
al. [12]
[12] developed
developed and and applied
applied aa stationary process process with
with a surface
heat source modelmodelbased basedon onthermal
thermalload load through
through several
several specific
specificelements
elements nextnextto the
to welding
the weldingline.
Other researchers [13] proposed the combination of Gaussian
line. Other researchers [13] proposed the combination of Gaussian distribution on the surface anddistribution on the surface and
distribution along
distribution along the the thickness
thickness to to consider
consider 3D 3D distribution
distribution by by applying
applying the the conical
conical Gaussian
Gaussian heatheat
source model. They found that 3D conical Gaussian heat distribution
source model. They found that 3D conical Gaussian heat distribution can obtain better results with can obtain better results with
high depth
high depth to to width
width ratioratio(defined
(definedas asthetheratio
ratiobetween
betweenthe theweld
weldpenetration
penetration evaluated
evaluated onon thethe
axis of
axis
fused
of fused zone,
zone,andand thethewidth
widthofofthethewelded
weldedseam seamininthethehorizontal
horizontaldirection
directionon on the
the sample
sample surface).
surface).
Nagel et al. [14] proposed some strategies for the optimization of the laser
Nagel et al. [14] proposed some strategies for the optimization of the laser welding of high alloy steel welding of high alloy steel
sheets using
sheets using twotwo different
different heat
heat sources.
sources.
In this
In this paper,
paper, two-dimensional
two-dimensional and and three-dimensional
three-dimensional heat heat distribution
distribution was was used
used forfor welding
welding
laser simulation of dissimilar Al/Ti button joint. The objective of
laser simulation of dissimilar Al/Ti button joint. The objective of this study is to compare the this study is to compare the two
two
approachestotoestablish
approaches establish the the
best best
model. model. The simulated
The simulated fusion zonefusion waszone
comparedwas with
compared with the
the macrograph
macrograph obtained from the experiment to calibrate the model. Then,
obtained from the experiment to calibrate the model. Then, the validation is based on the comparison the validation is based on
the comparison of the temperature profile measured with
of the temperature profile measured with thermocouples during the welding cycle. thermocouples during the welding cycle.

2. Experimental Setup
A laser
laser butt
butt joint
joint has been
been produced from two plates of aluminum and titaniumtitanium (3 and 2 mm,
respectively), according to the scheme of Figure 1. Tables 1 and
and 22 report
report the
the chemical
chemical composition
composition of
of
the two alloys
alloys and
and the
the mechanical
mechanical and thermo-physical
thermo-physical properties at room temperature. Particularly,
the thermal conductivity
conductivity has
has been
been considered
consideredas
asaafunction
functionofoftemperature
temperature(Tables
(Tables33and
and4).
4).

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Scheme
Scheme of
of laser
laser welding
welding on
on AA5754/Ti6Al4V.
AA5754/Ti6Al4V.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 3 of 15

Table 1. Chemical composition of AA5754 aluminum and Ti6Al4V titanium alloys (wt %).

AA5754
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Al
0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50 2.6–3.6 0.30 0.20 <0.15 balance
Ti6Al4V
C Fe N2 O2 Al V H2 Ti C
<0.08 <0.25 <0.05 <0.2 5.5 3.5 <0.0375 balance <0.08

Table 2. Mechanical and thermo-physical properties of the two alloys.

Property AA5754 Ti6Al4V

Young modulus [GPa] 70 114
Poisson ratio 0.3 0.3
Density [g/cm3 ] 2.7 4.4
Liquidus Temperature [K] 870 1923
Solidus Temperature [K] 856 1880

Table 3. Temperature dependent thermal conductivity of AA5754.

AA5754
Temperature Thermal Conductivity [W/mK]
293 138
373 147.2
473 152.7
573 162.7
673 152.7
773 158.75
873 138
1773 138

Table 4. Temperature dependent thermal conductivity of Ti6Al4V.

Ti6Al4V
Temperature Thermal Conductivity [W/mK]
293 6.01
773.15 14.78
793.15 15
823.15 15.15
953.15 17.20
993.15 17.80
1013.15 18.30
1053.15 18.80
1093.15 19.50
1113.15 20
1133.15 20.50
1153.15 21
1173.15 21.60
1273.15 23.91
1933.15 34.3

The experimental trials were carried out using an Ytterbium Fiber Laser System (IPG YLS-4000),
with a maximum output power equal to 4 kW (IPG Laser, Barbuch, Germany). The laser beam was
delivered through a 200 µm optical fiber with a Beam Parameter Product (BPP) equal to 6.3 mm·mrad,
the product of a laser beam’s divergence angle (half-angle) and the radius of the beam at its narrowest
point. The laser beam, whose wavelength was 1070.6 nm, has been focused continuously through a
lens with focal distance of 250 mm producing a spot diameter of 0.4 mm on the workpiece surface.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 4 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 4 of 15

lens with focal distance of 250 mm producing a spot diameter of 0.4 mm on the workpiece surface.
Argon and
Argon and helium
helium were
were employed
employed as as shielding
shielding gas
gas with
with 10
10L/min
L/min volumetric
volumetric flow rate, particularly
flow rate, particularly
Argon has been employed on the upper surface and helium on the
Argon has been employed on the upper surface and helium on the bottom surface. The laser bottom surface. The laser beam
beam
axis was
axis was placed
placed on on the
the titanium
titanium side,
side, some
some 11 mmmm farfar from
from thethe interface
interface (laser
(laser offset).
offset). The
The welding
welding
parameters have been 1200 W power at 1000 m/min
parameters have been 1200 W power at 1000 m/min welding rate. welding rate.
The microstructure
The microstructure of of the
the weld
weld waswas analyzed
analyzed by by optical
optical microscopy
microscopy (OM; (OM; Nikon
Nikon Epiphot
Epiphot 200,200,
Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) and Zeiss EVO scanning electron microscope (SEM,
Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) and Zeiss EVO scanning electron microscope (SEM, Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). Zeiss, Oberkochen,
Germany).
For optical For optical microscopy
microscopy observation, observation, the transversal
the transversal sections ofsections of thewere
the samples samples were
cut and cut and
prepared
prepared using the standard metallographic grinding and polishing techniques
using the standard metallographic grinding and polishing techniques and attached using Keller and attached using
Keller reagent
reagent (95 mL(95 H2mL H2O,
O, 2.5 mL2.5
HNO mL HNO 3, 1.5 mL HCl, HF 1 mL). The dimension of the fusion zone
3 , 1.5 mL HCl, HF 1 mL). The dimension of the fusion zone (FZ)
(FZ) was evaluated using NIS-Element
was evaluated using NIS-Element software software
(version(4.5,
4.5,Nikon,
Nikon,Tokio,
Tokio,Japan,
Japan, 2016))
2016)) for
for the image
the image
analysis. NIS-Elements
analysis. NIS-Elements isisaaNikon Nikonsoftware
softwaresupplied
suppliedwith withEpiphot
Epiphot200 200 OM.
OM. TheThe software
software is tailored
is tailored to
to facilitate image capture, object measurement and counting. Vickers microhardness
facilitate image capture, object measurement and counting. Vickers microhardness profile (0.3/15) profile (0.3/15)
was
was collected
collected usingusing a Vickers
a Vickers Affri Affri
Wiky Wiky
200JS2200JS2 microhardness
microhardness tester (Affri,
tester (Affri, Wood WoodDale, IL,Dale,
USA) IL,atUSA) at
half of
half of
weld weld
cross cross thickness.
section section thickness.
The distanceThe distance
betweenbetween
indentationsindentations
was equal was equal
to 300 µm. toThe
300 hardness
µm. The
hardness at the Al/Ti fusion zones interface, where an intermetallic compound
at the Al/Ti fusion zones interface, where an intermetallic compound layer was observed, had been layer was observed,
had been identified
identified with nanoindentation
with nanoindentation (0.01/15) (0.01/15) using
using Leica Leica(Leica
VMHT VMHTMicrosystems
(Leica Microsystems
WetzlarWetzlar
GmbH,
GmbH, Wetzlar
Wetzlar Germany) Germany)
due to the due to the reduced
reduced size of thesize of the layer.
layer.
Two thermocouple
Two thermocouple recording
recordingsystems
systemswere wereplaced
placed in in
thethe
middle of the
middle of plates, 2 mm
the plates, 2 distant from
mm distant
the weld
from centrecentre
the weld line in both
line titanium
in both titaniumand aluminum
and aluminum side. side.
The calibration of theoftwo
The calibration models
the two was
models
carried out by comparing the size and shape of the fusion zone of
was carried out by comparing the size and shape of the fusion zone of the numerical model andthe numerical model and the
experimental one. The validation of the model was made by comparing
the experimental one. The validation of the model was made by comparing the experimental and the experimental and
numerical thermal
numerical thermal cycle.
cycle.

3. Numerical
3. Model
Numerical Model

3.1. Model for the Plates

The plates of of titanium
titaniumand andaluminum
aluminum(200 (200mmmm × 50× mm)
50 mm) were werejoined along
joined the long
along side.side.
the long The
plates
The have have
plates different thickness,
different i.e., 2 mm
thickness, i.e.,for2 titanium
mm for one and 3 one
titanium mm for andAluminum
3 mm forone. The adopted
Aluminum one.
meshadopted
The is the same
mesh foristhe two
the models.
same To obtain
for the accurateTo
two models. results,
obtaina fine meshresults,
accurate was adopted
a fine close
meshtowasthe
welding close
adopted line. Mesh
to the size was line.
welding determined
Mesh size rapidly by trial-and-error;
was determined rapidly likewise, it is generally
by trial-and-error; doneit in
likewise, is
the literature.
generally doneMesh
in thesize is equalMesh
literature. to 1 ×size
0.5is× equal
0.5 mmto 1inside
3
× 0.5 of 10 mm
× 0.5 3
mm frominside theofinterface
10 mm from and the
number of
interface andthethe
nodes
numberis equal
of thetonodes
20 along the x-axis.
is equal At a distance
to 20 along the x-axis. from
At athe interface
distance fromhigher than 10
the interface
mm, the mesh size increases along the x-axis. Particularly from 10 to 50
higher than 10 mm, the mesh size increases along the x-axis. Particularly from 10 to 50 mm far frommm far from the interface
(theinterface
the limit of the
(theAllimit
sheet),of the number
Al sheet), of the
the number
nodes is ofequal
the to 20, but
nodes the ratio
is equal in size
to 20, but between
the ratio the last
in size
element the
between andlast
first element
element andinfirst
theelement
distribution
in theisdistribution
0.1 (arithmetic
is 0.1 sequence).
(arithmetic The mapped
sequence). Themesh
mappedhas
40,000has
mesh elements
40,000 and 49,692and
elements nodes.
49,692Figure
nodes. 2 shows
Figurethe resultsthe
2 shows of results
the meshing
of the procedure.
meshing procedure.

Figure 2. Mesh outlook.

Metals 2017, 7, 307 5 of 15

The numerical simulation was performed using the finite element code COMSOL Multiphysics.
Comsol Multiphysics is a Multiphysics modeling tool that solves all types of problems based on Finite
Element [15].
During the welding process, the transfer of heat is governed by the general equation heat flow (1a):

δT
ρC p + ρC p v∇ T + ∇q = h f (1a)
δt
where
ρ [g/mm2 ] is the density of the metal as a function of temperature,
C p [J/(g·K)] is specific heat of the metal as a function of temperature,
v [m/s] is the velocity field,
q [W/mm2 ] is the heat lost to the surroundings by combination of radiation and convection
and conduction,
h f [W/mm2 ] is the heat source.
The heat lost is given by Equation (1b):
 
− q = εσ Tr4 − T 4 + h( Tr − T ) (1b)

where ε is the emissivity of the surface and is taken as 0.5 for titanium and 0.3 for aluminum. σ is
the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and is taken as 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m2 ·K4 ), Tr is the room temperature
and was taken at 293 K. h is the heat transfer coefficient assumed equal to 20 W/(m2 ·K) for air and
200 W/(m2 ·K) for the bottom surface in contact with the workspace.
When the contact is formed by pressing two similar or dissimilar metallic materials together, only
a small fraction of the nominal surface area is in contact because of the roughness and irregularities
of the contacting surfaces. When a heat flux is imposed across the junction, there are only a limited
number and size of the contact spots that results in an actual contact area. The actual contact area is
significantly smaller than the apparent contact area and causes a thermal contact resistance. There are
several analytic expressions for predicting the contact conductance, and several values in literature [16].
Based on these values, by acting on a contact resistance value, the calibration has been carried out by
comparing the fusion zones of the numerical model with the experimental results. Finally, the value
of contact conductance is assumed to be equal to 30,000 W/(m2 ·K), for both of the two models [17].
Mechanical constraints were imposed for the simulation of the clamping system. Constraints were
imposed to the four exterior nodes of the plates so degrees of freedom were zero (no displacement
is permitted).

3.2. 2D Heat Source

Since the pioneering work of Rosenthal [6] that proposed punctual and linear heat sources, several
more realistic sources have been proposed. When the distribution along the thickness is not important
like in thin plates, the surface Gaussian heat source model is a good proposal for bed-on-plate cases
when both TIG and conductive laser welding must be simulated [18]. For the surface laser heat source,
the radius ( R) should be calculated first by the formula written as [19]:

2M20 λ f
R = , (2)
πD0

where M02 is the beam quality equal to 1.1 for fiber laser, f is the focal length of the focusing lens and
D0 is the diameter of the lens.
For laser welding, the heat source of the laser beam was simulated by a traveling two-dimensional
distribution of heat source (Figure 3a). Particularly, the heat surface distribution was built by combining
two Gaussian distributions one in the plane XZ and one moving with welding rate v in plane YZ.
Those two Gaussian distributions were obtained, and, with an energy of about 99.7% of the total laser
Metals 2017, 7, 307 6 of 15

energy, a fusion of the titanium alloys was obtained. The heat source radius ( R) was assumed equal to
Metals 2017, 7, 307 6 of 15
three standard deviations of the Gaussian pulse (Figure 3b):
Metals 2017, 7, 307 6 of 15
1 t2 t2 39 s 2 9s2
1 − − − − 2
2σ2 3
gp((ss))== √ e 2σe = = e√2 R e
gp (3)
2 2 2R
(3)
σ σ2π 2πt R 2πR 9 s 2π
2 2

1 − 3 −
gp(s) = e 2σ 2
= e 2 R2
(3)
σ 2π R 2π

Figure 3.3. (a)

Figure Combining of
(a) Combining of the
the two
twoGaussian
Gaussiandistribution
distributionin inplane
plane
XZ XZ
andand
XY, XY,
and and
(b)
(b) Gaussian
Figure 3. distribution.
(a) Combining
Gaussian distribution. of the two Gaussian distribution in plane XZ and XY, and
(b) Gaussian distribution.
The 2D total heat source (W) (Figure 4) is expressed in Equation (4):
The 2D total heat source (W) (Figure 4) is expressed in Equation (4):
The 2D total heat source (W) (Figure 4) is expressed in Equation (4):
hs2D ( x , y)2D = Plaser  gp( x) × gp ( y − vt ) (4)
hshs2D
2D
(xx,, yy))2D2D= P=laserPlaser
gp( x[)gp ( x()y×
× gp t )(y − vt)]
− vgp (4) (4)

Figure
Figure 4.Heat
Figure4.
4. Heatflux
Heat
in 2D
flux in
in 2D
Gaussian heat
2D Gaussian
heat distribution.
Gaussian heatdistribution.
distribution.

3.3.
3.3. 3D
3.3. Heat
3D3D Source
Heat
Heat Source
Source
For the
For
For three-dimensions
the
the three-dimensionslaser
three-dimensions lasersource,
laser source, the
source, the heat
the flux
heat flux
fluxwaswas described
describedinin
wasdescribed the
inthethe numerical
numerical
numerical model
model
modelas as
aas aa
volume
volumeandandsurface distributed
surface distributed heat
heat
volume and surface distributed heat flux: flux:
flux:
hf3D =(1 - φ) hfsur x,y  + φ[hfvol (z)] (5) (5)
h f 3D =hf(3D
1−=(1ϕ-) φ)h f hf ( x,x,y
sursur load +
y) load + φ[hf
ϕ[h fvol
vol(z)]z)]load
(load (5)
load load
where the coefficient φ is the energy fraction that will be introduced through the cylinder, and the
where the
where the coefficient
coefficient ϕφisisthe
theenergy
energyfraction
fractionthat thatwill
willbe beintroduced
introducedthrough through thecylinder,cylinder, and the
remaining energy will be introduced via the surface heat source (the value being the used is 0.9). and the
remaining
remaining energy will be introduced via the surface heat source (the value being used isis0.9).
0.9).
For energy will be
the surface, introduced
a Gaussian via the surface
distribution heat source
was used, the heat (the valueradius
source being was usedequal to two
For the
For the surface,
surface, a Gaussian distribution
distribution was was used,
used, the the heat
heat source
source radius
radius was was equal
equal toto two
two
standard deviationsaofGaussian
the Gaussian pulse under the assumption that 95.44% of the total fusion
standard
standard deviations
energy deviations of the Gaussian
of thealloys
of the titanium Gaussianwaspulse pulse
applied.under under the assumption
the assumption
In this case, considering that
that 95.44% 95.44% of
of the heat
the surface the total fusion
total distribution
fusion energy
energy
of of the
the titanium
proposed by titanium
alloys
Goldakwas alloys
and was In
applied.
Akhlagi applied.
thisthe
[20], In
case, this case,
considering
surface heat fluxconsidering
the surface
hfsur [W/mmthe
heatsurface
can beheat
2] distribution distribution
proposed
expressed as
proposed
by Goldak by
and Goldak
Akhlagi
shown in Equation (6): and Akhlagi
[20], the [20],
surface the
heat surface
flux h heat
f flux
[W/mm hf sur
[W/mm
2 ] can be
2 ] can
expressed be expressed
as shown as
in
sur
shown in(6):
Equation Equation (6):
2r2
2 η Pla s e r −
h fsur ( x , y ) = e R2 2
2r (6)
2πη R
Pla2 s e r −
h fsur ( x , y ) = e R2 (6)
πR2
Metals 2017, 7, 307 7 of 15

Metals 2017, 7, 307 2ηPlaser − 2r22 7 of 15

h f sur ( x, y) =
2
e R (6)
πR
where ηηisisthe
theprocess
processefficiency
efficiency(the
(thevalue
valuebeing
beingused
usedisis1),1),P Plaser is the laser power in W and R is
where laser is the laser power in W and R is the
the heat source radius.
heat source radius.
For
For volume
volume heat
heat source,
source, aa constant
constant heat
heat distribution
distribution cylinder
cylinder was was considering,
considering, with
with aa radius
radius RRFZ
FZ
equal
equal to
to those
those of
of the
the molten
molten cylinder
cylinder (Figure
(Figure 5).
5). The
The numeric
numeric value value for
for volumetric
volumetric heat
heat source
source isis given
given
by
by the
the ratio
ratio between the laser
between the laser power
power and
and the
the volume
volume ofof cylinder
cylinder with with aa radius
radius RRFZ..
FZ

Figure 5.
Figure Total heat
5. Total heat flux
flux in
in 3D
3D heat
heat distribution.
distribution.

Thus,
Thus, finally, the keyhole
finally, the keyhole is
is modelled
modelled in
in the
the software
software using
using the
the heat
heat source
source radius,
radius, the
the radius
radius of
of
the
the molten
molten cylinder, measured by
cylinder, measured by experimental
experimental results,
results, and
and the
the energy
energy fraction.
fraction.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Metallurgical
4.1. Metallurgical Characterization
Characterization of
of Weld
Weld
The appearance
The appearance of of Ti6Al4V/AA5754
Ti6Al4V/AA5754 laser laser welded
weldedjointjointafter
afterchemical
chemicaletching
etchingisisshownshownininFigureFigure6.
Both titanium and aluminum alloy melted at the joint interface
6. Both titanium and aluminum alloy melted at the joint interface and separate fusion zones wereand separate fusion zones were
observed (Al
observed (Al side
side and
and TiTi side)
side) as as well
well as as two
two heat
heat affected
affected zone
zone (HAZ)
(HAZ) between
between FZ FZ andand thethe base
base
material. Good
material. Good weld weld appearance
appearance of of the
the cross
cross section
section waswas obtained
obtained with
with full
full penetration
penetration and and lowlow level
level
of porosity. It was demonstrated that in aluminum-titanium dissimilar
of porosity. It was demonstrated that in aluminum-titanium dissimilar weld, porosity tended to be weld, porosity tended to be
produced in the fusion line. It happens that gases in the seam are hard to
produced in the fusion line. It happens that gases in the seam are hard to escape and concentrated in escape and concentrated in
the middle
the middleofoffusion fusion line during
line during the the
solidification process
solidification [21]. In
process Figure
[21]. 6, some6,gas
In Figure trapping
some occurred
gas trapping
on both sides of the intermetallic layer but not in the intermetallic
occurred on both sides of the intermetallic layer but not in the intermetallic layer. layer.
Figure 77 shows
Figure shows the the Ti
Ti microstructure
microstructure of of the
the different
different zones
zones showed
showed in in Figure
Figure 6, 6, i.e.,
i.e., base
base material,
material,
heat affected zone and fusion zone. The basic mental (BM)
heat affected zone and fusion zone. The basic mental (BM) is composed of dark β phase in is composed of dark β phase in the
the
dominating bright α matrix. Particularly, the β phase is distributed
dominating bright α matrix. Particularly, the β phase is distributed at the boundary of the α grains. at the boundary of the α
grains.
This is aThis is a typical
typical microstructure
microstructure for α-βfor α-β titanium
titanium alloys alloys in mill-annealed
in mill-annealed conditions
conditions [22]. [22].
The
The microstructure within the joint depends on the heat received
microstructure within the joint depends on the heat received from the laser beam, and varies from the laser beam, and varies
according to
according to the
the distance
distance from
from it. In FZ,
it. In FZ, aa predominantly
predominantly martensitic
martensitic microstructure
microstructure of of acicular
acicular typetype
(α’) is present.
(α’) is present. In In fact,
fact, as
as reported
reported in in literature
literature [22–24],
[22–24], thethe microstructure
microstructure of of the
the laser
laser fusion
fusion zonezone ofof
Ti-6Al-4V alloy is completely martensitic due to the high cooling speed from
Ti-6Al-4V alloy is completely martensitic due to the high cooling speed from β field. The heat affected β field. The heat affected
zone is
zone is aa mixture
mixture of of martensitic
martensitic and and primary
primary α α grain. During the
grain. During the heat
heat thermal
thermal cyclecycle duedue to to the
the laser
laser
heating, an increase of β phase results. However, due to the rapid cooling, that transformation is
never complete, so the microstructure of the HAZ is mixed, formed from martensitic grains and
grain α.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 8 of 15

heating, an increase of β phase results. However, due to the rapid cooling, that transformation is never
complete,
Metals 2017, 7,so the microstructure of the HAZ is mixed, formed from martensitic grains and grain8 α.
307 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 8 of 15

Figure
Figure6.
Figure 6.Appearance
6. Appearanceof
Appearance ofTi6Al4V/AA5754
of Ti6Al4V/AA5754laser
Ti6Al4V/AA5754 laserwelded
laser weldedjoint
welded jointafter
joint afterchemical
after chemicaletching.
chemical etching.
etching.

Figure
Figure7.7.Microstructure
Microstructure of
ofthe
thevarious
variouszones
zonesin
inTi6Al4V
Ti6Al4Vand
andAA5754.
AA5754.
Figure 7. Microstructure of the various zones in Ti6Al4V and AA5754.
The
Thebase
basematerial
materialaluminum
aluminumalloy alloyAA5754
AA5754was wassupplied
suppliedin inthe
theannealed
annealedcondition
condition(Figure
(Figure7). 7).
In theThe base
aluminum material aluminum
matrix, there arealloy
some AA5754
second was supplied
phases. Thesein the annealed
phases have condition
been (Figure in
identified 7).
In the aluminum matrix, there are some second phases. These phases have been identified in
In the aluminum
literature matrix, there are some second phases. These phases have been identified in literature
literatureas as(Fe,Mn)Al
(Fe,Mn)Al66, ,(Fe,Mn)
(Fe,Mn)33SiAlSiAl1212, ,Mg
Mg22Si
Siand
andMgMg22Al
Al33[25–27].
[25–27].
as (Fe,Mn)Al
The 6 , (Fe,Mn)3 SiAl 12 , fusion
Mg2 Si and Mg 2 Al3 [25–27].
The microstructure of the fusion zone exhibits a veryfine
microstructure of the zone exhibits a very finedendritic
dendriticmicrostructure
microstructuredue dueto tothe
the
high The microstructure of the fusion zone exhibits a very fine dendritic microstructure due to the high
high cooling rate. The dendrites grow in direction parallel to the direction of heat flow giving to
cooling rate. The dendrites grow in direction parallel to the direction of heat flow giving to
cooling rate.
columnar The dendrites grow in direction parallel to the directionchanges
of heat flowevident
giving to columnar
columnar grains
grains [28,29].
[28,29]. In
Inthe
the HAZ
HAZmicrostructure,
microstructure,no no detectable
detectable changesare are evident to to the
the OM;
OM;
grains [28,29].
however, In the HAZ microstructure, no detectable changes are evident tointhe OM; however, in
however, in in this
this zone,
zone, solubilization
solubilization of of magnesium
magnesium based based hashas been
been reported
reported in thethe literature
literature [30].
[30].
this
Figurezone, solubilization of magnesium based has been reported in the literature [30]. Figure 8 shows the
Figure 88 shows
shows the the micro
micro hardness
hardness profileprofile (0.3/15
(0.3/15 s)s) in
in the
the transverse
transverse section
section of of the
the weld.
weld. The The
micro hardness was
microhardness profile (0.3/15) in the
the transverse section of the
the microstructure
weld. The microhardness was very high
microhardness was very high in the titanium FZ where the microstructure was martensitic. In
very high in titanium FZ where was martensitic. In the
the
in the the
HAZ, titanium
value FZ where the with
diminished microstructure
the lower was
amountmartensitic.
of In the HAZ,
martensitic the value diminished
microstructure. The rise inwith
the
HAZ, the value diminished with the lower amount of martensitic microstructure. The rise in the
the lower amount
microhardness of martensitic microstructure. The risecaused
in the microhardness of the FZ ofproduced
aluminum
microhardnessof ofthe
theFZ
FZof ofaluminum
aluminumin inthe
theweld
weldwaswas causedby bythetherapid
rapidcooling
coolingthat
that producedaa
in thefine
very weld was causedstructure
by the rapid cooling that produced a very fine solidification structure and solid
very finesolidification
solidification structureand andsolid
solidsolution
solutionstrength.
strength.The Theincrement
incrementin inthe
theHAZ
HAZof ofaluminum
aluminum
was
wasdueduetotothe
thedissolution
dissolutionof ofmagnesium
magnesiumcompounds compoundsduring duringthe thewelding
weldingcycle
cycle[30].
[30].
 Metals 2017, 7, 307 9 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 9 of 15

solution strength. The increment in the HAZ of aluminum was due to the dissolution of magnesium
Metals 2017, 7, 307
compounds during the welding cycle [30]. 9 of 15

Figure 8. Microhardness profile at half thickness of the weld cross section.

A layer of intermetallic
FigureFigure 8. Microhardness
compounds
8. Microhardness profile
(IMC)
profile at half
at half thickness
formed ofofthethe
between
thickness weld cross
the
weld twosection.
cross fusion
section.zones (Figure 9),
whose stoichiometry was clarified in some paper [26,31,32]. This layer is due to the reaction in the
A layer
temperature A layer
of the
of of intermetallic
intermetallic compounds
two alloys,compounds
and the size(IMC)
(IMC)formed
formed
is variable between the twothe
as between
a function fusion
oftwo
thezones (Figure
fusion
process 9), whose
zones (Figure[32].
parameters 9),
whose stoichiometry
stoichiometry was clarified in
was clarified some paper [26,31,32]. This layer is due to the reaction in the temperature
Particularly for the welding processinparameters
some paperconcerning
[26,31,32]. this
Thisstudy,
layer the
is due to thethickness
average reaction in
of the
of the two alloys, and the size is variable as a function of the process parameters [32]. Particularly for
temperature
IMC layer wasof the
equaltwo50 alloys,
± 5 µm andtotheand
sizetheis variable
average as a function ofvalue
nanohardness the process
(0.01/15)parameters
was equal [32].
to
the welding process parameters concerning this study, the average thickness of the IMC layer was
Particularly
2485 ± equal for the welding process parameters concerning this study,
232. 50 ± 5 µm to and the average nanohardness value (0.01/15) was equal to 2485 ± 232. the average thickness of the
IMC layer was equal 50 ± 5 µm to and the average nanohardness value (0.01/15) was equal to
2485 ± 232.

FigureFigure
9. SEM9. SEM Micrograph
Micrograph of of intermetallic compounds
intermetallic compounds (IMC) layer
(IMC) at the
layer at Al/Ti joint joint
the Al/Ti interface.
interface.

4.2. Calibration
4.2. Calibration
Figure theofModel
9.ofSEM the Model
Micrograph of intermetallic compounds (IMC) layer at the Al/Ti joint interface.
After the simulation, the fusion zone was compared with the experimental one for calibration
After the simulation, the fusion zone was compared with the experimental one for calibration
4.2. Calibration
purposes.ofFigure
the Model
10 shows the comparison between the simulated and experimental fusion zone
purposes. Figure
profile 10 shows
for aluminum and the comparison
titanium. between
For both 2D and 3D the
heat simulated and aexperimental
source modeling, fusion zone
complete penetration
After
profileof
for the simulation,
aluminum
keyhole the fusion
and titanium.
was obtained, zone was
For both 2D
and, particularly compared
for and 3Dheat
the 2D with the
heatsource,
source experimental
modeling,
the one
boundary aofcompletefor calibration
the fusionpenetration
zone
purposes.
of keyhole Figure 10 shows
wasnumerically
obtained obtained, the
and,
had comparison
particularly
similar between
shapes infor the 2D the
comparison withsimulated
heat source, and
the experimental
ones. of the fusion
boundary
the experimental fusion zone
profile
obtainedfornumerically
aluminum and hadtitanium. For both
similar shapes 2D and 3D heat
in comparison withsource modeling, a ones.
the experimental complete penetration
of keyhole was obtained, and, particularly for the 2D heat source, the boundary of the fusion zone
obtained numerically had similar shapes in comparison with the experimental ones.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 10 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 10 of 15

Figure 10. Calibration

Calibration of (a) 3D and (b) 2D heat source models by the cross section of the weld.

In Tables
In Tables 55 and
and 6,
6, the
the dimensions
dimensions ofof the
the fusion
fusion zone
zone profile,
profile, respectively, in the
respectively, in the top,
top, middle
middle and
and
bottom, are
bottom, arereported
reportedboth
bothforfor
2D2D and
and 3D 3D numerical
numerical simulation
simulation andexperimental
and the the experimental measure.
measure. A
A better
better matching between the numerical and experimental results for the size of fusion zone has
matching between the numerical and experimental results for the size of fusion zone has been obtained been
obtained
using a 2Dusing a 2D source.
source.

Table 5. Dimension
Table 5. (mm) of
Dimension (mm) of the
the fusion
fusion zone
zone profile
profile in
in the
the aluminum
aluminum side.
side.

Aluminum
Aluminum Fusion
Fusion Zone 2D Heat
Zone
Source
2D Heat Source 3D Heat
3DSource Experimental
Heat Source Data Data
Experimental
TopTop 118118 136 136 116 116
Middle 120 135 112
Middle 120 135 112
Bottom 114 135 108
Bottom 114 135 108

Table 6. Dimension (mm) of the fusion zone profile in the titanium side.
Table 6. Dimension (mm) of the fusion zone profile in the titanium side.

TitaniumTitanium
Fusion Zone 2D Heat Source 3D Heat Source Experimental Data
2D Heat Source 3D Heat Source Experimental Data
Fusion
Top Zone 232 204 225
Middle
Top 207
232 204 196 225 198
Bottom
Middle 226
207 196 187 198 196
Bottom 226 187 196
In fact, by correctly adjusting keyhole parameter in 3D heat source, only the top width of the weld
In fact, by correctly adjusting keyhole parameter in 3D heat source, only the top width of the
was close to the experimental result, while the 2D heat source could almost precisely calculate the top,
weld was close to the experimental result, while the 2D heat source could almost precisely calculate
middle and bottom width. The observed performance can be explained as follows. It is well known
the top, middle and bottom width. The observed performance can be explained as follows. It is well
that the behavior of heat flow depends on welding conditions [14,33]. For higher welding powers
known that the behavior of heat flow depends on welding conditions [14,33]. For higher welding
and thinner plates, the heat flow is predominantly 2D, whereas for lower welding powers and thicker
powers and thinner plates, the heat flow is predominantly 2D, whereas for lower welding powers
plates, the heat flow was 3D. Therefore, there must be a transition thickness in which the heat flow has
and thicker plates, the heat flow was 3D. Therefore, there must be a transition thickness in which the
a behavior, which is a mix of the 2D and 3D ones. Probably for the thin plates examined in this study,
heat flow has a behavior, which is a mix of the 2D and 3D ones. Probably for the thin plates examined
the heat flow was predominantly 2D, and that is why 2D heat flow modelling is more appropriate.
in this study, the heat flow was predominantly 2D, and that is why 2D heat flow modelling is more
Figures 11 and 12 show the temperature distribution on the top when the weld bead profile
appropriate.
reached the quasi-steady state. The thermal conductivity of the two materials influenced the position
Figures 11 and 12 show the temperature distribution on the top when the weld bead profile
of the maximum temperature in the melt pool and away from the melt pool. For both numeric
reached the quasi-steady state. The thermal conductivity of the two materials influenced the position
simulation, the maximum temperature was recorded within the titanium side, where the beam laser
of the maximum temperature in the melt pool and away from the melt pool. For both numeric
was directed. The width of the heat affected zone in the aluminum side was greater due to the high
simulation, the maximum temperature was recorded within the titanium side, where the beam laser
thermal conductivity of the aluminum alloy. On the contrary, the low thermal conductivity of the
was directed. The width of the heat affected zone in the aluminum side was greater due to the high
titanium alloy leads to accumulating the heat over the metal by reducing the area interested from
thermal conductivity of the aluminum alloy. On the contrary, the low thermal conductivity of the
metallurgical transformation.
titanium alloy leads to accumulating the heat over the metal by reducing the area interested from
metallurgical transformation.
 Metals
Metals 2017, 7, 307
7,7,307 11 of 15
Metals2017,
2017, 307 11 of1115of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 11 of 15

Figure 11. Isometric view of temperature distributions (in Kelvin) using 2D heat source modelling.
Figure11.
11.Isometric
Isometric view
view of temperature distributions (in
(inKelvin)
Kelvin)using 2D2D
heat source modelling.
Figure
Figure 11. Isometric viewofoftemperature
temperaturedistributions
distributions (in Kelvin) using
using heat
2D heat source
source modelling.
modelling.

Figure 12.12.Isometric
Figure Isometricview
viewof
oftemperature
temperature distributions (inKelvin)
distributions (in Kelvin)using
using3D
3Dheat
heatsource
source modelling.
modelling.
Figure 12. Isometric view of temperature distributions (in Kelvin) using 3D heat source modelling.
Figure 12. Isometric view of temperature distributions (in Kelvin) using 3D heat source modelling.

TheThe
The shapeofof
shape
shape ofthe
theweld
the weldpool
weld poollongitudinal
pool longitudinalplane
longitudinal plane(Figure
plane (Figure
(Figure13) 13) showed
13)showed
showed aateardrop
ateardrop
teardrop shape
shape
shape forfor
for thethe
the 2D2D
2D
heat The shape
source.Thus, of
Thus,thisthe weld
thismeans pool
meansthat longitudinal
that probably
probably the plane
the 2D
2D (Figure
heat 13)
source showed
cannot a teardrop
perfectly shape
simulate for the
thethe 2D
laser
heat
heat source.
source. Thus, this means probably the 2Dheat
heatsource
sourcecannot
cannot perfectly
perfectly simulate
simulate the laserlaser
heat source.
heat source. Thus,
source. However, this
However, better means that
better results probably
results have
have been the 2D
been obtainedheat
obtained usingsource
using the cannot
the 3D3D heat perfectly
heat source; simulate
source; in
in this the
this case, laser
case, thethe
heat
heat source. However, better results have been obtained using the 3D heat source; in this case, the
heat source.
resulting However,
molten puddlebetter
hadan anresults have
elliptical beenwhich
shape, obtained using the 3D heat source; in this case, the
resulting
resulting molten
molten puddle
puddle had
had an elliptical shape,
shape, which
which isis
is
more
more
more
similar
similar
similar
tothe
to to
theexperimental
the
experimental
experimental
pool
pool shape
shape
pool shape
resulting
as shownby molten puddle hadevolution
bymicrostructure
microstructure an elliptical shape,
ofthe
thegrainswhich
grains is more
(Figure 14)similar
inthe to
thefusion the experimental
fusion zone.This
Thisshapepool of
shape shape
the
asasshown
shown
as shown byby
microstructure
microstructure
evolution of
evolution
evolution of the
the grains
ofpool grains
(Figure
(Figure
(Figure 14)
14)
14)inin
in the
thefusion
fusion zone.
zone.This
zone. Thisshape
shape of the
of ofthethe
grains derives
grainsderives from
derivesfrom
fromthe the elliptical
theelliptical molten
elliptical molten
molten pool [24,34].
[24,34].
grains pool
grains derives from the elliptical molten pool [24,34]. [24,34].

Figure 13. Weld pool numerical results for the numerical simulations.
Figure 13. Weld pool numerical results for the numerical simulations.
Figure13.
Figure 13.Weld
Weldpool
poolnumerical
numerical results
results for
for the
the numerical
numericalsimulations.
simulations.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 12 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 12 of 15

Metals 2017, 7, 307 12 of 15

Figure 14. Interface zoom-up in the weld cross section ns.

Figure 14. Interface zoom-up in the weld cross section ns.
Figure 14. Interface zoom-up in the weld cross section ns.
4.3. Validation of the Model
4.3. Validation of the Model
4.3.The
Validation of the Model
temperature cycle was measured in two different points that were placed 2 mm away from
theThe temperature
weld centerline cycle
on was
both measured
sides in two
of the weld different
(Figures 15 points
and 16). that were
The placed 2 mm
temperature
The temperature cycle was measured in two different points that were placed 2 mm away from
away
profiles from
were
thecompared
weld centerline on both sides of the weld (Figures 15 and 16). The temperature profiles were
the weld with those on
centerline obtained fromof
both sides thethe
thermocouples.
weld (FiguresHigh 15 and thermal gradients,
16). The and fast
temperature cooling
profiles rate
were
compared
were with those
present, due toobtained
the laser from the When
process. thermocouples.
it concerns High
the thermal gradients,
temperature peak, theand fast cooling
numerical rate
results
compared with those obtained from the thermocouples. High thermal gradients, and fast cooling rate
were present,
matched thedue
were present,
to the laser
experimental process.
one
due to the laser for both
process.
When
of theititheat
When
concerns theNonetheless,
sources.
concerns
temperature
the temperature
peak, thethe
regarding
peak,
numerical
cooling
the numerical
results
rate,
results
matched
matched the experimental one for both of the heat sources. Nonetheless, regarding the cooling rate,rate,
the 3D the
heat experimental
source was one
more for both
precise of
than the heat
2D sources.
one. Nonetheless, regarding the cooling
the 3D
the heat source
3D heat was
source more
was more precise
precisethan
thanthe
the2D 2D one.
one.

Figure 15. Experimental and numerical thermal cycle using 2D heat source modelling.
Figure 15. Experimental and numerical thermal cycle using 2D heat source modelling.
Figure 15. Experimental and numerical thermal cycle using 2D heat source modelling.
Metals 2017, 7, 307 13 of 15
Metals 2017, 7, 307 13 of 15

Figure 16. Experimental and numerical thermal cycle using 3D heat source modelling.
Figure 16. Experimental and numerical thermal cycle using 3D heat source modelling.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, the numerical models to simulate the laser welding process of butt dissimilar Al/TI
In this paper, the numerical models to simulate the laser welding process of butt dissimilar Al/TI
joints were developed. Two different 2D and 3D heat source modelling processes have been utilized
joints were developed. Two different 2D and 3D heat source modelling processes have been utilized
to simulate the proper heat flux during the welding. The numeric results were compared with the
to simulate the proper heat flux during the welding. The numeric results were compared with the
experimental ones to calibrate and to validate the two models. The metallurgical analyses showed
experimental ones to calibrate and to validate the two models. The metallurgical analyses showed
that the titanium fusion zone was principally martensitic, and the heat affected zone was a mixture
that the titanium fusion zone was principally martensitic, and the heat affected zone was a mixture of
of martensitic and primary α grain. In the aluminum fusion zone, a dendritic structure was present
martensitic and primary α grain. In the aluminum fusion zone, a dendritic structure was present and
and the heat affected zone was characterized by the solubilization of the magnesium compounds.
the heat affected zone was characterized by the solubilization of the magnesium compounds.
The FEM simulation of the thermal cycle of fiber offset welding was satisfactory. The following
The FEM simulation of the thermal cycle of fiber offset welding was satisfactory. The following
points were demonstrated:
points were demonstrated:
(1) The calculations for the fusion zone dimensions were accurate both for the 2D and the 3D heat
(1) source.
The calculations for the
By using that 2D fusion zone dimensions
heat source, were accurate
a better matching both
of numeric andforexperimental
the 2D and the 3D heat
results was
source. By using that 2D heat source, a better matching of
obtained at the three levels at which the molten zone sizes were taken. numeric and experimental results was
obtained at the three levels at which the molten zone sizes were taken.
(2) In the longitudinal section, the numerical results were not as accurate for both of the heat
(2) sources.
In the longitudinal
For the 2D one,section, the numerical
a teardrop shape ofresults were weld
the molten not aspool
accurate
formed forwhile
both the
of the
3D heat
heat
sources. For the 2D one, a teardrop shape of the molten weld pool formed
source produced an elliptical one. It is possible to conclude that the 3D heat source can while the 3Dbetter
heat
source produced
approximate an elliptical
the heat flux during one. It iswelding
laser possibleand
to the
conclude
maximumthat temperature
the 3D heat source can which
gradients, better
approximate the heat flux during laser welding and the maximum
determined the change in the grain growth direction in the titanium side. temperature gradients, which
(3) Thedetermined the change
overall thermal cycle inaccuracy
the grainwas growth
gooddirection in the
for 2D and 3Dtitanium side. However, the 3D heat
heat sources.
(3) source
The overall thermal
provided cycle
better accuracy
results was
for the good for
cooling rate2D and 3D heat sources. However, the 3D heat
simulation.
source provided better results for the cooling rate simulation.
Author Contributions: The welds were fabricated in the TISMA ((Innovative Welding for Advanced Materials)
laboratory of Bari, which is led by Giuseppe Casalino. Paola Leo looked after the metallographic preparation
Author Contributions: The welds were fabricated in the TISMA ((Innovative Welding for Advanced Materials)
and analysis
laboratory of of thewhich
Bari, microstructure and Sonia
is led by Giuseppe D’Ostuni
Casalino. builtLeo
Paola thelooked
numerical
after model. Discussion and
the metallographic conclusions
preparation and
were written
analysis of thewith the contribution
microstructure of all authors.
and Sonia D’Ostuni built the numerical model. Discussion and conclusions were
written with the contribution of all authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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