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NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
TABLA DE CONTENIDOS
CAPITULO 1 – EL PODER DEL VIENTO
CAPITULO 2 - EL RECURSO EÓLICO
CAPITULO 3 - CONCEPTOS DE DISEÑO DE ROTORES EOLICOS
CAPITULO 4 – AEROGENERACION ELECTRICA
CAPITULO 5 - AEROBOMBEO
CAPITULO 6 – BIBLIOGRAFÍA Y REFERENCIAS
APÉNDICE A - DEFINICIONES Y TERMINOLOGIA
APÉNDICE B – AEROBOMBAS COLOMBIANAS
APENDICE C – ARTICULOS RECIENTES DEL AUTOR
NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
PAIS MW
Brasil 931
México 519
Costa Rica 123
Caribe – varios 99
Argentina 60
Chile 172
Colombia 19.5
Otros Países 84.5
TOTAL 2008
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
115 m Ø
70 m Ø
46 m Ø
30 m Ø
20 m Ø
15 m Ø
30 m 40 m 45 m 50 m 60 m 90 m
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NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
13%
14%
35 MWh 18%
95 MWh 23%
400 MWh
30%
1 250 MWh
3 500 MWh
1000 viviendas 38%
17 000 MWh
4900 viviendas
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
2200
2000
POTENCIA EOLICA ESPECIFICA (W/m2)
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
VELOCIDAD DE VIENTO (m/s)
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Los vientos alisios del norte están presentes sobre la Región Caribe y el
Valle del Atrato durante los primeros cuatro meses del año.
Normalmente, la presencia de los vientos alisios en esta región esta
asociada con escasez de lluvias. Los vientos en esta región son fuertes
en las zonas planas del norte del país. Sobre la Península de la Guajira,
valores de la velocidad de viento de superficie son típicamente altos
(v.gr.: 8 - 9 m/s promedio anual de velocidad) variando muy poco en
dirección.
Otras regiones del país que presentan condiciones de viento
interesantes para explorar como recurso energético son: Los
santanderes, las zonas montañosas del eje cafetero, en general, en las
cercanías de los lagos como el lago Calima en el Valle, así como
algunas zonas desérticas como en Villa de Leiva y el Huila.
Las cordilleras colombianas tienen gran influencia en el clima del país,
no solamente interfiriendo con los flujos atmosféricos, sino que debido a
su absorción y emisión efectiva de radiación solar, las cordilleras actúan
como fuentes y sumideros de calor generando su propio patrón de
circulación atmosférica (Pinilla, 1987). Los vientos en la región andina
son suaves, de baja velocidad y predominan las variaciones diurnas,
independiente de la estación del año. Sin embargo los vientos de valle -
montaña y los vientos anabaticos y catabaticos son normales y sus
corrientes asociadas son muy activas.
Los Llanos orientales, por su parte, presentan una climatología muy
similar que los llanos del sur de Venezuela, donde información
meteorológica es más amplia que la que se obtiene en el IDEAM. En
esta región se presentan corrientes de aire del norte y del noreste
durante la estación seca (Noviembre a Abril) y flujos del sur-sureste
durante la parte lluviosa del año (abril a Octubre).
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Viento
2H
2H 20H
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14,0
12,0
10,0
8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hora Local
12,0
velocidad de viento (m/s)
10,0
8,0
6,0
4,0
2,0
0,0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
dia del mes
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0
Año
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
140
Número de Horas del mes
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
7,5
8,5
9,5
10,5
11,5
12,5
13,5
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V3
Esto es: K e .
V3
Para los datos del Aeropuerto del Camilo Daza se tiene que:
P W
V = 7.23 m/s, 300 2 y
A m
la potencia eólica instantánea (con V ) = 226 W/m2, por tanto el valor
del factor de patrón de energía es Ke = 1.31.
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15
Velocidad de Viento en m/s
13
11
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2 1
σ V2 (V V ) 2 f(V)dV β 2 1 2 1 (2.9)
0
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0,25
0,2
PROBABILIDAD
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Velocidad de Viento (m/s)
k=1,5; Vm= 3,5 m/s k=2,0; Vm= 5,0 m/s k=2,5; Vm= 6,5 m/s
k=3,0; Vm= 7,5 m/s k=3,7; Vm= 9,8 m/s
140
Número de Horas del mes
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
6,5
7,5
8,5
9,5
10,5
11,5
12,5
13,5
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 5,5 6 6,5 7
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1
N 1 N N V
L N N N Vi exp i (2.13)
β β i 1 i 1 β
L L
0y 0 . Hallar el máximo de la función L, también corresponde
β
a determinar el valor máximo de la función logaritmo de L,
lnL lnL
0y 0 , así:
β
N N
Vi
ln L N ln N ln ( 1) ln Vi (2.14)
i 1 i 1
lnL N
V
0 N i (2.15)
β i 1 β
lnL N Vi
0 N lnVi 1 (2.16)
i 1 β
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Tubo de Corriente
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
L: Fuerza de Sustentación
: Angulo de Ataque
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
1.6 0.08
1.2 0.06
0.8 0.04
0.4 0.02
0
8° 16° 24° 8° 16° 24°
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
c: cuerda
r: Posición Radial
dr
R: Radio del Rotor
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
dD
(1+a’)r
Plano del Rotor
c
W
(1-a)V
dD
dFt
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
r Ui aV
Ui
V’
V V’: Velocidad Geométrica
W
W: Velocidad Efectiva
Ui: Velocidad Inducida Total
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
dT 1 C
dFt ρW 2 cC l sen d cosBdr (3.13)
r 2 Cl
Combinando las expresiones de fuerza, se encuentra además que:
Cd
cos sen
dFx U x Cl (3.14)
dFr Ut C
sen d cos
Cl
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Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
Ux
(Cd=0); entonces, ctg , lo cual implica que la velocidad total
Ut
inducida (Ui) es perpendicular a la velocidad efectiva (W).
Se puede entonces desarrollar la ecuación para el ángulo () y la
distribución de la cuerda a lo largo del aspa, como sigue:
BcC L 1 1
tg y arctg (3.15)
8r sen diseño r
R
Hasta el momento, se han planteado las relaciones geométricas y
dinámicas de diseño de rotores eólicos, el siguiente paso consiste en
optimizar la extracción de energía, lo cual implica encontrar la
contribución de momento-par óptimo para todos los elementos de aspa.
Conociendo la contribución del momento-par (dT) de cada elemento de
aspa, expresada desde las dos teorías, se tiene que:
1
dT C l ρW 2 csenrdr 4 r 2 ρ(V U x )U t dr (3.16)
2
Para encontrar el momento-par optimo para cada posición radial, se
d ( dT )
debe encontrar el valor del ángulo () que cumpla: 0.
d
Se encuentra que el valor del ángulo () que optimiza el momento-par a
lo largo del aspa para cada posición radial debe ser: = 2.
Las expresiones matemáticas resultantes, ó ecuaciones simplificadas
de diseño de rotores de eje horizontal, son:
Bc(r)
C l - optimo 4(1 cos )
2 r
2 R (3.17)
arctg
3 λdiseño r
β α optimo
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r
1
2
F arccos e f con f
B
2 r
R (3.26)
sen
R
El factor de reducción (F) se introduce en las ecuaciones generales de
momentum, de manera que el factor de inducción axial (a) es
reemplazado por un factor promedio (aF). En el procedimiento de
diseño presentado, la introducción de este factor de reducción (F) no
modifica las ecuaciones de la Teoría del Elemento de Aspa, resultando
la ecuación de diseño como sigue:
Bc(r) 4aF(1 aF) sen 2 1 (3.27)
C l OPTIMO
2 r (1 a) 2
cos C d
1 tg
Cl
Al determinar la geometría completa del aspa ((r) y c(r)), las
contribuciones diferenciales de Momento-Par y Empuje se suman a lo
largo del aspa, determinándose así el Coeficiente de Rendimiento a la
velocidad específica de diseño.
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eólica que realmente cruza el rotor, posee una energía cinética menor
que aquella que posee el viento a la velocidad no-perturbada (V). Sin
embargo el Coeficiente de Rendimiento se ha adoptado como una
medida comparativa entre equipos eólicos.
Los coeficientes adimensionales CP, CT y se relacionan, entre si, en
una simple expresión CP = CT, de la cual se pueden concluir algunos
aspectos interesantes.
Dado un coeficiente de rendimiento, se puede tener un valor alto de
velocidad especifica, que implica un coeficiente de momento-par bajo.
Esto se puede interpretar, que para velocidades especificas altas es
previsible bajos valores de momento-par y en consecuencia baja
rotación de la estela. Así pues, las perdidas en la estela son menores y
se prevén altos coeficientes de rendimiento o una mejor eficiencia de
conversión de energía eólica. Este tipo de comportamiento es adecuado
para equipos de generación eléctrica donde se requieren altas
velocidades de rotación en el eje y un bajo momento-par de
alimentación a los generadores eléctricos. Rotores eólicos para
generación eléctrica utilizan un número bajo de aspas (típicamente 3),
lo que corresponde a rotores de baja solidez.
Contrariamente, un bajo valor de velocidad especifica de diseño,
corresponde a un mayor coeficiente de momento-par, o lo que es lo
mismo una alta rotación de la estela, lo cual implica mayores perdidas
en la conversión de la energía eólica. Es previsible, entonces, que
rotores eólicos de baja velocidad alcancen eficiencias de conversión de
energía menores que su contraparte de alta velocidad. Rotores de baja
velocidad especifica, generalmente están provistos de muchas aspas
(12, 18, 24 ó aún 36), son de alta solidez y de alto momento-par,
especiales para aplicaciones lentas y de fuerza, como ocurre en el
bombeo de agua ó en molienda de grano.
La figura 3.4 ilustra claramente la distinción entre rotores eólicos de
baja velocidad especifica de diseño (DISEÑO 1 - 3) con coeficiente de
rendimiento bajo (Cp cerca a 30%), contra rotores de mayor velocidad
especifica (DISEÑO 6 - 10) donde los coeficientes de rendimiento
pueden llegar a valores de 45% o más. Nótese que el límite teórico de
rendimiento de Betz es 59.3%.
El comportamiento típico de un rotor eólico se ilustra en la Figura 3.11.
En la figura se ilustran los coeficientes de rendimiento y de momento-
par contra la velocidad específica.
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CT- máximo
CT- arranque
MAXIMO Ó DESBOQUE
=1 DISEÑO
CT- máximo
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dCP
pendiente de la curva del coeficiente de rendimiento, así: CTs .
d 0
Además de la figura 3.11, se observa que cuando = 1, el valor de los
coeficientes son iguales, CP = CT.
La información contenida, en los párrafos anteriores, es útil al momento
de tipificar el comportamiento aerodinámico de rotores, además de
servir de herramienta útil en el adecuado acoplamiento de rotores con
diversas cargas, como acoples a bombas hidráulicas, generadores
eléctricos, compresores, etc.
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se puede explicar debido a que los dos regímenes en la capa limite son
afectados por gradientes de presión en el flujo.
Como se sabe, la fuerza de sustentación se genera por diferencias de
presión entre la superficie inferior (intradós) y superior del perfil
(extradós). Además, cambios en velocidad y presión son fuertemente
influenciados por la forma del perfil y el ángulo de ataque ().
A bajos números de Reynolds (Re5x105), el flujo es
predominantemente laminar. Este flujo es relativamente débil y cambios
adversos de presión guían a desestabilizar el flujo y ocurre separación
entre el flujo y la superficie. Esta condición de separación se conoce
como Entrada en Perdida. El cambio en la presión del flujo asociado
con la separación causa una reducción de la fuerza de sustentación e
incrementa la fuerza de arrastre. (Ver figura 3.12).
Con números de Reynolds mayores (5x105Re3x106), una transición
entre flujo laminar y turbulento toma lugar, el flujo turbulento es más
fuerte y aguanta mejor cambios en la presión, produciéndose una
burbuja de recuperación en el flujo. Este efecto permite mantener alta,
la generación de fuerza de sustentación, en la medida que los cambios
en la distribución de presión sean soportados por la capa limite. El
decremento en sustentación y aumento en la fuerza de arrastre se
causan por separación de la capa limite cuando se producen aumentos
en el ángulo de ataque.
Con números de Reynolds altos (Re3x106), la transición de flujo
laminar a turbulento ocurre rápidamente, aguantando cambios de
presión adversos, sin perdida de sustentación. En este aspecto vale la
pena indicar que con altos números de Reynolds, la superficie del perfil
aerodinámico debe ser lisa y rugosidades menores, a causa de polvo, ó
contaminantes que se adhieren a ella, causan perturbaciones en la
capa límite, reduciendo la sustentación y aumentando la fuerza de
arrastre.
Un aspecto fundamental en el rendimiento aerodinámico de perfiles de
ala, para diversas aplicaciones, tiene que ver con su acabado
superficial. La figura 3.13 ilustra la tendencia en el rendimiento de los
perfiles en lo que respecta a la condición de máxima relación entre la
fuerza de sustentación y la fuerza de arrastre (Cl/Cd)max con respecto al
Número de Reynolds (Re).
Para el diseño de rotores eólicos de gran tamaño, es indispensable
tener una superficie alar lisa, de manera que el rendimiento
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Separación
Laminar
Burbuja de Separación
Laminar Turbulento
Laminar Transición
Turbulento
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2
10
PERFILES RUGOSOS
10
1
4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10
Numero de Reynolds - Re
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1- Eje principal, 2- Freno de Disco, 3- Caja de Aumento de Velocidad, 4- Generador eléctrico, 5- Carcaza de
soporte estructural, 6- Mecanismo de Guiñada, 7- Carcaza para cubrir elementos
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El control típico sencillo es aquel que utiliza una cola detrás del rotor y
una placa paralela al mismo, que facilitan sacar el rotor paulatinamente
de la dirección del viento, y así regular la velocidad y las fuerzas
transmitidas. Este control es típico de las aerobombas.
Los sistemas rápidos de control, también limitan la velocidad de
rotación y la potencia suministrada por el equipo. Estos sistemas
regulan el paso de las palas para mantener una frecuencia eléctrica
requerida (i.e. 60 Hz). Estos requieren servomecanismos y sistemas
electro hidráulico y controlador electrónicos de respuesta rápida para
responder a condiciones de borrasca extremas. Generalmente estos
controles electrónicos se utilizan en equipos eólicos para potencias
mayores de 100 kW, en donde el precio de la costosa electrónica y
sistemas hidráulicos dejan de convertirse en un problema, como no
sucede con equipos eólicos de menor capacidad.
Adicionalmente a los controles pasivos y activos que actúan sobre el
rotor eólico, los aerogeneradores además cuentan con controles
adicionales que permiten regular la carga eléctrica del aerogenerador.
Este tipo de control es particularmente importante en sistemas de
suministro eléctrico autónomos aislado de la red eléctrica o conectada a
redes eléctricas débiles.
Como se menciono en una sección anterior, los sistemas de
aerogeneración autónomos generalmente utilizan generadores
sincrónicos y en proporción a su velocidad, la turbina es cargada o
aliviada de carga con el manejo adecuado de resistencias o
consumidores conectados al equipo. En pequeños sistemas eólicos
estos controladores manejan potencias en exceso, por ejemplo,
manteniendo los niveles de cargas de bancos de baterías, ó enviando la
energía a una pequeña red de consumidores ó simplemente
disipándola.
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GENERACION NULA
Potencia
Nominal, Pr
EFICIENCIA
MAXIMA DEL
POTENCIA
ROTOR NOMINAL,
EFICIENCIA
REDUCIDA DEL
ROTOR
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1600
Potencia electrica (kW)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
velocidad de viento (m/s)
Figura 4.5 – Modelo lineal contra Curva Real de Potencia Equipo Nordex
N60/1300 kW
Se define el parámetro adimensional (x) como la relación entre
cualquier velocidad de viento y la velocidad promedio de viento en un
lugar dado, así:
V
x
V
La distribución de Weibull de manera adimensional se puede expresar,
como sigue:
V
α 1 V
α
α V
f(x) V f(V) exp V
β β β
V V V
V 1
Teniendo en cuenta que: 1 y con la relación:
1 0.434
G 1 0.568 , la distribución de Weibull de manera
adimensional se simplifica a: f ( x ) Gx 1 exp Gx .
Por otro lado, la curva de potencia se puede también expresar en
términos la velocidad adimensional, así:
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x x in
P ( x ) Pr para xin x xr
x r x in
P( x ) Pr para xr x xout
Vr V V
Con x r , x in in , x out out .
V V V
La energía suministrada con un equipo de potencia nominal (Pr)
durante un periodo (T) de estimación, en un régimen de vientos
caracterizado por la distribución de Weibull (,) y una velocidad
promedio ( V ), se obtiene a través de:
Vout Vr Vout
Energía T P(V)f(V)dV T P(V)f(V)dV T P(V)f(V)dV
Vin vin Vr
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85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
Factor de Planta (%)
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0,00 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50 1,75 2,00 2,25 2,50
3 1 4 5 6
7 8 K=5 K=3
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CAPITULO 5 - AEROBOMBEO
5.1 - USO DE LA ENERGÍA EOLICA EN BOMBEO DE AGUA
La energía eólica o la energía del aire en movimiento en forma de
viento ha sido utilizada por cientos de años tanto para aplicaciones
mecánicas como para la navegación en barcos. Históricamente se le
atribuye, al uso de molinos de viento y molinos de agua, el desarrollo
agrícola europeo desde el siglo XII hasta finales del siglo XIX.
Primordialmente los equipos eólicos eran utilizados en la molienda
de granos y en el movimiento y bombeo de agua.
Recientes desarrollos tecnológicos han permitido un uso amplio de
la energía eólica en sistemas de generación de electricidad de gran
tamaño sobre todo en países desarrollados, por el contrario en
países en vías de desarrollo se ha dado uso amplio de esta energía
para fines agrícolas, esencialmente, en labores de bombeo de agua.
En particular los molinos de viento mecánicos para bombeo de agua
(o mejor conocidos como aerobombas) son utilizados para una
variedad de aplicaciones como en el suministro de agua limpia para
fines domésticos, para suministro de agua para ganado, labores de
irrigación, drenaje, movimiento de agua en granjas piscícolas, entre
otras.
Las aerobombas extraen la energía del viento a través de un rotor y
convierte su movimiento rotacional en acción mecánica con algún
mecanismo que permite mover una bomba y así producir la acción
de bombeo. Por esto existen diversas alternativas de disposición de
elementos mecánicos para bombear agua con la energía de los
vientos, como sé vera más adelante.
Esencialmente, una instalación de aerobombeo consiste de: rotor,
torre, un sistema de transmisión de movimiento, la bomba misma, un
sistema de tuberías para el movimiento de agua y cuando se
requiera un tanque de almacenamiento.
Dependiendo de la aplicación y de la disponibilidad tecnológica,
diferentes tipos de sistemas de aerobombeo se han desarrollado. La
elección del tipo de bombas es bastante amplia y se han realizado
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tener 12, 18, 24 ó aún 36 palas (ver Figura 5.4). Estos rotores se
conocen técnicamente como rotor eólico de alta solidez, baja
velocidad y alto momento par en el eje.
Desarrollos recientes, como en el rotor del molino de viento
Gaviotas, es un rotor de solidez intermedia, más rápido y su diseño
es considerado de bajo peso.
La solidez de un rotor se define como la relación entre el área
ocupada por las palas del rotor y el área circular del rotor barrida en
un giro. El rotor multipala americano puede alcanzar una solidez
cercana al 85% contra una solidez del rotor Gaviotas del 30%.
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SISTEMA DE SEGURIDAD
Los rotores eólicos deben tener la capacidad de girar para encarar el
viento en caso de que este cambio su dirección y al mismo tiempo
protegerse de intensidades de viento muy altas que pueden causar
sobrecargas excesivas a la torre, a la transmisión y al rotor. Diversos
diseños se han probado e implementado para alcanzar la acción de
control y seguridad necesarios para la protección del equipo de
eventuales rachas de alta velocidad de viento y tormentas.
Generalmente los sistemas de seguridad se combinan con los
sistemas de orientación, del tipo mecánico, y en los cuales se
garantiza que a bajas velocidades de viento el rotor enfrente
plenamente el viento y con velocidades de viento mayores el rotor se
desoriente para limitar la velocidad de excitación de la bomba y
reducir, así, las fuerzas y cargas inducidas en todo el sistema.
Los sistemas mecánicos de seguridad y orientación,
fundamentalmente, se basan en la colocación excéntrica entre el eje
del rotor y el eje vertical de la torre. Esta excentricidad es pequeña y
permite la presencia de una fuerza de empuje horizontal ejercida por
el rotor tendiendo a auto-rotar alrededor del eje vertical de la torre. El
balanceo o desbalanceo de esta fuerza de empuje horizontal
(representado en un momento par vertical) se logra a través fuerzas
aerodinámicas ejercidas sobre la cola de la aerobomba o sobre
placas laterales que regulan este movimiento vertical. Generalmente,
el desequilibrio de estas fuerzas, cuando se saca el rotor de la
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TORRE
Generalmente las aerobombas utilizan torres conocidas como
autoportantes, las cuales no requieren de soportes externos,
teniendo sus bases ancladas en bloques de concreto. Las
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Diámetro: 2 metros
Velocidad Anual Promedio 50 18 500 51
Baja
Diámetro: 8 metros
Velocidad Anual Promedio 9 000 3 300 000 9 200
Alta
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Esto equivale a 396 kWh por año que representa 1.1 kWh por día,
o más bien una capacidad de entrega hidráulica de 400 m4 por
día.
Para corroborar este estimativo, se puede comparar con
información suministrada por un fabricante que indica que bajo
condiciones de tamaño de rotor y velocidad de viento iguales, su
equipo multipala provee una capacidad de 15.54 m3 al día con
una altura de bombeo de 25 metro. Esto equivale a (=25x15.54)
388.5 m4 por día.
Claramente cuando las aplicaciones imponen mayor altura de
bombeo es previsible que esta relación sencilla tienda a sobrestimar
la entrega de energía hidráulica, igualmente si la altura de bombeo
es baja, esta relación subestima la entrega de energía.
Para continuar con el ejemplo de aplicación, el siguiente paso a
seguir es determinar el tamaño de bomba reciprocante y su
correspondiente recorrido de carrera que se ajuste a la cantidad de
energía hidráulica disponible. Un enfoque es elegir la velocidad de
viento en la cual la bomba opera en su más alta eficiencia. Esta
velocidad generalmente es elegida como el 60% de la velocidad
promedio anual del viento, esta elección permite optimizar la
disponibilidad de la aerobomba, esto es que bombee durante el
mayor número de horas al año. Igualmente esto determina la posible
velocidad de arranque de la aerobomba que usualmente se elige
muy cercana a la velocidad promedio anual de viento.
Para la condición de diseño optimo se tendrá que la aerobomba
operará en su condición de máxima extracción de potencia eólica la
cual corresponde al 30% de la potencia eólica disponible y es
transformada en potencia hidráulica útil.
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APÉNDICE A - DEFINICIONES Y
TERMINOLOGIA
Aerobomba: Equipo de bombeo de agua accionado por la energía
del viento
Altura de Bombeo (H): Diferencia de nivel en la superficie libre del
agua de la fuente de agua y el nivel de descarga
Anemómetro: Instrumento mecánico para medir la velocidad del
viento
Anualidad: Valor promedio anual del costo de capital
Bomba de doble efecto: Bomba de agua de desplazamiento
positivo cuya acción de bombeo ocurre, tanto en el
desplazamiento de subida como de bajada por la acción del
vástago.
Bomba Reciprocante de Acción simple: Bomba de agua de
desplazamiento positivo provista de pistón que por la acción
alternante solo bombea liquido en el movimiento de ascenso
del vástago. Se dimensiona técnicamente por el diámetro del
pistón y la longitud de la carrera (S) del vástago
Coeficiente de Rendimiento (CP): Relación entre la potencia
aerodinámica extraída por un rotor eólico y la potencia
instantánea eólica.
Densidad de Potencia Eólica Específica: Cantidad de Potencia
disponible en el viento referida a un área especifica (W/m2)
Disponibilidad: Fracción del tiempo en la cual un equipo eólico esta
produciendo energía de manera efectiva, sea energía eléctrica
o bombeando agua
Eficiencia Volumétrica de una bomba (volumétrica): Relación entre
la cantidad real de agua entregada por una bomba y el volumen
teórico barrido por acción del desplazamiento de un pistón
Energía Hidráulica: Cantidad neta de agua bombeada desde una
altura de bombeo en un periodo de tiempo dado
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A-2
INFORMACION VELOCIDAD DE VIENTO - AEROPUERTO CAMILO DAZA DE CUCUTA - Velocidad en m/s - PROMEDIO HORARIO
HORA LOCAL PROMEDIO
DIA 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 (m/s)
1 8,7 9,7 9,4 10,6 9,7 9,1 9,1 8,7 7,7 9,8 10,4 11,0 6,9 6,9 7,1 5,7 8,8
2 6,0 10,2 11,0 10,2 8,8 10,8 11,7 11,4 12,4 9,2 9,2 8,6 8,6 7,2 6,9 8,3 6,2 5,4 5,7 9,1 8,6 8,0 9,1 10,0 8,9
3 10,9 10,4 11,0 10,5 7,7 4,3 5,7 2,3 2,0 2,0 3,2 6,9 8,3 3,7 10,6 10,0 7,4 5,2 4,6 1,8 4,2 7,4 8,6 8,3 6,5
4 8,0 7,5 8,4 7,2 4,2 7,4 8,4 8,6 10,2 13,5 11,9 9,7 6,7 6,6 5,4 4,0 3,5 4,0 7,2 6,4 6,6 5,9 6,6 3,4 7,1
5 2,6 4,3 2,4 2,0 2,9 1,6 2,0 3,0 7,2 9,7 8,8 8,6 7,2 5,0 3,7 6,4 4,8 2,4 2,0 1,3 1,2 1,5 2,3 2,8 4,0
6 2,9 4,3 2,6 1,6 5,0 8,7 9,1 8,3 7,7 9,5 10,0 9,1 11,0 9,5 8,1 6,9 5,4 5,0 3,6 3,5 8,1 8,6 6,6 8,1 6,8
7 7,8 9,1 9,2 9,4 10,5 9,2 7,4 7,4 5,7 6,7 7,7 9,0 8,4 6,6 5,9 4,3 6,2 5,2 6,4 5,7 5,2 10,9 10,4 7,5 7,6
8 9,7 7,7 9,5 8,8 9,4 10,4 7,0 8,1 9,8 13,2 10,8 11,2 9,5 10,5 9,7 7,7 6,0 5,2 5,0 5,2 5,3 7,5 8,6 6,7 8,4
9 5,9 7,2 8,0 5,4 1,3 2,0 2,2 2,8 6,6 7,5 8,1 4,8 8,1 7,4 7,2 6,0 6,0 4,6 4,3 3,7 4,0 3,5 5,2 6,0 5,3
10 5,6 5,0 5,2 4,6 3,5 2,3 1,6 4,8 4,3 4,5 7,7 8,3 9,0 6,3 6,4 8,3 7,5 7,5 7,5 5,6 2,3 3,7 4,3 6,2 5,5
11 6,6 7,7 5,0 4,5 5,6 6,9 6,9 6,3 6,9 7,1 7,4 5,6 8,3 6,7 4,0 9,1 4,0 6,3 7,5 6,7 7,1 8,3 8,8 9,1 6,8
12 8,0 8,3 8,8 9,7 9,0 8,6 6,6 6,0 7,1 8,3 8,1 6,9 7,1 7,5 7,5 6,2 5,7 8,0 8,6 8,7 8,1 8,6 7,1 7,4 7,7
13 8,7 5,7 3,6 4,3 4,0 8,1 8,7 9,1 5,6 4,8 5,6 7,0 8,7 8,8 6,2 9,7 8,1 7,7 6,2 6,9 6,7 5,0 2,6 7,7 6,6
14 6,6 3,2 3,7 2,9 3,5 2,3 5,7 7,4 7,2 9,5 11,0 9,4 11,6 12,2 12,9 10,6 7,4 6,2 7,0 7,4 7,7 7,4 7,2 8,1 7,4
15 8,3 7,0 8,4 9,4 8,6 8,7 8,7 8,4 10,1 11,3 11,6 11,6 10,9 8,1 9,1 9,1 9,4 10,5 10,6 8,8 9,7 11,0 10,2 10,2 9,6
16 9,1 7,7 8,3 7,7 7,1 6,3 6,4 8,6 7,5 7,4 9,5 9,2 10,0 9,0 9,0 7,4 6,3 5,7 6,0 7,7 7,0 4,6 5,7 5,7 7,5
17 7,5 6,6 6,0 7,5 6,4 6,6 7,4 6,6 8,6 9,4 11,6 10,5 9,1 8,6 8,0 8,3 8,1 9,4 9,4 5,3 5,4 8,0 8,0 8,6 8,0
18 9,1 8,0 8,0 8,8 9,1 9,5 9,0 4,9 8,3 11,0 9,7 8,8 8,6 8,3 7,4 5,9 4,8 6,7 8,7 5,3 4,9 8,3 8,8 8,8 7,9
19 7,7 6,0 9,2 6,7 5,0 5,6 7,5 6,4 7,0 8,1 8,4 6,6 7,0 4,0 4,8 6,3 4,8 6,2 5,9 7,8 7,7 8,7 7,7 7,4 6,8
20 8,1 7,1 3,7 3,4 4,2 4,2 7,4 3,7 3,7 3,6 2,9 4,0 7,5 7,0 4,9 5,6 6,6 6,0 4,9 6,7 4,8 2,6 2,2 2,8 4,9
21 1,8 5,6 8,1 3,0 2,6 1,8 1,3 2,4 7,0 7,4 8,1 9,4 0,8 10,9 9,4 7,7 6,3 5,0 8,1 9,1 9,2 8,3 7,4 7,8 6,2
22 6,6 2,9 2,8 3,5 2,9 1,8 1,3 3,2 5,2 7,7 6,3 7,4 9,7 10,0 8,0 9,1 7,7 7,1 8,6 6,6 3,4 2,8 3,7 5,2 5,6
23 4,9 4,6 6,3 4,5 6,2 6,7 8,6 11,7 11,4 12,8 12,7 10,9 9,0 9,3 8,6 9,2 10,5 8,8 7,8 7,2 6,4 6,9 6,3 9,0 8,3
24 8,6 9,2 10,6 10,0 10,2 9,7 8,6 9,7 8,0 8,8 9,8 10,4 11,0 10,8 9,1 5,7 4,3 4,9 6,3 7,8 7,7 8,7 9,7 9,7 8,7
25 9,1 7,5 7,7 7,1 7,2 9,1 8,3 9,7 10,0 10,8 8,8 8,0 7,4 7,4 7,4 9,4 9,0 8,1 5,2 5,4 7,7 7,4 7,7 6,0 8,0
26 8,8 8,8 5,2 2,6 3,2 1,5 0,9 6,0 10,0 9,1 10,4 11,2 10,5 10,5 10,2 6,9 4,9 4,6 4,2 6,4 4,8 6,2 7,1 8,0 6,8
27 5,7 3,2 3,4 2,3 6,7 8,3 9,2 8,3 9,0 8,3 8,8 9,1 8,6 7,2 7,1 9,5 6,9 4,3 6,4 5,9 3,6 8,3 9,2 9,5 7,0
28 9,7 10,0 7,1 5,4 7,7 7,1 7,7 8,3 7,7 8,0 9,4 8,3 8,0 9,0 8,0 8,3 7,4 10,5 10,0 10,8 7,7 9,0 9,5 9,1 8,5
29 9,7 7,4 6,3 3,8 1,8 1,3 2,9 3,7 7,2 9,8 8,0 9,1 9,7 8,6 7,7 9,0 7,4 7,1 9,1 9,1 9,1 9,1 10,5 7,8 7,3
30 9,2 9,0 9,1 9,0 8,6 7,1 7,8 9,0 9,0 8,4 8,7 8,7 10,6 10,6 9,4 9,0 6,0 5,4 7,7 6,4 8,0 7,4 6,6 7,4 8,3
31 8,0 8,8 8,3 6,9 6,0 7,7 3,0 8,7 8,5 9,1 10,5 10,5 10,2 9,7 7,4 5,4 4,8 6,2 7,7 7,4 7,4 8,6 11,0 9,1 8,0
max 10,9 10,4 11,0 10,5 10,5 10,8 11,7 11,7 12,4 13,5 12,7 11,6 11,6 12,2 12,9 10,6 10,5 10,5 10,6 11,0 9,7 11,0 11,0 10,2
min 1,8 2,9 2,4 1,6 1,3 1,3 0,9 2,3 2,0 2,0 2,9 4,0 0,8 3,7 3,7 4,0 3,5 2,4 2,0 1,3 1,2 1,5 2,2 2,8 7,23
pro 7,4 7,0 6,9 6,1 6,0 6,2 6,3 6,8 7,7 8,6 8,8 8,7 8,7 8,3 7,7 7,7 6,5 6,4 6,9 6,7 6,3 7,1 7,3 7,4 2,42
NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper presents some technical details, operational experiences, and lessons learnt by the Colombian
Received 17 December 2007 public utility – Empresas Públicas de Medellı́n – with a recently installed 19.5 MW wind park in the
Accepted 7 April 2008 northern region of Colombia – province of La Guajira. This is the first ever wind park feeding to the
Available online 2 July 2008
electricity network in Colombia. The Jepirachi Wind Park was commissioned in April 2004 and it has to
date accumulated nearly 180,000 h of operation. During that time 15 NORDEX N60/1.3 MW turbines have
Keywords: fed electricity to the Colombian main electricity grid. This work describes the park layout, including
Wind energy
meteorological stations installed in the surroundings and the wind regime prevailing in the zone. Details
Wind parks
Wind turbines
are also given about remote monitoring of the Wind Park and individual turbines, through the Super-
Wind electricity generation visory, Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA Nordex Control 2). Since July 2004, Empresas
Públicas de Medellı́n (EEPPM) and Universidad de Los Andes-Bogotá, Colombia have been working to-
gether in a wind park performance monitoring programme. This has permitted both institutions to learn
more rapidly matters relating to evaluation, planning and operation of wind parks exposed to extreme
climatic conditions like those present in the semi-desert region of the Guajira. This work describes the
wind park operation, where individual wind turbines have yielded monthly production capacity factors
as high as 65–75%; values which are high when compared to similar turbines installed elsewhere. Ac-
cordingly, levels of electrical energy production of up to 1750 kWh/m2-year per turbine have been
measured, exceeding typical values reported in the wind energy literature. A series of operational and
technical troubles have become evident, which are related to some of the particular features of the
climate and the wind regime at the site of the Jepirachi Wind Park. Because of these local features it is
suggested that a greater level of uncertainty (limiting the validity of methods and hypotheses) may exist
in the study and planning of future wind parks in regions such as La Guajira.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0960-1481/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.015
Author's personal copy
Winds prevailing in the zone of Jepirachi are the northeast Turbine 4 was subjected to tests for the verification of the
trade winds, whose annual prevailing direction is from the electrical power–windspeed curve. Fig. 2 illustrates the power
East–Northeast direction; therefore the rows of turbines are curve as measured on turbine 4, at the park in accordance with the
oriented 10 North, perpendicular to the annual prevailing wind Standard IEC 61400-12 [7]. The power curve in Fig. 2 depicts
direction. electrical power output of 10-min average values for each
In the vicinity, three meteorological stations are installed, windspeed bin-width of 0.5 m/s. Turbine 4 was tested between
namely: Kasiwolin, Parque, and Arutkjui. Meteorological stations March and July 2004.
Kasiwolin and Arutkjui have been registering wind regime data The average climatological conditions during the test period and
since December 2000. Station Kasiwolin registers windspeed, reported by Westermann [7] were:
direction and ambient temperature at 50 m and windspeeds at 20
and 10 m height. Station Arutkjui registers windspeed and Local air density: 1.16 kg/m3
direction at 20 m and windspeed at 10 m height. Meteorological Local barometric pressure: 1010 mBar
station Parque was installed by the German company WindGuard Environment temperature: between 298 K and 306 K
[7] for the verification of the power curve performance at turbine 4. Average turbulence intensity at the site (10-min values): 7.5%
It is worth mentioning the importance of having meteorological
information of this kind, particularly since they have been regis- The Jepirachi Wind Park is provided with a Supervision, Control
tering information prior to the installation and during the first 15 and Data Acquisition system (SCADA Nordex Control 2-NC2), which
months of operation of the Wind Park. This has yielded, first hand remotely monitors park electricity production as well as for
knowledge of the influence of the wake produced by the windward individual turbines. It indicates alarms and events, operational
row of turbines upon the electricity production, and its incidence parameters of the turbines and all the auxiliary equipment; the
on the efficiency and performance, on the leeward row of turbines substation and the meteorological tower Parque. The SCADA NC-2
(turbines 9–15, Fig. 1). allows the carrying out of control actions upon the equipment and it
The turbines are interconnected with an underground network serves as a tool for analysis and is able to report in different time
of 13.8 kV voltage, which conducts the electrical power produced to scales of park operation. The system updates information every 3 s
the substation located at the center of South side of the park. The and it can be accessed, via Internet, from the Control Center of
park substation has a 110 kV transformer and the electricity is fed EEPPM in Medellı́n, at the park cabin control room, in Germany in
into tower # 20 of the Colombian electricity grid line known as Nordex headquarters, and at the Universidad de los Andes in Bogotá.
Cuestecitas – Puerto Bolivar.
4. Wind regime at Jepirachi Site
3. Technical characteristics of turbines
Average windspeed for the period of operation between March
The technical characteristics of NORDEX turbines are to be 2004 and July 2005 was 9.2 m/s. Windspeed estimation is carried
found elsewhere [1]. The NORDEX N60 turbine operates at two out, based upon the information of the meteorological tower
speeds, it has two generators a 6-pole 250 kW and an 8-pole Arutkjui, located 500 m windward of the park. Windspeed is cor-
1300 kW, and they can be switched between the two modes as the rected to 60 m height, since the anemometers are located at 10 and
windspeed changes. Note that at varying operational conditions, 20 m height, as mentioned before.
the wind rotor runs from 12.8 rpm to 19.8 rpm. The rotor power Height correction is carried out based on 10-min average
control is through stall regulation. windspeed data at 10 and 20 m height, using the simple model for
the vertical wind profile [2], as:
60 m a
WINDWARD ROW V60m ¼ V20m (1)
20 m
8
LEEWARD ROW
7
15 North 1400
6
1200
Electric Power (kW)
14 5
13 PARQUE 1000
4
3 800
12 ARUTKJUI
2 600
KASIWOLIN 11
400
1
10 200
0
9 0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 12,0 14,0 16,0 18,0 20,0
Windspeed (m/s)
Fig. 1. Spatial layout of wind turbines and meteorological towers at Jepirachi [5] – not
to scale – numbers correspond to wind park turbine identification. Fig. 2. Electric power–Windspeed curve measured at turbine 4 [7].
Author's personal copy
As well as using the correlation for the power law as a function other parts of the world. It should be mentioned, that between
of velocity and height, calculated as: 8900 and 9500 h, the windspeed is within 4 and 18 m/s for the
period of evaluation, reported here.
0:37 0:088 lnfV20m g Differences of capacity factor between turbines and corre-
a ¼ (2)
20 m sponding hours of energy production are related with spatial wind
1 0:088 ln
10 m distribution within the park. They are also due to maintenance
periods, damage presented in bearings, network failures, etc.
Monthly average windspeed at Jepirachi (60 m height) exceeds
12 m/s in January, May, June and July; consequently the respective
6. Individual performance of turbines
Weibull shape parameters (k) reach values between 4 and 5.
Months with lower average windspeed are September and October
As a result of verification of the power curve performance
with monthly average windspeed between 6 and 6.5 m/s and the
measured in the turbine 4, EEPPM and NORDEX agreed upon to the
Weibull shape parameter (k) values are around 2.
modifying of the pitch angle of each blade in turbine 5. The
It is worth indicating that wind conditions in Jepirachi site are
modification was carried out in February 2005, so as to test for
extremely favourable for the operation of turbines. For several
possible improvement in turbine performance. After 5 months of
months the wind is persistent and it has low turbulence intensity
operation, turbine 5 has shown an improvement in energy
(between 7% and 12%). Consequently, turbines are operating with
conversion as compared to the previous months before changing
low vibration levels, in addition to maintaining large electricity
the blade pitch angle.
generation. Weibull shape parameters between 3 and 5 imply that
The turbine 8 has shown the largest capacity factor, as well as
the windspeed remains between 4 and 18 m/s, most of the time. So
turbines 5, 6, 7, 14 and 15 have presented monthly capacity factors
far, meteorological measurements do not show wind gust,
up to 76% in the months with highest average windspeed, a large
something that is also highly recommended for park operation, as
value in comparison with monthly capacity factors reported in
a general rule.
other wind parks elsewhere.
For the evaluation period between March 2004 and July 2005,
Fig. 3 compares monthly capacity factors for turbines 8 and 5
windspeed data is also processed from the Kasiwolin meteoro-
between May 2004 and May 2005, note the performance improve-
logical tower, resulting in an average windspeed of 8.4 m/s.
ment in turbine 5 since February 2005. During the months with
Kasiwolin is in the wake of the park at 785 m (13D) of the leeward
lower windspeed, monthly capacity factors are greatly diminished.
row (see Fig. 1). It is interesting to mention that by analyzing the
windspeed data series between January 2003 and March 2004 in
both stations, before the installation of Jepirachi Wind Park at the 7. Theoretical prediction of turbine capacity factor
site, no meaningful difference was found in either behavior or
magnitude. It is useful for the operation of wind turbines alone and wind
Wake effect of the park shows differences in the magnitude of parks as a whole, to have calculation tools to estimate and predict
windspeed between 1 and 2 m/s, depending on the month of the electricity generation. For this purpose it is customary to have wind
year, when windspeed information is compared between these two data information and then adjust it with the Weibull density
meteorological towers. The differences found are similar to those probability function. With information reduced with the Weibull
reported in the SCADA NC2, when comparing the windspeed, just distribution through its shape and scale parameters ‘‘k’’ and ‘‘c’’, the
behind every wind rotor. Needless to say, that SCADA NC2 reports effective electricity production can be estimated for diverse periods
windspeed measurements at the nacelle of each turbine. of time.
With the purpose of estimating the electricity production for
a given period of time, the power curve performance, as measured
5. Jepirachi Wind Park energy production by WindGuard [7], is used. The electricity production is calculated,
as follows:
Between April 2004 and July 2005 (14.5 months), 160,000 h of
operation are accounted for the 15 turbines. During this period the Z Vout
park fed 70.4 GWh to the electricity grid, representing an overall Energy Produced in Period ðTÞ ¼ T PðvÞf ðvÞdv (3)
Vin
park capacity factor of 38% and availability of 96%. Capacity factor
(also known as plant factor) is understood here as the ratio of where P(v) corresponds to electrical power curve as a function of
electrical energy produced to the product of park rated power windspeed (v) and f(v) is the Weibull probability density function
installed by the number of hours of the period of evaluation; and [4]. Limits of integration correspond to cut-in and cut-out
availability is understood as the ratio between the number of real windspeed of the turbine.
hours of electricity generation by the wind turbines to the number
of hours that the windspeed is between the operation limits of the 80
turbines [5]. Turbine 5
70
Turbine 8
Capacity Factor ( )
P
CT
V
EC
R
PR
It is worth noting that for each turbine, the total hours of service
SE
JU
FE
A
A
JU
JA
A
A
O
M
M
Capacity Factor
In order to compare the theoretical estimation and the real
capacity factor of individual turbines, Fig. 5 was prepared repre- 50
senting monthly capacity factors of individual wind turbines in
the windward row of Jepirachi, those unaffected by wake effects. 40
Average windspeed used in this analysis, corresponds to
corrected monthly average measured windspeed in the meteo- 30
rological station Arutkjui. In order to compare the real capacity
factor for wind turbines, the theoretical calculated curves of
20
capacity factor are superimposed for values of Weibull shape
parameter (k ¼ 3 and 5). Note the close fit that exists between the
10
theoretical estimation and the real capacity factor of individual
wind turbines.
0
0,00 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50 1,75 2,00 2,25 2,50
8. Analysis of wake effects in Jepirachi Wind Park
Nordex Rated Wind Speed/Monthly Arutkjui Average Wind Speed
A relevant concern for estimating the energy production at the 3 1 4 5
Jepirachi Wind Park is to fully understand the wake effect of the 6 7 8 K=5 K=3
windward row upon its leeward counterpart. This is mainly due to
a major difference in the annual energy production estimated Fig. 5. Comparison of real and theoretical monthly capacity factor for windward in-
during the wind park planning process and the real energy dividual turbines at Jepirachi Wind Park.
produced [6].
" 2 #
Hence a simple model of wake effect is used to simulate the pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi D
effect on leeward turbines. Windspeed data from the Arutkjui VWAKE ¼ V 1 1 1 CT (5)
meteorological Station is also used as well as the power perfor- D þ 2Kx
mance curve provided by WindGuard.
where V is the 10-min average windspeed in Arutkjui corrected to
For estimating the electrical energy production, the diminished
60 m height, CT is the turbine thrust coefficient reported by Potzka
windspeed in the wake is considered, using a simple theoretical
[6], D is the rotor diameter (D ¼ 60 m) and x is the horizontal
two-dimensional model, as illustrated by Manwell [2]. The reduced
distance between turbine rows, taken as 900 m. This is the
wake windspeed (VWAKE) is calculated as follows:
approximate horizontal distance between rows of turbines. Factor
K takes into account the turbulence intensity which at Jepirachi is
90 assumed here to be 7.5%.
Arutkjui wind data monthly series are utilized for calculating
the corresponding speed in the wake and then the electrical energy
80
production is estimated in the leeward row.
Fig. 6 illustrates the theoretical estimation of electrical energy
70 production of a turbine, considering the calculated windspeed in
the wake and it is compared with real monthly energy production
of turbines 10 and 15 at the leeward row.
60
Capacity Factor
700.000
50 Turbine 10
600.000 Wake simulation
Monthly Energy-kWh
Turbine 15
40 500.000
400.000
30
300.000
20
200.000
R
G
V
CT
EC
N
B
L
A
A
O
SE
JU
FE
JU
JA
D
A
Fig. 4. Nordex turbine theoretical capacity factor vs. dimensionless windspeed ratio Fig. 6. Comparison of monthly energy production between turbines 10, 15 (leeward
for various Weibull wind regimes. row) and the theoretical wake simulation for Nordex turbine.
Author's personal copy
Fig. 6 shows that the theoretical estimation of energy flow in the nacelle cabin. Other damages that have occurred are the
production, using the simple wake effect model, fits closely to fracture of the blade tip material due to high level of lightning,
monthly real energy production of turbine 10. typical of this region. Solutions have been possible thanks to the
capacity and personnel support from highly specialized groups at
9. Conclusions EEPPM and Universidad de Los Andes.
The future perspective for wind energy use on a larger scale in
Jepirachi Wind Park is not a conventional project for generation Colombia is shown to be quite attractive, mainly owing to the huge
and commercialization of energy, with criteria of economical sus- wind resource and the technological challenges to accommodate
tainability. It is a pilot project, associated with an R&D programme, turbines especially designed for the Colombian Caribbean region
with the purpose of technology transfer and understanding for and neighbouring countries. Nonetheless, wind electricity
future wind energy projects in Colombia. Further work is required in production is not yet an economical option in Colombia, and it is
a second phase of the monitoring of performance, in order to better necessary to precisely define the real possibilities of this technol-
understand wake effects and general operation of wind parks. ogy; as well as to work, hand in hand, with the appropriate
Although modern wind turbines have been designed and authorities in state policies around tax incentives and normative
developed to work in a wide range of climatic and wind conditions, framework to control the development of renewable energies in
some regions may present particular features like those experi- Colombia.
enced in the Caribbean region that, may, either, affect their
designed lifetime, or, also may require technological adjustments References
so as to obtain superior power performance to those achieved
currently worldwide. An invitation is opened to wind energy [1] NORDEX Energy. Nordex N-60 technical description 1998–2002. Germany:
Nordex Energy GmbH; 2002.
manufacturers and investors to look for an interesting option in the [2] Manwell JF, et al. Wind energy explained – theory, design and application. New
development of solutions more suitable for tropical and Caribbean York: John Wiley & Sons; 2002.
conditions. [3] Peláez J, et al. Jepirachi Wind Park: planning and construction of the project in
Revista Empresas Públicas de Medellı́n, vol. 5. No. 1, January–June; 2004. p.
In the particular case of Jepirachi Wind Park, technological and 101–3 (in Spanish).
operational difficulties have emerged and they have been identified [4] Pinilla A. Lecture notes of a wind energy course. Bogotá, Colombia: Department
and understood. To mention but a few, for instance, the highest air of Mechanical Engineering – Universidad de Los Andes; 2004 (in Spanish).
[5] Pinilla A. Report of performance analysis of Jepirachi Wind Park – April
temperature registered in the cabin of the turbines nacelle up to
2004–June 2005, Contract 0013794 – Empresas Públicas de Medellı́n E.S.P.
52 C, caused early failure in small electronic control circuitry, Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes; August 2005. 50 pp. (in Spanish).
consequently uncontrolled and frequent stoppage of turbines, the [6] Potzka G. Power curve and AEP analysis Jepirachi report, Colombia, 28.01.05.
cabin high temperature also caused premature generator front-end Germany: Nordex Energy; 2005.
[7] Westermann D, Deutsche WindGuard, power curve measurement report –
bearing damages. This required additional ventilation by NORDEX Turbine Nordex N60-1300 (turbine 4). Location: La Guajira, Colombia. Report
in the turbines nacelle, through large openings to increase the air Number MP04002, Varel, Germany; 19 August 2004.
NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
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NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Technical Note
py
displacement pump for wind-water pumping
co
Juan La Rotta, Alvaro Pinilla
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Cra 1a Este # 18a – 10, Bogotá, Colombia
% %
Received 28 June 2006; accepted 4 October 2006
Available online 21 November 2006
Abstract
al
on
This paper presents the experimental performance test evaluation of a commercial wind-driven
positive displacement pump type JOBER of 3 in diameter. Results of the behaviour of pump lift rod
rs
peak force, in relation with the lift rod elasticity and the piston valve closure delay are presented. The
pump performance is analysed in terms of its volumetric and overall efficiencies. Evidence about a
possible effect of the piston valve closure delay over the pump overall efficiency is also discussed.
pe
1. Introduction
With the purpose of providing essential elements for evaluation of wind-water pump
o
a small enterprise started in 1984 and currently has more than 800 of its faster running
wind pumps operating in the zone of Eastern Prairies in Colombia [1]. Some wind pumps
Au
Corresponding author. Tel.: +571 332 4322; fax: +571 332 4323.
E-mail address: apinilla@uniandes.edu.co (A. Pinilla).
0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.10.001
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804 1791
Nomenclature
py
Fr lift rod force
kr elastic Constant for lift rod (force/unitary extension)
H static head
co
L length of discharge including riser and suction pipe
m0 mass of lift rod and piston minus floating effects
N pump operational speed (r/min)
Ns Sommerfeld number ¼ mO/rgH
PH Hydraulic power
al
Q water flow rate per piston stroke
r frequency ratio O/Oor
R crank throw ( ¼ half of the stroke length)
on
t time
V water speed flow in riser pipe
Vp maximum effective flow speed in riser pipe for a system with infinitely rigid
rs
Greek symbols
pe
Z overall efficiency
m water viscosity
r water density
C dimensionless head¼ ðH=LÞðg=O2 RÞðA=Ap Þ
o
Results of this research and the procedure followed are a useful tool for designers of
wind-driven pumping systems.
2. Theoretical model
The theoretical dynamic model as proposed by Burton and Davis [2] is an excellent guide
for structural dimensioning of the reciprocating pump test rig, as well as for the design,
execution and interpretation of experiments.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1792 J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804
py
co
Fig. 1. Details of the JOBER 3 in reciprocating pump.
al
on
rs
pe
o r's
th
Au
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804 1793
Burton and Davies’ model provides essential elements for the analysis of the behaviour
of pump lift rod forces, volumetric and overall efficiencies.
The understanding of the behaviour of the pump lift rod force is important, given that,
during the pumping cycle, the lift rod force may reach peak values quite above the
py
corresponding static piston force (rgHAP). Forces in the pump lift rod are due to: (1)
weight of lift rod and piston, (2) forces of dry and viscous friction as a consequence of
piston displacement inside the pump cylinder and (3) the force due to differential pressure
on the piston pump.
co
Eq. (1), taken from [2], represents the dimensionless lift rod force, during discharge
stroke, for a system without friction with elasticity in the lift rod and angular delay in
closure of piston valve.
1 dðV =V p Þ
Gr ¼ 1 þ , (1)
al
C dðOtÞ
and Gr is defined as the ratio of lift rod force to the static piston force (rgHAP).
Peak values of Gr are of great interest. The peak occurs when acceleration of the fluid in
pe
2 rgHAp 1
Cr ¼ (3)
kr R
Cr2 relates the static lift rod elongation, due to static head force, on the piston and the
o
length R of the crank throw of the wind pump transmission. It may be interpreted as the
th
and angular delay closure of the piston valve affect the volumetric efficiency and are
related by means of Eq. (4), as follows:
1 1
Zv ¼ ðcos a þ cos gÞ ¼ cos a ðCr2 Þ. (4)
2 2
py
Overall pump efficiency (Eq. (6)) is defined as the ratio of hydraulic power delivered by
the system to the input mechanical power absorbed by the system. Hydraulic power is the
water pumped to a determined static head (Eq. (5)).
co
PH ¼ rgHQ, (5)
Hydraulic Power
Z¼ . (6)
Mechanical Input Power
3. Experimental setup
al
on
A hydraulic test rig was specially constructed for the 3 in JOBER pump. This assembly
allows simulating typical JOBER wind pump operation conditions. (i.e., 8–40 m hydraulic
rs
simulated with a pressurized air tank connected to the pump discharge. By setting the
internal tank pressure it is possible to simulate the required hydraulic static heads.
Table 2 contains pump dimensions. The pump is powered by an electric motor excited
via a variable frequency converter to reach operation speeds up to 80 r/min.
The riser pipe of 38 mm (1.5 in nom. dia.) in a typical JOBER wind pump installation is
replaced by a galvanized steel tubing of 12 mm (0.5 in nom. dia.). This pipe is connected
r's
between pump discharge and the entrance of pressurized air tank. Length of the pipe
installed in the rig is varied between 1 and 8 m, which corresponds to equivalent lengths
from 8 to 40 m of riser pipe in the real wind pump. Dynamic similitude between real
o
For each set of experiments, the riser pipe length coincides with the hydraulic static
head; that is, values of hydraulic static head are determined to correspond to 8, 14, 30 and
40 m as described in [4].
Au
The assembly is instrumented with a displacement sensor and a load cell installed in the
pump lift rod. This setting allows measurement of the lift rod force and the piston
Table 1
JOBER 3 in pump operational range according to JOBER INDUSTRIES
Lift rod
py
Pressurized Tank
Variable pressure 80-400 kPa
co
Pipe arrangement
Variable length 1-8 m
Pump
al
on
Recirculation tank
rs
Table 2
pe
cylinder, one located on the suction side of pump (below the piston) and the other one
above the piston. This setting facilitates measurement of the differential pressure on the
th
piston pump; consequently the force on the piston pump might be deduced. Data
acquisition is carried out using a data acquisition board with a sampling frequency of
250 Hz. All data are fed into a computer for processing.
Au
This assembly provides the necessary set up for performance evaluation of the pump
including its riser pipe, permitting establishing the effect of dynamic behaviour of the water
column in the riser pipe, and its influence upon the overall pump performance.
discharge and pressurized tank inlet. Water enters the pressurized tank and it is maintained
inside it until the tank pressure rises above a prefixed value. In this way, water goes out
through a relief valve installed at the bottom of pressurized tank and returns to the suction
tank.
py
parameters of the rig in accordance with conditions of operation to be simulated.
The following steps have to be followed to set the rig for evaluating the pump: (1) length
of conduction pipe is determined, this one must coincide with static head being simulated;
co
(2) pumping speed is set up via the excitation frequency of the electric motor; (3) the tank is
pressurized to a pressure equivalent to the simulated static head; (4) relief valve discharge
pressure is set, while the pump starts working.
4. Experimental results
al
Through factorial analysis, the operational range of the pump variables is made discrete
as presented in Table 3. A total of 12 experiments were executed in the strict order as in the
on
experimental matrix contained in Table 4. Needless to say every experiment was repeated
several times.
rs
Table 3
Discrete values of pump variables for testing
o
Table 4
Experimental matrix
Number of experiment
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Speed (r/min) 25 25 25 25 50 50 50 50 75 75 75 75
Static head (m) 8 14 30 40 8 14 30 40 8 14 30 40
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804 1797
a
Lift rod force Force on the piston Piston displacement
1.0
0.8
0.6
py
Force, kN
0.4
0.2
co
0.0
−0.2
−0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time, s
al
Force due to static head
b
on
Lift rod force Force on the piston Piston displacement
4.5
rs
3.5
Force, kN
2.5
pe
1.5
0.5
−0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
r's
Time, s
Force due to static head
Fig. 3. (a) Lift rod and piston forces, N ¼ 25 r/min, H ¼ 8 m, L ¼ 1.1 m; (b) lift rod and piston forces, N ¼ 50 r/
o
min, H ¼ 40 m, L ¼ 8 m.
th
On the contrary in Fig. 3(b) (fastest speed and largest static head) the difference between
the forces on the lift rod and on the piston is just a 10%.
Au
The excess in the lift rod force is attributed to dissipative phenomena, what suggests that
under low speeds of operation and static heads, the frictional force plays a dominant role
in the consumption of energy introduced into the system.
a
90
70
Presure, kPa
50
30
py
10
−10
co
0 14 28 42 56
Piston displacement, mm
Pressure above the piston Pressure below the piston Pressure due to static head
al
800
600
Pressure, kPa
on
400
200
rs
0
0 14 28 42 56
−200
pe
Piston displacement, mm
Pressure above the piston Pressure below the piston Pressure due to static head
Fig. 4. (a) Pressure indicator diagrams, N ¼ 25 r/min, H ¼ 8 m, L ¼ 1.1 m; (b) pressure indicator diagrams, (b)
N ¼ 50 r/min, H ¼ 40 m, L ¼ 8 m.
r's
Table 5
Piston valve angular delay closure determined experimentally
o
25 0
50 15
75 30
Au
the strong dependency between valve closure delay and pump operating speed. Table 5
presents average values of a for each of speeds studied.
a
1.0
0.8
0.6
Force, kN
0.4
0.2
py
0.0
−0.2
−0.4
co
0 14 28 42 56
Piston displacement, mm
al
5
4
on
Force, kN
3
2
rs
1
0
−1 0 14 28 42 56
pe
Piston displacement, mm
Fig. 5. (a) Force indicator diagram, N ¼ 25 r/min, H ¼ 8 m, L ¼ 1.1 m; (b) force indicator diagram, N ¼ 50 r/
min, H ¼ 40 m, L ¼ 8 m.
r's
introduced to the system during a pumping cycle. With these diagrams, it is possible to
calculate the overall efficiency for each one of experiments carried out.
o
From the lift rod force vs. time measurements, peak values of lift rod force are
determined for each set of the experiments during any pumping cycle. Each of these values
Au
was non-dimensionalized when divided by static force on the piston rgHAp, these are
contained in Fig. 6.
Flexibility for each one of the pumping heads is determined by measuring the
displacement registered by the displacement sensor when loading the pump with the
transmission system locked.
Fig. 6 shows the attenuation effect of lift rod flexibility upon maximum dimensionless
lift rod force values. Comparison of values experimentally determined with values
calculated via Eq. (1), suggest that in the pump tested, there exist damping forces, not
being considered in the theoretical model.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1800 J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804
8 84 46
23
7
14
6
Γr 5
py
3
1+1/ψ
2
co
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1/ψ
84 46 23 14
al
Fig. 6. Experimental and theoretical peak dimensionless lift rod force (Gr) against the reciprocal of the
dimensionless head (1/c) with various lift rod elasticities (1/cr2).
on
It should be mentioned that the theoretical model is solved for a frictionless system. For
the case of the JOBER pump, this is a condition far from true, since it is a new pump,
rs
meaning it did not work a number of cycles enough to reach an adequate seals wear
condition corresponding to an optimum operating condition of this equipment.
Value of 1/Cr2 corresponding to curves of Gr vs. 1/C calculated from Eq. (1), must vary
pe
in each test in accordance with simulated static head. It should be assured that it
corresponds to the lift rod flexibility with equal length to the static head. Due to the
flexibility of transmission system and its anchorages of the test rig, the evaluation of the
system was carried out without varying the lift rod flexibility. In spite of this situation, it
produces a slight additional difference in the magnitude of measures data; nonetheless it
r's
does not interfere in the determination of the effect of flexibility upon maximum lift rod
forces.
The tendency observed from experimental data in Fig. 6, corroborates the hypothesis
o
from theoretical model, in the sense that peak lift rod force is progressively reduced, with
increases in lift rod flexibility.
th
Volumetric efficiency of the pump was determined for each experiment comparing the
theoretical volume D, with volume of water delivered at the outlet of the pressurized air
tank. The procedure was carried out by weighing the mass of water collected during six
cycles, to determine the real volume delivered per cycle. Values of volumetric efficiency
measured are presented in Fig. 7(a).
Additionally, the volumetric efficiency was calculated from Eq. (4) with known values of
angular delay in piston valve closure and the lift rod flexibility for each static head and
each speed evaluated (Fig. 7(b)). When comparing the results of both procedures, it is
possible to observe they follow the same tendency.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804 1801
a
measured
100%
90% 30m
80% 14m
40m
70%
py
60%
ηv
50%
40%
co
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 25 50 75
al
N, r/min
on
b
calculated
100% 8m
14m
rs
90% 30m
80% 40m
70%
pe
60%
ηv
50%
40%
30%
r's
20%
10%
0%
o
0 25 50 75
th
N, r/min
At high speeds of operation, the volumetric efficiency is reduced due to a late closure of
the piston valve. Nevertheless, the volumetric efficiency diminishes also as a consequence
of increase in static head due to leakage.
For values measured, this reduction is not only attributable to the effect of lift rod
flexibility; it is also due to a deficient valve piston closure, condition which explains the
over-estimation of efficiency by the theoretical model.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1802 J. La Rotta, A. Pinilla / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1790–1804
Overall pump efficiency defined as the ratio of the hydraulic power to mechanical power
introduced into the system is the prime indicator, combining in a unique parameter, the
effectiveness of the equipment in volumetric terms and hydraulic energy yield.
Before talking about overall efficiency of the equipment it is useful to know, the energy
consumption of the pumping arrangement under the different conditions of operation. Fig.
py
8 illustrates the mechanical power consumed by the system with changes in speed of
operation and static head.
As it is expected the power consumption increases proportionally with increase in the
speed of operation and static head. Nevertheless, it is necessary to bear in mind that under
co
less demanding operating conditions, the energy dissipation plays a dominant role on the
global power consumption of the system.
Fig. 9 synthesizes the pump performance, in terms of the global efficiency determined
experimentally with changes in speed of operation of the pump for different static heads.
300
al
on
250 40m
200
rs
30m
Power, W
150
pe
100 14m
50 8m
0
0 25 50 75
r's
N, r/min
100%
80% 40 m
Au
30 m
60%
14m
η
8m
40%
20%
0%
0 25 50 75
N, r/min
4
3.5
3
2.5
Γr 8m
2 14m
1.5 30m
40m
py
1
0.5
co
0
0 25 50 75
N, r/min
Fig. 10. Effect of pump speed on the dimensionless lift rod force at various static heads.
al
Tendency of the values in the overall efficiency coincide with the one expected
accordingly with analysis made up to now, with regards to volumetric yield and pump
on
power consumption. For a fixed static pumping head, the overall efficiency increases
inversely proportional to the speed of operation. Likewise for a fixed speed of operation,
the overall efficiency increases with larger static heads.
rs
Figs. 9 and 10 show the test results of this experimental research in a practical and useful
way, both for the manufacturer and the user of this commercial wind pump. Fig. 10
illustrates the behaviour of maximum peak dimensionless lift rod force for different
conditions of pumping static heads and speeds of operation. These results are quite useful
for the manufacturer at the time of designing and dimensioning the mechanical elements of
the system. They also provide an efficient tool for estimating the magnitude of forces
r's
involved in the operation of the wind pump drive for an installation with known
conditions of operations.
Fig. 9 is an excellent guide for selection and performance evaluation of equipment
o
previous to the installation. Use of these results for each one of the equipments produced
by Industrias JOBER would stand as an invaluable design and selection tool.
th
5. Conclusions
Au
In spite that the pump arrangement under test represents a damping system, that is to
say with non-worthless friction forces, the determined values of Gr might become enough
evidence as to corroborate the hypothesis that for reducing the of maximum peak lift rod
forces requires more flexibility into it. Choosing a less rigid material for the lift rod will
have favourable effects in terms of durability on the long run of mechanical elements of
this equipment.
The most important deficiency found, in terms of performance, is the functioning of the
py
piston valve. This is no doubt a focus for attention for the designer in terms of redesigning
or substitution.
Care has to be taken, when deciding to make a change of the piston valve or sealing
system because of repercussions in terms of infrastructure and manufacturing costs. Any
co
modification must be carried out with the certainty that both the valve and seals fulfil their
function in an adequate way considering they are practical changes and a cheap
alternative.
This pump has a good performance in the range evaluated. Possibly the typical
performance of the JOBER wind pump is not the best, when compared to more traditional
al
more robust wind pumps systems; bearing in mind that this is a direct-driven, low solidity,
faster running wind pump. Nevertheless for evaluating the overall wind pump performance
on
it has to be consider the type of necessity covered with this equipment and the low-cost
type of water supply solution offered by Industrias JOBER in a less-developed country
such Colombia and neighbouring countries.
rs
Acknowledgements
pe
The authors wish to thank Dr. John Burton for his ever pertinent and appropriate
comments during the final stage of this work. In addition they wish to thank Industrias
JOBER in collaborating with this project.
References
r's
[1] Pinilla AE. Lectures noteswind energy course. Bogotá, Colombia: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Universidad de Los Andes; 2005 (in Spanish).
[2] Burton JD, Davies DG. Dynamic model of a wind-driven lift pump. Proc Inst Mech Eng 1996;210:279–93.
[3] Burton JD, Hijazin M, Rizvi S. Wind and solar driven reciprocating lift pumps. Wind Eng 1991;15(2):95–108.
o
[4] La Rotta JM. Strengthening of wind water pumping drive System. M.Sc. thesis in Mechanical Engineering,
Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia. 2005 (in Spanish).
th
Au
NOTAS DE CURSO ELECTIVO - ENERGIA EOLICA – Álvaro Pinilla
Edición, Agosto 2011 – Universidad de Los Andes
Experimental Study on a Model of a Commercial
Windpumping Rotor
by
R EPRINTED FROM
WIND ENGINEERING
VOLUME 30, N O . 6, 2006
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 30, N O . 6, 2006 PP 511–520 511
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the experimental determination of performance and torque
characteristics of the Jober commercial low-solidity, fast-running wind rotor for direct
driven wind-pumping applications. A scale model of the Jober wind rotor is tested at
different blade setting angles to determine the best configuration. The optimal configuration
lies within a range of blade pitch angles between 45° and 30°. The performance of the rotor
is also compared to a newly designed, more aerodynamic rotor based on the theory of wind
rotors. It is shown that an aerodynamic design for the rotor can be used in water pumping
applications, which shows improved performance when compared to the original
commercial design.
The overall wind-to-water conversion efficiency is analyzed theoretically and the results
show that there is a substantial improvement in the newly designed rotor configuration as
compared to the actual configuration of the Jober windpump.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Jober Windpump
Small scale wind rotor models have been tested as described in Kentfield (1996) and more
recently by Tokuyama and et al. (2002). These experimental results help small windpump
design and the improvement of existing designs. Along similar lines, the work described here
illustrates wind rotor tests on a scale model of a commercial Colombian windpump. The
windpump under consideration is the windpump produced by Industrias Jober. This
windpump manufacturing company, located in Duitama, Colombia, started in 1984 and has
sold more than 3,000 of its low-solidity faster-running direct-driven windpumps, mostly
operating in the Eastern Prairies of Colombia (Pinilla, 2004). Some Jober windpumps have
also been exported to neighbouring countries within the Andean Region. The Jober 10-bladed
rotor is a low cost, easy to manufacture, horizontal-axis type, designed with blades of constant
chord and constant pitch angle. Figure 1 shows the Jober 2.5 m-diameter windpump. A typical
application consists of a 10 m pumping head. The windpump is sold with a positive
displacement single acting pump of 66 mm diameter. Each blade has two different parts: the
first (outer) part is the blade itself with the airfoil geometry and the second (inner) part is a
spar steel tube, Figure 2.
The rotor blades are manufactured by bending a galvanized steel sheet around a blade jig.
The ends the bent sheets are riveted together, leading to poor quality surface finish affecting
aerodynamic performance.
512 E XPERIMENTAL S TUDY ON A M ODEL OF A C OMMERCIAL W INDPUMPING R OTOR
Table 1 presents the general specifications of the real Jober rotor studied and it shows the
geometric and aerodynamic characteristics of the blade profile.
This Jober windpump was originally conceived for low-windspeed regimes. Therefore the
airfoil blade is subjected to relatively small Reynolds number airflow. The Reynolds number,
based on chord length and blade tip speed, when the rotor is at its maximum angular speed of
1.5 Hz, is about 200,000.
This Reynolds number serves as a parameter to choose recently designed low-Reynolds
number airfoils.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Jober Rotor Scale Model
A 1:8 scale model of the Jober rotor was built in order to determine mainly its torque
characteristics. The airfoil geometry was measured by determining the coordinates of the
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 30, N O . 6, 2006 513
Figure 3: Airfoil coordinates for the scale model JOBER rotor blade (dimensions in mm).
airfoil along the chord. Figure 2 shows in detail the real Jober airfoil geometry. The model blade
of 28.8 mm chord is shown in Figure 3. The resulting scale model is a 300 mm diameter rotor,
computer drawn and then built by rapid-prototyping in an ABS 3D printer (Dimension SST).
The main objective of these experiments was to compare the rotor performance at different
blade pitch setting angles, in order to determine if the real Jober recommended pitch angle
setting is the most effective in terms of aerodynamic performance and wind-to water-energy
conversion efficiency. It has to be mentioned that the Jober windpump has never been subjected
to formal aerodynamic tests, however it has been in the market for more than 20 years.
The model rotor hub design has two basic restrictions: geometrical similarity and a hub-
blade attachment for variable blade pitch angle testing. The resulting hub consists of two
different pieces, coupled together by four bolted connections.
All ten blades were prototyped in ABS plastic by a rapid-prototyping 3D printer.
Subsequently, the model blades are assembled on 3 mm diameter steel rod; corresponding to
the spar tube. Figure 4 shows the Jober rotor scale model used for wind tunnel testing.
Digital
scale
Pitot tube
Fan
Air inlet
stroboscope and the air speed measured using a Pitot tube located exactly adjacent to the
rotor hub axis, Figure 5. Air speed and ambient temperature are also measured at the
beginning of every test to improve data precision.
Torque characteristics of the rotor were measured at different blade-pitch setting angles:
15°, 30°, 45° and 60°. The real Jober rotor has a fixed blade pitch angle of 45° and this is the
reference value for comparison with these results.
The rotational speed and the force on the scale were measured as the wind-speed was
reduced from its maximum. Then, torque (CT) and performance (CP) coefficients, and tip
speed ratio (λ), were calculated for each test by means of the following formulas:
P
Performance coefficient: C =
P 1
ρV 3 A
2
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 30, N O . 6, 2006 515
Torque Coefficient (CT ) vs Tip speed ratio (λ) at different pitch angles
0.35
Pitch angle: 15°
Pitch angle: 30°
0.30
Pitch angle: 45°
Pitch angle: 60°
0.25
0.20
CT
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
T
Torque coefficient: CT =
1 2
ρV AR
2
ΩR
Tip speed ratio: λ=
V
Torque and performance coefficients are related by the following expression: CP = λCT.
The same measurements were repeated several times for each test run, to check for
consistency and experimental errors.
Performance Coefficient (CP) vs. Tip speed ratio (λ) at different pitch angles
0.40
Pitch Angle: 15°
0.35 Pitch Angle: 30°
Pitch Angle: 45°
0.30 Pitch Angle: 60°
0.25
CP
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
λ
Figure 7: Jober rotor model performance coefficient at different pitch angles.
The blade-model Reynolds number: at the rotor tip chord of 28.8 mm, a model rotor
diameter of 300 mm and a maximum measured angular speed of 9.2 Hz is about 17,600.
Note that the aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils at Reynolds numbers less than 5 × 105
do not differ significantly, so there is a dynamic similarity between the rotor model
characteristics and the real JOBER counterpart.
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
–0.05
–0.1
–0.15
–0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
The new wind rotor design is based on traditional wind-rotor theory (Pinilla, 2006); the
specifications are shown in table 2. The theory presents the formulas for chord length and blade
pitch angle as a function of radial position on the rotor, aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil
and the number of blades. To simplify the rotor manufacturing process, chord length and blade
pitch angle values are kept constant. The values for constant chord and constant blade setting
angle correspond to the 75% of the rotor radius (0.75R), theoretically, at that radial position; the
rotor performance is least affected compared to the one with variable chord and pitch angle. As
in the first model rotor, this new rotor was also built in ABS plastic by the rapid-prototyping
printer. The geometry of the hub was designed with the equations for a half-Rankine oval.
Figure 9 shows this new model rotor, it has a higher solidity than the Jober rotor; this will
have an important effect on performance.
0.25
CT
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
λ
4. DISCUSSION
An evaluation of the Jober rotor at different blade pitch angles shows that as the angle
increases, the maximum performance coefficient decreases. A wind-rotor designed for water
pumping applications requires a balance between its torque and performance characteristics.
An analysis of the results for the standard Jober rotor shows that, in order to find this balance,
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 30, N O . 6, 2006 519
0.20
CP
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ
New rotor
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
V/Vs
the blade pitch angle should lie between the standard configuration of 45° and an angle of
30°. Further tests need to be performed to determine the optimum configuration between
these angles.
The new wind-rotor with the S835 airfoil shows an improvement on both torque and
performance characteristics as compared to the standard Jober rotor. An optimum balance
between torque and performance is reached with this new aerodynamic design.
The Jober wind-rotor is designed for a water pumping windmill at low-windspeed sites and
in order to study its real performance, it has to be coupled with the Jober single acting lift
pump. A relationship between the instantaneous ratio of hydraulic to wind power and the
site’s wind speed can be mathematically developed to predict the rotor’s behaviour when
coupled to a pump (see Pinilla et. al., 1984). In Figure 12, the wind-to-water conversion
efficiencies of the rotors studied in this paper are plotted for different values of the
520 E XPERIMENTAL S TUDY ON A M ODEL OF A C OMMERCIAL W INDPUMPING R OTOR
REFERENCES
[1] Kentfield, J. A. C. (1996). The Fundamentals of Wind-Driven Water Pumpers. Gordon
and Breach Science Publishers. Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
[2] Pinilla, A. E. (2004). Guide for the Use of Wind Energy for Water Pumping. Colombian
Technical Guide, Colombian Institute for Codes and Standards, ICONTEC, GTC 113,
Bogotá, Colombia, December. (In Spanish)
[3] Pinilla, A. E. (2006). Concepts of Wind Rotor Design. Lecture Notes on Aerodynamics.
Mechanical Engineering Dept., Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá. Colombia. (In
Spanish)
[4] Pinilla, A. E., Burton J. D. and Dunn P. D. (1984). Wind Energy to Water Pumped:
Conversion Efficiency Limits Using Single-Acting Lift Pumps. Wind Energy Conversion
1984. Cambridge University Press, U.K.
[5] Sarkis, N. (2006). Study and Design of a Wind Rotor for Windpumping Applications.
Final Year Project, Mechanical Engineering Dept., Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá.
Colombia. (In Spanish)
[6] Somers, D. M. and Maughmer M. D. (2003). Theoretical Aerodynamic Analyses of Six
Airfoils for Use on Small Wind Turbines. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL). Golden, Colorado, USA. June.
[7] Somers, D. M. and Maughmer M. D. (2002). The S833, S834 and S835 airfoils. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Golden, Colorado, USA. November.
[8] Tokuyama H., Ushiyama I. and SEKI K. (2002). Experimental Determination of
Optimum Design Configuration for Micro Wind Turbines at Low Wind Speeds. Wind
Engineering. Vol. 26, No. 1, PP 39–49.
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 35, N O . 1, 2011 PP 69–84 69
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the development of a portable wind generator prototype intended as a
battery charger. The work begins with the optimal aerodynamic design of the rotor, based
on the atmospheric conditions of the future installation locations, followed by manufacturing
and testing to validate its expected performance. It was then coupled to a permanent
magnet generator (PMG), and the performance of the whole wind charger was finally
characterized, comparing the results with the measured performance of a similar
commercial wind charger. All tests were executed in an open section wind tunnel.
Keywords: Wind energy, wind generator, rotor, airfoil, permanent magnet generator, open
section wind tunnel, rapid prototyping
1. INTRODUCTION
Wind energy is an abundant resource in some regions of Colombia, and its use for electricity
generation is an area of great potential in the country. Wind generation technology offers a
viable alternative for satisfying the basic energy demand in rural regions, not covered by the
national electricity grid.
The prototype developed in this work is intended to generate power in the range of 15–30W,
which will be used for 12V battery charging, and it is designed to operate in mountainous
places, where the air density could be 28% lower than that at sea level. This amount of power
implies a small rotor diameter (smaller than 1 m), also required for the portability and
lightweight of the equipment.
Several turbines of similar sizes were found in the market, from different producers such as
Marlec Engineering, Ampair Micro Wind and Aerogen. Their smallest commercial products
are listed in Table 1, for comparison and reference purposes.
Most of these turbines have been designed for marine applications on small boats.
Therefore, their nominal speeds are higher than the usual speed in low altitude ground
applications. For that reason, none of the presented turbines would usually reach its nominal
power under the proposed operating conditions. Moreover, in a country like Colombia, with
large altitude difference within the territory causes considerable drawback in wind turbine
performance; this is a key factor in the design of the prototype.
The performance of the prototype was evaluated and compared to performance results of
the Rutland 504 wind charger produced by Marlec Engineering in the UK. This model was
P T
CP = 3
; CT =
0.5 ñV A 0.5 ñV 2 AR
ρ : Air density
V : Incident wind speed
Blade geometry
0.14 50
45
0.12
40
0.10 35
Pitch angle (°)
Chord (m)
30
0.08
25
0.06
20
0.04 15
Chord 10
0.02
Pitch angle 5
0.00 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Radial position (m)
0.40
0.30
CP, CT
0.20
Neglecting the Reynolds number influence in the rotor performance, the presented curves
could be used to predict the power and torque curves at any wind speed. However, as it will be
shown in section 4, the Reynolds parameter strongly affects the turbine operation.
The airfoil geometry (Go 417A) was slightly modified, in order to keep the blade thickness
constant (3.3 mm) through the blade length and to avoid a very thin blade tip, which would
affect its resistance and integrity.
A nacelle for covering the rotor’s hub was fabricated in HDPE, with the geometry of a
Rankine half-body of revolution as in White [6]. This body, result of the superposition of an
axisymetric point source and a uniform flow, is the optimum geometry for directing the flow
towards the blades area, and to minimize disturbances on the incident wind flow.
1. Measurement of the rotational speed curve of the rotor axis as a function of time,
when subjected to a constant wind speed, from the stoppage to its maximum
unloaded rotational speed. Fig. 5 shows the measured dynamic response of the rotor
at three different wind speeds.
2. Numerical derivation in order to get the angular acceleration curve.
3. Calculation of the torque curve by multiplying the acceleration by the rotor’s inertia
around its axis.
4. Calculation of the power curve by multiplying the torque by the rotor speed at each
time.
5. Calculation of the non-dimensional curves (CP & CT vs. λ).
74 D EVELOPMENT OF A P ORTABLE W IND G ENERATOR P ROTOTYPE
70
60
50
ω (rad/s)
40
Predicted (5.8 m/s)
30
Measured (4.7 m/s)
20 Measured (5.8 m/s)
Predicted (3.8 m/s)
10 Predicted (4.7 m/s)
Measured (3.8 m/s)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
Figure 5: Measured and predicted unloaded rotor response at various wind speeds.
The rotor’s inertia was measured by using the trifilar pendulum method obtaining a value
of 0.015 kg-m2, which differed by 10% from the estimation calculated by Solid Edge® for the
whole assembly.
The wind tunnel testing was performed at three different wind speeds (5.8, 4.7 and 3.8 m/s),
which correspond to different Reynolds number on the blades. The calculated Reynolds
number for each case, in the middle of the blade’s length, and at the design point (λ = 1.5) are
shown in Table 4.
The theoretical prediction was then validated by comparing the acquired curves with
the experiment resulting from a simple model of a rotor’s dynamic response developed by
Pinilla and presented in Estela [7]. The input to the model are the performance parameters
from the theoretical curves (see fig. 3), based upon which it predicts how the rotor speed
curve would be for any wind speed. The results, for the three wind speeds tested, are
presented in Fig. 5.
The correlation between the model prediction and the measured results is considered
satisfactory. The best correlation was observed at a wind speed test of 4.7 m/s, since the
Reynolds number (Re = 42000) over the blades corresponds to the value at which the airfoil
was design and, of course, tested.
Torque coefficient
0.35
0.30
CT - theoretical
0.25 CT - exp. (4.7 m/s)
CT - exp. (5.8 m/s)
CT - exp. (3.8 m/s)
0.20
CT
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4
λ
Performance coefficient
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
CP
0.20
0.15
CP - theoretical
0.10 CP - exp. (4.7 m/s)
CP - exp. (5.8 m/s)
0.05
CP - exp. (3.8 m/s)
0.00
0 1 2 3 4
λ
point, for example, 7.9 W were predicted at 5.8 m/s, but 8.7 W were measured, meaning a 10%
higher power generation. Furthermore, the maximum CP measured range (0.32 – 0.40) is
rather high for this size of wind turbine, mainly due to wind tunnel blockage effect at the wake
of the rotor.
Acceptable coherence is found between the theoretical and the measured performance,
for speeds larger than the design tip speed ratio. At low speeds, experimental results are
considerably larger than expected ones. The reasons are that the iterative algorithm used to
predict the curves did not attained satisfactory convergence in this range of speeds, and that
the airfoil information for high angles of attack is being assumed (Section 2.2). The airfoil is
performing better than predicted at the start and at low speed conditions.
Torque curve
0.35
0.30 6 Blades
3 Blades
T (Nm) 0.25 2 Blades
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 200 400 600 800
rpm
Figure 8: Experimental torque curves comparison for different number of blades at 5.8 m/s.
Power curve
10
6 Blades
3 Blades
8 2 Blades
Power (W)
0
0 200 400 600 800
rpm
Figure 9: Power curves comparison for different number of blades at 5.8 m/s.
Torquimetro
Generador Motor
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800
rpm
that speed the power generated to a resistive load is considerably higher than to the
battery.
The type of load also affects the input torque curve of the PMG. This was measured with a
FutekTRS600 torque meter, installed as mentioned before. Figure 13 shows the PMG input
torque at different loads.
78 D EVELOPMENT OF A P ORTABLE W IND G ENERATOR P ROTOTYPE
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 200 400 600 800
rpm
PM generators comparison
35
30 Developed PMG
25 Rutland 504 generator
Power (W)
20
15
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
rpm
This information is required for the performance prediction of the rotor-generator coupled
system, as it will be explained in the following section.
Finally, a comparison of the power curve of the PMG developed and the generator of the
Rutland 504 wind charger, for a 12V battery load, is presented in Figure 14. The Rutland 504
curve was measured by installing the turbine at the wind tunnel open section.
The power range for both generators is quite similar, but the developed PMG operates in a
much lower range of speeds. It operates from 100 to 700 rpm, limiting its maximum speed for a
generated current of 2A, as recommended by Tunarrosa [8]. On the other hand, the Rutland
504 generator operates from 600 to 1200 rpm.
However, after coupling the rotor to the generator through a different assembly than the
previous test bench used to measure the torque curves presented in figure 13, it became
evident that the required input torque for the generator was lower than the torque reported
by Tunarrosa [8]. The difference was due to a better alignment between the rotor’s and
generator’s axis, which lowered the torque mechanical losses. This was partially
accomplished by suppressing the torque meter from the assembly.
Therefore, expected predictions did not match the following experimental measurement
of the wind charger power curve, which resulted higher than those calculated from the
generators torque curve measured previously with the shown test bench.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Wind speed (m/s)
manufacturers curve is also shown, in order to include the expected performance decrease
due to the lower air density.
The power generation expected from correcting the catalogue reported curve for a 28%
lower density was not achieved at any wind speed below 15 m/s. Moreover, the measured
starting speed was 7.3 m/s, much larger than the expected 3.6 m/s. Concluding, the Rutland
504 cannot perform as the manufacturer reports when installed at an altitude with
atmospheric conditions different from its design conditions. It would not be suitable to install
on ground applications in a country like Colombia, which has a broad range of altitude levels.
The prototype wind charger is shown in Figure 17 and electrical power curve is shown in
Fig. 18. Fig. 18 also contains the curves for the Rutland wind charger. The secondary axis
presents the efficiency curve for both turbines, defined as follows:
Pelectrical
CP × η =
0.5ñV 3 A
Performance comparison
35 0.16
Prototype power curve
Prototype efficiency curve
30 0.14
Rutland 504 power curve
Rutland 504 efficiency curve
0.12
25
0.10
Power (W)
20
Cp*η
0.08
15
0.06
10
0.04
5 0.02
0 0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Wind speed (m/s)
The starting wind speed for the prototype was 5 m/s, much lower than the 7.3 m/s
measured for the Rutland 504. Besides, the whole performance curve shown for the prototype
was obtained with the rotor’s speed ranging from 100 to 600 rpm, whereas the Rutland model
operated from 600 to 1200 rpm. The lower operational speed of the prototype favours the
safety for the turbine’s performance, and also decreases the mechanical loads on every
rotating part of the assembly.
The prototype’s power generation is higher than the Rutland’s, for the whole range of
tested wind speeds. At 10 m/s, for example, the prototype delivers 46% more power.
Therefore, our prototype has a much higher energy generation capacity. With regards to
the efficiency, the prototype also presented larger values. At 8 m/s, for example, the
prototype doubles the Rutland’s efficiency, and only after 13 m/s, both efficiencies become
similar.
Finally, it is worth remembering that the tests presented in the previous figures were
executed at an air density of 0.9 kg/m3 in Bogota. The resulting curves would be increased in
direct proportion with the increase in air density when installing the turbines at a lower
altitude, and vice versa.
Prototype-Bogota
200
Prototype-sea level
Rutland 504-Bogota
Rutland 504-sea level
Energy (Wh)
150
100
50
0
3 4 5 6
Average wind speed (m/s)
The influence of the air density in the wind charger’s output is again evident, and so is the
better performance of the developed prototype over the Rutland 504.
This information should be compared with the energy demand of the user, in order to size
the capacity of the system for the battery charging application.
8. CONCLUSIONS
The adequate performance of the Gö417A airfoil was proved for the rotor application,
validating the information presented by Hageman [3]. The Reynolds number influence on the
rotor’s performance was shown, emphasizing the importance of considering this parameter
for the appropriate airfoil selection, especially for small size wind rotor. The roughness of the
blades proved its convenience, due to the low Reynolds number at which the rotor operates,
even though this effect was not quantitatively studied.
A satisfactory aerodynamic design for the rotor was achieved, and its performance proved
to be the expected for the design conditions. This result validates the applied theory, as well as
the convenience of the manufacturing techniques used.
The theoretical performance predictions were validated for speeds higher than the design
point. At lower speeds, the measured results were much higher than predicted for the
mentioned reasons.
The PMG developed by Tunarrosa [8] showed satisfactory performance for battery
charging applications, reaching the desired level of power generation at much lower speeds
than the Rutland 504 wind charger.
In comparison with a commercial model, the prototype showed a better performance in
terms of power and efficiency over a broad range of tested wind speeds. This, of course,
implies a higher energy generation capacity. Both turbines were tested under the same
conditions.
Significant differences were presented between the catalogue reported information and
the experimental measurements for the power curve of the Rutland wind charger. These
differences were much higher than expected from considering the influence of the decrease
in air density from the turbine’s design conditions to the testing conditions.
Next, it follows an extensive outdoors performance determination, in parallel to the
adaptation of material and processes to begin with the production of the first industrial wind
chargers for further testing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Colombian Military Industry (Industria
Militar “INDUMIL”) for the sponsorship granted to this research project. Also gratitude is
expressed to the School of Engineering - Universidad de Los Andes for the administrative
support of the project. One of the authors wishes to dedicate this work to the memory of a
dearest friend, Ir. Paul Smulders.
REFERENCES
1. PINILLA, A. Lecture Notes of a Wind Energy Course. Mechanical Engineering
Department, Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá, 2009 (in Spanish).
2. LYSEN, E.H. Introduction to Wind Energy. CWD, 2 edition, 1983.
3. HAGEMAN, A. Catalogue of Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils in the Reynolds
number range 104 – 106. Eindhoven University of Technology, 1980.
4. SELIG, M. Summary of Low Speed Airfoil Data, Volumes 1, 2, 3. University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1996.
5. SELIG, M. Wind tunnel aerodynamic test of six airfoils for use on small wind turbines.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2003.
6. WHITE, F. Fluid Mechanics. Ed. Mc Graw Hill, 5 ed. 2004.
84 D EVELOPMENT OF A P ORTABLE W IND G ENERATOR P ROTOTYPE