Second Edition

-

-

I

Cable stayed bridges

Second edition

Rene Walther1 Professor of Structural Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne

Bernard Hourlet, Walmar Isler, Pierre Moi"a, Jean-Francols Klein

-III

,-. Thomas Telford

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing. Thomas Telford Ltd. 1 Heron Quay. London E144JD

URL: http://www t-taltord.co uk

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press. 1801 Alexander Bell Drive. Reston, VA 20191-4400

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First published in English 1988 This edition 1999

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 2773 7

Originally published in French under the title: Pants haubanes Ij) Presses Poly techniques et Universitaires Romnades 1985

Second edition:

If) Presses Poly techniques et Universitaires Romnades. 1999 This presentation (j) Thomas Telford Limited 1999

All rights. including translation. reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act 1988. no part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. electronic. mechanical. photocopying or otherwise. without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director Thomas Telford Publishing. Thomas Telford Ltd. 1 Heron Quay. London E14 4JD

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that such statements andlor opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this publ ication provide a safe and accurate guide. no I labttity or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers

Typeset by Santype International Ltd. Salisbury. Wiltshire

Printed and bound in Great Britain by The Cromwell Press. Trowbridge. Wi!tshi re

This book is dedicated to Professor Fritz Leonhardt

Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Historical review 5
3. General design 17
3,,1 Introduction 19
3.2 Layout of cable stays 19
3.3 Deck 39
34 Pylons 63
4. Parametric study 75
4.1. Introduction 77
42. Influence of stay layout 77
4.3. Influence of deck inertia 80
4,4 Influence of pylon inertia on first order forces 82
45 Influence of connections between pylons and deck 83
5. Stay technology 87
5.1. Introduction 89
5.2 .. Cables 89
5-3 Anchorages 93
SA. Protection of cables 99 "' ~~!' ,,':'~I:: " "~" ~ > • r I ~ L'." •• "

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6. Static design 103
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2. Loads 106
6.3. Idealisation of the structure 108 .',
,
6.4. Stays 110
65. Pylons 121
6.6 Design of the deck 133
6.7. Erection 135
7. Dynamic analysis 137
7L Introduction 139
7.2 Natural frequencies and principal modes of vibration 139
73. Aerodynamic behaviour 142
74 Physiological effects of vibration 148
7..5- Seismic behaviour 152
76. Practical examples 157
8. Examples of small and medium-span cable
stayed bridges 167
81. Introduction 169
8.2. Pedestrian footbridges 169
83 Road bridges 191
84. Railway bridges 202
85. Aqueducts, canal bridges and pipe-bridges 204
86 The Aberfeldy Footbridge 208
9. Model tests of a cable stayed bridge with a slender
concrete deck 211
91 Test aims and experimental layout 213
9.2. Load cases tested 215
93. Test results 217
9.4. Conclusions 222
Photographic credits 225 1. Introduction

CABLE ST A YEO BRIDGES

N27

Second Severn Crossing, UK

The 900 m long cable stayed structure which crosses the channel known as The Shoots in the middle of the Severn estuary is the foca! point of the 5 km second motorway crossing between England and Wa!es

The cable stayed bridge is symmetrical, with two concrete portal frame pylons with vertical legs from which radiate four planes of 60 cables in a modified fan formation, making a total of 240 cables

The 34 x 6 m wide deck is located some 40 m above high water level and consists of steel plate girders with a composite reinforced concrete deck slab The cables pass through openings in the deck and are anchored on the outside of the deck steelwork

The main span of 456 m was needed to cross The Shoots channel while maintaining suflicient distance from the foundations to the steep side slopes of the channel Additional stiffness to the structure is provided by two sets of backspan piers on each side, iocated at 98 x 12 m and 196 x 24 m from each pylon

At each end of the cable stayed bridge, the vertical and lateral shear forces are transferred to the viaduct cantilevers by pot bearings and sliding elastomeric bearings located on steel beams. post-tensioned back to the viaduct deck and iocated in rectangular openings in cross-members under the deck

Second Severn Crossing. UK

2

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Introduction 15t edition

For several years, intensive theoretical and experimental research has been carried out on cable stayed bridges at the Institute for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete (IBAP) of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne (EPFL) The work has revealed the technical and economic advantages offered by a new design, based on the use of a slender deck consisting of a single concrete slab The bridge over the Rhine at Diepoldsau, designed by the authors of this volume and by consulting engineers D J Banziger and A J Koppel (Buchs/SG) in 1984, is the first practical application of this concept, using the method of stayed corbelling Several similar bridges are at present under construction or being designed In a more general manner, an in-depth study has been made of the high potential of possible development in the field of cable stayed bridges In particular, it seems that the capabilities of composite steel and concrete structures have not yet been sufficiently exploited and that there are vast opportunities for innovative solutions

A post-graduate course dealing with cable stayed structures was presented to practising engineers in 1982 The great interest aroused by the report published on that occasion has persuaded the authors to bring it completely up to date and publish it in this present form

This book is dedicated to the eminent engineer and designer Professor Fritz Leonhardt, who has played a decisive role in the design and construction of modern cable stayed bridges We wish to thank him most sincerely for his important contribution to the development of new designs presented here and for the numerous valuable documents put freely at om disposal

The authors wish to express their deep gratitude to the numerous contributors to the completion of this volume In particular, we thank MM Giovanni Pettinari, Pascal Avenel and Lament Bachmann, DiplIngs, of EPFL for their important part in editing the text as well as carrying out the experimental work Our gratitude goes also to MM. Stephana Andenmatten, Luigi Realini and Erol Sozerman and Dr Konrad Staudacher, DiplIngs, of EPFL for their contribution to the post-graduate course mentioned above. Diagrams were drawn with great care by M Jean-Claude Reymond and Mme Mariapia Pettinari The text was typed with praiseworthy attention by Mmes Georgie Arnbs and Veronique Roten MM Ahmadou Barry, Alain Cuche and [ean-Francois Klein, DiplIngs, of EPFL played their part in the preparation of chapters 3 and 4 The tests, carried out in our laboratories, were made possible by the experience and skill of Mlvl. Roland Gysler and Andre Jayet

Given the great interest this book has aroused, it was decided to publish an English edition The translation was expertly done by Mr William F G Crozier, to whom the authors express their sincere thanks

Completion of this work was possible only through the material and moral support of Professor Bernard Vittoz, President of EPFL, and that of M Philippe Mattenberger, Head of the Computer Centre of EPFL's Civil Engineering Department

3

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Finally, for their large subsidies granted to us, we wish to express our gratitude to 'Stiftung' of the Swiss Society of Manufacturers of Cements, Lime and Gypsum; and the Federal Office of Roads (OFR), Committee on Research on Road Material, of the Federal Department of Transport, Communications and Energy (DFTCE).

Rene Walther Bernard Hourist Walmar Isler Pierre Moia

Introduction 2nd edition

During the ten years since the publication of the first edition of this book, which has found a broad readership, an ever-increasing number of cable stayed bridges has been built all over the world and considerable technological progress has been made in this field It was therefore felt necessary to update the present second edition by including references to the latest developments in this field

This was achieved, firstly, by presenting examples of outstanding structures which have recently been completed

Chapter 5 'Stay technology' had to be completely overhauled since almost all cable suppliers have successfully striven to improve the quality of their products, especially as far as corrosion resistance and ease of handling is concerned.

Furthermore, due to the recent increase in availability of sophisticated computer programs for cable stayed structures, chapters 6 and 7 (Static design and Dynamic analysis) could be somewhat shortened

The extensive experimental investigations concerning cable stayed bridges with slender decks - briefly mentioned in the Appendix to the first edition - have, in the meantime, been completed and the results are presented in the new chapter 9. These investigations were, to a large extent, conducted by Dr [ean-Francois Klein who, as an additional co-author, also helped to update this second edition.

Rene Walther Basle, 29 September 1998

4

2. Historical review

5

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

I-

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Sou thorn concrete

Northern concrete

Normandy bridge over the Seine River at Le Havre, France

With a central span of 856 m. the Normandy Bridge is the largest cable stayed structure bullt to date The total of 184 stays. with lengths varying from 95 m to 450 rn. are arranged in a semi-harp pattern The A-shaped pylons have a height of 214 m and each weigh 35 000 t

The central part of the deck is an orthotropic steel caisson. whereas concrete cross-sections were chosen for the approach spans and for the first 116 m of the main span on either side of the pylons

Since concrete sections are considerably cheaper than steel ones. but also much heavier. it is economically advantageous to choose a concrete deck in the regions where the stays are short and steep and thus comparatively cheap. in combination with a light steel deck in the central part. where the savings of the long and flat stays reduce the overall costs substantially This futuristic concept. used for the first time on the Normandy Bridge. also enhanced the torsional stiffness of the deck and. as a consequence. the aerodynamic stability. particularly during the potentially critical erection phase of the cantilevers which were in excess of 400 m long

6

The historical development occupies an important place in several recent publications dealing with cable stayed bridges! 2 For this reason, in this chapter there is only a recapitulation of the more striking aspects of the development of such structures, so as to illustrate the reasons for their relatively slow advancement

The oldest attempt at a cable stayed bridge dates back to 1784, when a German carpenter, C T Loescher? designed a structure entirely in timber (Fig. 21).

However, the first actual bridge structures were of hybrid design-part suspension, part stayed Ihey were built in the United States and in England at the end of the 18th century

In 1830, in his 'Report and memorandum on suspension bridges'," C L Navier describes structures already built and makes a summary of the knowledge of the subject at that time:

'Suspension bridges may be of two different types In the first, chains are stretched between fixed points; the deck rests on these chains or is suspended below them by means of vertical hangers In the second, inclined rods connect points distributed along the length of the bridge to fixed points The first arrangement is the one usually adopted and appears to be the only one suitable for major works In these two methods of construction, the most vital parts, those which support the weight of the deck and the live loads which this deck carries, are stretched in the longitudinal direction. The strength of the structure depends on the strength of these members in tension, and

Fig. 2.1 Loescher's design. Germany, 1784

HISTORICAL REVIEW

the bridges in question differ basically in this way from other bridges where the main members are only exposed to bending or compression

Bridges supported by inclined rods do not, as do those suspended from chains, form a flexible system which changes shape with the passage of loads If the pillars me regarded as rigid and those parts of the deek lying between the foot of each rod and the rods themselves as inextensible wires, the shape of the system may be regarded as unchangeable and can only be subjected to minor modifications due to the elasticity of the materials

It seems to me that, using results of which I can only present a brief summary here, the nature and the properties of the new structures with which we are dealing are as well known as could be wished. In fact, we can not only calculate the forces acting on all parts and the changes resulting from the effects of moving loads, but Can even appreciate the vibration movements set up in the main members by the effects of shocks'

In spite of this confidence in the theoretical knowledge of the time, C L Navier describes the accident on the bridge at Dryburgh Abbey built by J and W Smith. With a span of 79 20 m and a width of 1 22 ill, the first version of this structure was suspended from inclined chains:

'Finally, on the 15th of January 1818, about six months after the completion of the bridge, there came a very violent gust of wind and the vibration became so great that the longest inclined chains were fractured, the deck carried away and the structure entirely destroyed Several eye-witnesses of the event agreed in declaring that the vertical movement of the bridge deck, prior to collapse, was almost equal to the horizontal movement and seemed to be such that a person who had found hirnseli on this deck could have been thrown into the river.'

C L Navier attributes the collapse of this bridge 'to the lack of fixity of the inclined chains' The bridge was rebuilt in three months (Fig 2 2). The suspension was then fI'OIn four parabolic chains, concave in the horizontal plane; the deck was increased to 137 In wide and large parapets stiffened the cross-section Improvements were made in the structural details, since the descriptions of the collapse suggested the appearance of aerodynamic instability It

7

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

79-30

I~

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Fig. 2.2. Dryburgh Abbey Footbridge, Scotland, 1817

was necessary to await other accidents of this type, up to the most recent-the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940-to be more positive about this phenomenon In this respect, it is interesting to compare the slenderness of these two bridges in the horizontal plane The ratio between the central span L and the deck width B (Tacoma LIB == 77, Dryburgh LIB = 66) gives a good indication of the response of a bridge subjected to dynamic loadings These values are relatively dose and indicate the possibility of similar aerodynamic behaviour

Another accident, which occurred at Niemburg (Germany), shows evidence of other problems encountered at the time5 A bridge 78 m long (Fig 23), built in 1824 over the River Saale, collapsed under the weight of the crowd in 1825 The actual cause of the failure was never officially announced, although the technical literature of the day attributed it to gross overloading The structure clearly had excessive tendency to deformation. In Fig 23, certain stays follow irregular lines; they thus can take up their share of the applied loads only after excessive deformations

Fig 23 Bridge over the River seet». Germany, 1824

8

producing large moments of the second order in the deck, for which it was undoubtedly neither designed nor sufficiently resistant

During this time, J. Roebling, in the United States, was using a system based on steel wires to replace the suspension chains. In 1855 he built a daring structure downstream of the Niagara Falls, with a Single span of 280 m (Fig 2 4) The two decks, one above the other, were supported by parabolic cables and by the inclined stays used in its construction The lower deck carried carriages and pedestrians whilst the upper deck carried a railway A test on the completed structure showed that its deflection under a train of loaded wagons did not exceed 025 rn, or less than I! 1000 of the span It is evident that the great stiffness of this two-level deck certainly contributed to the limiting of deformations

In 1883 there took place the building of the most noteworthy structure of this era-the famous Brooklyn Bridge in New York (Fig. 25) Also designed by J Roebling, using the same principles as for the Niagara Bridge, the work was completed by his son, W. Roebling This bridge, with a central span of 48650 m and a total length of 1059 90 m, is the first major structure in which steel replaced iron The strength of steel is almost twice as high as that of materials used previously

In the meantime, in 1872, Ordish and Le Fleuve built the Albert Bridge over the River Thames (Fig 26) With a main span of 122 m, the deck is notable for the fact that it is sufficiently rigid to allow the stays to be attached at points reasonably far apart; these stays are made up of rolled bars An identical system was used by the same designers for the Franz-Joseph Bridge, over the Moldau in Prague, where the main span was 100 m and the width 976 m

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Fig 2.4, Niagara Falls Bridge, United States, 1855

Fig. 25. Brooklyn Bridge, United States, 1883

Towards the end of the 19th century, the success of these hybrid structures+-part suspension, part stayed-resulted in a slowing down of the use of structures supported exclusively by inclined rods. Nevertheless, as can be seen in the works of F Arnodin," builders profited from the new technologies to make use of single twisted cables; they

improved the anchorages for the stays and replaced timber parapets by rolled steel uprights, 50 as to increase the stiffness of the deck

It was not until 1899 that the French engineer A Gisclard further advanced the development of stayed bridges by the introduction of a new system of hangers, at the same time

9

OABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Fig, 2.6 Albert Bridge, England, 1872

economic and sufficiently rigid 7 This system was char" acterised by the addition of cables intended to take up the horizontal components of the forces set up by the stays This arrangement cancels out any compressive forces in the deck and thus avoids deck instability The undoubted advantage of the bridges of A. Gisc1ard as compared with suspension bridges lies in a more direct transmission of loads, which leads to increased stiffness Such structures are particularly effective as railway bridges, in spite of their debatable architectural impact The bridge at Cassagne (Fig 2.7), one of the notable works of A Gisclard, was subjected to a test load consisting of a train weighing 192 t The maximum observed deformation was less than 1/1000 of the span, or 0148 in

In 1925, G Leinekugel Ie Coq8 suggested a similar system for the bridge at Lezardrieux (Fig 28). He balanced the horizontal components of the inclined stays by compression in the deck, which was, on this occasion, adapted for this force system

The following year, E Torroja? built an aqueduct entirely in reinforced concrete over the River Guadalete at Tempul (Fig 29). For the first time, he used high strength steel tie-rods, encased in concrete to protect them against corrosion Stressing of the stays was carried out by raising the heads of the pylons by jacks

In 1938, F Dischinger!" introduced inclined, prestressed stays into the design of a railway suspension bridge over the Elbe, near Hamburg (Fig 2 10). He proposed the use of high strength steel cables, working at high stress under the self-weight of the structure, with the aim of reducing the deformability of the suspension. His experimental and theoretical investigations had shown him that the stiffness and the aerodynamic stability of suspension bridges are greatly increased using prestressed stays After the Second World War, he played an active part in the rebuilding of destroyed works His new ideas rapidly became adopted, by reason of their success in speeding up construction on the one hand and

10

_--

HISTORICAL REVIEW

156'00

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Fig. 2.7 Bridge at Cassagne, France, 1899

Fig 2.8. Bridge at Lezardrieux, France, 1925

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Fig 29 Tempul Aqueduct, Spain, 1926

Fig 2.10 Railway bridge over the Elbe, Germany, 1938

their economy on the other In 1955 he built the bridge at Stromsund (Fig. 2.11), considered today as the first modem steel cable stayed bridge

Following this success, the potential advantages of cable stayed bridges were progressively recognised and exploited Subsequently, a great number of such structures were built all over the world. At first, only a few very strong concentrated stays were introduced as a substitute for piers, which would have hindered navigation The most outstanding examples of such concepts can be found in the city of Dusseldorf, Germany Since all the bridges had been destroyed during the war, the city architect, Professor Tamms, insisted that for their replacement cable stayed bridges of similar, but not identical, harp configuration should be erected (see Fig 315) 'These are the 'Iheodor

11

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Fig 2.11 Bridge at Striunsurui, Sweden, 1955

Heuss Bridge (1958, Fig 2.12), the Oberkassel Bridge and the magnificent Knie Bridge (Fig 3.2). Due to the fact tha t for the latter bridge very large cable spacings of about 64 m were chosen, the steel deck had to be very stiff and heavy equipment was needed for the erection. In spite of the unquestionable elegance, such concepts are considered to be uneconomical today

In the same period, numerous pedestrian footbridges were constructed in urban areas, thanks to their new architectural effect The earliest of these, such as the Schiller-Steg footbridge in Stuttgart, nevertheless reveal the great sensitivity of these light structures to the vibration of pedestrian traffic The ties of the latter bridge are formed, for the first time, using cables of parallel wires (Fig 2 13).

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Fig 2.,13 Schiller-Steg footbridge, Germany, 1961

The increasing popularity of this new type of structure with German engineers slowly extended to other countries Thus, the Italian architect and engineer R Morandi'! designed several cable stayed bridges in reinforced and prestressed concrete. His most outstanding work is the bridge on Lake Maracaibo, in Venezuela, built in 1962 (Fig 2,14)

However, it must be pointed out once again that bridges with only a few concentrated stays do not favourably exploit the potential advantages of cable supported structures and are therefore hardly competitive in today's climate, especially if heavy concrete decks are used, as was the case here

H Homberg dearly recognised this fact when, in 1967, he designed his innovative Friedrich Ebert Bridge in Bonn (Fig 215) He employed the concept of closely spaced stays for the first time, which is now universally adopted and which also paved the way for similar bridges with concrete decks, such as the Brotonne Bridge (Fig 3 8) and many others of the same type The fact that he chose only one cable plane in the bridge axis was not-as is widely believed-primarily done for aesthetic reasons but because he wanted to reduce the size of the pneumatic caisson foundations utilised (very large diameter pile foundations

Fig .. 2.14. Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela, 1962

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Fig 2.15 Friedrich Ebert Bridge, Germany, 1967

were not available at that time) by concentrating them at the bridge axis In spite of the fact that an axial suspension requires torsionally stiff decks, this concept proved to be extremely advantageous, both structurally and aesthetically, and has been adopted successfully for a great number of elegant modem bridges

The choice of multi-stay suspension with relatively small cable spacings of about 7-15 m greatly facilitates bridge erection and permits the design of bridges with ever-increasing spans, all the more so since the increase in costs per m2 as a function of the span is considerably smaller than for any other type of structure As examples we may cite the Normandy Bridge in France (see page 6) with a record central span of 856 rn, and the Skarnsundet Bridge in Norway (see page 18) which, with a central span of 530 rn, is the largest concrete structure built to date However, these records wul certainly be broken in the near future since several projects with even larger spans are presently being researched or are already under construction Several years ago, Professor Leonhard had already proven conclusively,

13

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Fig. 2.16. Impression of the Grand Viaduc de Mil/au

with his proposal for the crossing of the Strait of Messina (Fig 322), that spans of 1750 m and more are perfectly feasible.

In addition to their structural and economical advantages, cable stayed bridges owe their popularity to their elegant transparent appearance They offer great freedom of formal expression which many architects have tried to exploit. In this field, good cooperation between engineers and architects can indeed be very helpful The audacious Grand Viaduc de Millau (Fig 2J6), due to be built in the near future over the Tarn Valley some 250 m above the ground with continuous spans of 340 m, is an excellent example of such a fruitful collaboration However, the search for originality at any price leads some architects to conceive cable stayed bridges which violate statical reasonableness so ostensibly that the genuine beauty of this type of structure is all but lost

References

Podolny W and Scalzi J ems/ructiol1 tuu! design vf Cflbks/nyt'd bridges john Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976

2 Troitsky M 5 Cllblc·slllyed bridges Crosby Lockwood Staples, London, 1977

3 Loescher C 1 Angabe einer gnnz besondern Hangewerksbrucke, die mit wenigen und schwachen Holzern, ohne im Bogen geschlossen zu sein. sehr wei! tiber einen Flu55 gespannt worden karin, die grossten Lasten tragt und VOl den starksten Eisfahrten sicher ist Leipzig. 1784

14

4 Navier C L Rapport et mernoire SUI les ponts suspend us Librairie des Corps Royaux des Ponts et Chaussees et des Mines Paris, 1823

5 Die Niemburger Brucke Verh. d Vel z Beford d Cewerb efl in Preussen, 1826

6 Arnodin F Exrrait des Annales des Ponts et Chaussees Dunod, Paris

7 Gisclard A Un nouveau type de pont suspendu rigide Extrait des Annales des Ponts et Chaussees Dunod, Paris, 1899

8 Leinekugel le Coq G POirts slispendu5 Vols 1 and 2 0 Doin & fils, Paris, 1911

9 Torrnia E Philosoplry 0/ structures Univ California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962

10 Dischinger F Hangebrucken filr schwersre Verkehrslasten Brwillgenieur, Nos 3 and 4, 1949

11 Morandi R TIle bridge spanning Lake Maracaibo J Presir Correr II1S/, June 1961

12 Mathivat J TIle Brotonne Bridge 8th Int. Conf Prestressed Concrete, La technique francalse du beton precontraint, FIP·AFB, London. 1978

13 Leonhardt F.. Zellner W and Svensson H Die SpannbetonSchrttgkabelbrucke tiber den Columbia River zwischen Pasco und Kennewick im Staat Washington, USA Beto]]- II SllIlrlbetoubrlJl, 1980, pp 29-36, 64-70, 90-94

Bibliography

Crattesat G Ponls de France Presses de l'Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees. Paris, 1982

Leonhardt F and Zellner W Cable-stayed bridges: report on latest developments Canadian Structural Engineering Conference, 1970 Canadian Steel Industries Construction Council, 'Ioronto, Ontario. Canada

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Leonhardt F and Zellner W Vergleiche zwischen Hangebrucken und Schragkabelbriiken fUr Spannweiten tiber 600 m fAB5E· I'vIemoires. vol. 32, ZUrich, 1972, p 127

Leonhardt F Laies! dcuctopments of cable-stayed bridges for 10llg Spilt!5 Bygolngsstatiske Meddelelser, Copenhagen, 1974

Leonhardt F Bridges Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 1982 Faustus Verantius. Machinae novae Fausti Venice, 1617

Wenk H The Strornsund Bridge DcltUlg News. No 136. Duisburg, 1954

15

)

3. General design

17

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Contents
3.1. Introduction 19 334- Composite decks 53
335. Special designs 60
3"2. Layout of cable stays 19
3 . .2 ,1 General 19 3.4. Pylons 63
3,22. NUmber of planes 22 3.4.1 Introduction 63
323, Longitudinal layout 25 34,2 Longitudinal configuration 63
32A. Stay spacing 37 343 Transverse configuration 64
3.4,,4 Operational qualities required and
3,3. Deck 39 constructional details 68
3.31, General 39 34,5. Aesthetics and economy 69
33.2 Steel decks 42 346 Choice of materials 71
3,33 Concrete decks 43
References 74
~ s Skarn5undet Bridge, Norway

With a central span of 530 m. this crossing of a Norwegian fjord Is the largest concrete bridge built to date It is only 13 m wide. which corresponds to a lateral slenderness of aIL = 13/530 ~ 1140 For this reason a torsionally and tlexurally stiff concrete cross-section of triangular shape was chosen tor the deck

18

3 .. 1 Introduction

In order to disentangle somehow the multiple aspects of cable stayed bridges, their basic load-bearing elements-cables, deck and pylons-are dealt with separately This artificial division may not, however, be applied during the actual design process The interaction between the different parts is, in fact, very pronounced and it is thus necessary to take them all into account from the outset This characteristic results from the fact that each of the three fundamental load-bearing elements contributes in a definite way to the structural behaviour of the whole (chapter 4, parametric study) This is shown by the three limit cases illustrated in Fig 3.1

Limit design (a) contains a very stiff deck, It was adopted at the start of the modem development of cable stayed bridges Generally, a reduced number of stays act as elastic intermediate supports in areas where it is not possible to provide piers. The pylons are slender, since they are only subjected to relatively small bending moments. The Kille Bridge, Dusseldorf, is a typical example of a design of this nature (Fig 3 2). The construction cost would, however, be prohibitive in present-day conditions

Limit design (b) is characterised by very stiff pylons which must take up the longitudinal moments due to live loads The deck, in contrast, is only subjected to moderate

[a)

ib)

!c}

Fig 3 1 Fundamental load-bearing elements

GENERAL DESIGN

moments, particularly if the cables are not spaced too far apart The result is a slender section, the minimum dimensions of which are governed by transverse bending and direct forces. This solution is most suitable for multi-span bridges, such as the Great Belt Bridge by U Finsterwalder (Fig 3.3) and the bridge at Maracaibo (Fig 2.14) For the latter, the possibility of having a flexible deck supported by numerous stays was not, however, adopted

Limit design (c) introduces the stays themselves as the determining stabilising element of the structure In order that the back-stay cables (which play a major role in this case) shall not completely slacken off under live loads, the lengths of the side spans must be less than half the centre span The resulting imbalance introduces, under the permanent loads, major tensile forces in these cables The use of counterweights or tension piers is thus essential This design leads to relatively slender pylons and deck TIle solution reached by F de Miranda for the bridge over the Arno is an extreme variation." It is characterised by static separation of the side and central spans, constructed in steel, thus introducing tension into the latter The large anchor blocks must be designed to take up both vertical and horizontal reactions from the back-stays (Fig 3.4)

These limit examples illustrate the wide range of possible load-bearing systems and the great freedom of choice offered by cable stayed bridges Every structure completed so far has its own characteristics, with a search for originality which has sometimes led to static and aesthetic aberrations (Fig 3 5). Whilst these may be acceptable when applied to small structures, large-span bridges cannot be treated in this way, as economic and erection considerations apply limits to the latitude permissible In such cases, good static performance and good detailing are the determining factors

3 2 Layout of cable stays 321 General

The layout of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable stayed bridges It influences, in fact, not only the structural performance of the bridge, but also the method of erection and the economics

III the transverse direction, the majority of existing structures consist of two planes of cables, generally on the edges of the structure (Fig 36(b)) However, several bridges have been successfully built recently with only one central plane of cables (Fig 3.6(a)) In principle, it is quite

19

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

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20

GENERAL DESIGN

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Fig, 3,5, Bridge with crossed stays

possible to envisage solutions using three or more planes, with the aim of reducing the cross-sectional forces when the deck is very wide To date, however, such a possibility has been very rarely exploited In the longitudinal direction, the basic layouts can be seen in Fig 3.7 The final element in the determination of the design of the cables is the choice of the longitudinal spacing

32,2 Number of planes

3.2 -2 1. Centra! suspension systems

In the first place, it may be asked whether the use of one central plane of cables does not offset the advantages offered by the use of multiple cables, In fact, the torsional moments to which such a system is subjected call for a rigid deck, the bending capacity of which is not exploited at all in the case of narrow spacing of the cables Under the action of live loads, the deformation of the structure is governed essentially by the stiffnesses of the pylons and the suspension system The deck is subjected to an imposed displacement and its longitudinal bending increases with its stiffness The selection of a transverse section rigid in bending is thus not basically favourable (chapter 4), This consideration of elementary strength should not hide the fact that such a suspension system offers other considerable advantages The most notable is undoubtedly that of an aesthetic nature: the presence of a single plane of cables makes it possible to avoid any visual crossing of cables, giving the structure an undeniable elegance This impression of lightness may be further increased by using slender central pylons as at the Brotonne Bridge (Fig 3. 8), for example However, placing the pylons in the centre of the carriageway means inevitably increasing the width of the deck This may prove a ruling disadvantage in the field of very large span structures, which require pylons of considerable height and thus width at the base This is the reason for spreading the lower part of the central pylon of the bridge at Dusseldorf-Flehe (Fig 3 9), so as to reduce required widening of the deck to the minimum needed for

GENERAL DESIGN

(e) On. central plane (singlo planu)

(0) Twolaiaralplnn •• (double plane)

(e) Three ptanes (lriplo plane)

Fig 3,6, Transverse layout of stays

(.) Harp pattern

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Fig 37 Longitudinal layout of stays

23

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

the cables and their protection (27m) A minimum increase of the same order of magnitude is necessary in the case of lateral suspension At the time the designs were submitted, several other proposals were put forward Against all expectations, solutions providing lateral suspension with one or two pylons did not tum out to be more economical than the actual structure as built, with the exception of one variation, similar to the design adopted, which offered a deck in lightweight concrete, poured in situ. This indicates that central suspension is to be considered, both from the point of view of the integrity of the structure and that of constructional detailing A deck rigid against torsion contributes to the reduction of moments of the second order, as well as to the dynamic and aerodynamic stability of the whole. This method of suspension is also characterised by low fatigue loading of the cables, given that a deck which is stiff in torsion has a great capacity for spreading concentrated loads, which thus limits the stress variations in the stays When dealing with bridges which are very wide or which have large spans, central suspension leads to excessive torsion moments This type of design is not suitable for road bridges with dual carriageways

3 2 2.2 Systems with lateral suspension

The majority of cable stayed bridges built to date have lateral support systems The planes of the stays may be vertical or inclined slightly inwards, where A-shaped pylons are used Reference is made to the essential characteristics of the different suspension methods shown in Fig. 3.10

(a) Conventional suspension bridges

• This method of suspension provides only a low flexural stiffness To avoid excessive deformation of the structure under the effects of wind or eccentric loading, it is thus necessary to provide a suitable deck (Tacoma Narrows Bridge, chapter 7)

• Erection of the cables, generally carried out using the spinning method developed by Roebling more than a century ago (chapter 5), is relatively complicated The deck is then constructed from the centre of the span

• In spite of these disadvantages, suspension bridges are still used today, especially for very long spans

24

(b) Cable stayed bridges provided with vertical lateral suspension

• The stays, which are in tension and almost rectilinear, ensure a more rigid connection between the pylons and the deck The deformations of the latter are thus due only to the moderate variations of the stresses in the cables and the deformations of the pylons

• Vertical suspension does not give rise to any clearance problem above the deck. The width of the deck depends on the minimum distance required for the arms of the pylons, It is possible to reduce this even further by placing these arms outside the deck, beyond the plane of the stays. It is then generally necessary to balance the transverse bending of the pylon, introduced by the deviation of the cables, by means of upper bracing

• The erection of pylons consisting of vertical arms is simple and economical

(c) Cable stayed bridges with A-frame pylons

• The stiffness and stability of the structure can be even further improved by the use of A-frame pylons, with the arms connected at their top The deck and the two planes of inclined stays then behave like a rigid closed section in bending, which considerably reduces possible rotation of the running surface

• Inclined suspension can give rise to certain clearance problems in the transverse direction, calling for a general increase in the transverse cross-section of the deck or the use of corbels in places, out from the anchorages

• The erection of A·frame pylons is generally more complicated than that of vertical pylons

Lateral suspension with A-frame pylons is particularly suited for bridges of very large span, where aerodynamic stability becomes all-important F Leonhardt had already proposed this solution for the designs of the New Burrard Inlet Crossing (Vancouver, central span of 762 m, Fig 3 11) and the crossing of the Straits of Messina (central span 1700 m, Fig 322). This concept has been successfully adopted for the largest cable stayed bridges built to date, that is the Normandy Bridge with a span of 856 m (see page 6) and the Tatara Bridge in Japan, with a central span of 890 m, which will be inaugurated in 1999 (see page 103)

The application of such a design in the realm of smalland medium-span bridges calls for a steeper inclination of the planes of the cables and thus poses serious problems with the transverse clearance. These can be solved by the use of corbels out from the anchorages when dealing with a bridge with dosed cables (Severin Bridge, Cologne, Fig 3 12), or by increasing the width of the deck where there are multiple stays

Lateral suspension introduces transverse bending moments which are at a maximum in the centre of the cross-section, whilst the corresponding shear forces and anchorage forces act at the edges of the running surface (Fig. 3.13) In this zone, design of the constructional details may thus present some problems, especially with a concrete deck Anchorage of the cables may, in fact, clash with that of any transverse prestress

3223 Systems with three planes

The deck of a bridge provided with multiple-stay lateral suspension and with a very wide roadway is generally subjected to transverse bending forces which are greatly in excess of the longitudinal bending This state of affairs, which leads to costly decks, can be avoided by using a three-plane system of suspension. By this means, the transverse bending moments are reduced by a factor of 4 and their integral by a factor of 8

Notwithstanding these obvious advantages, this design has, to date, rarely been adopted. When offers were submitted for the bridge at Riddes, in Switzerland, R Walther proposed a solution using three planes of vertical stays (Fig 314) Given that the bridge crosses the Rhone with a skew of about 45°, the three slender arms of the pylon are well separated The skew, as well as the adoption of the harp layout for the stays, gave the structure a dignified look Although this solution was proved to be the most economical, it was adjudged to be too innovative and was rejected This concept was recently adopted for the Save Bridge at Ljubljana, Slovenia (Fig. 314(b)) which convincingly demonstrated that statical logic can indeed be combined with an aesthetically pleasing appearance

3 2 3 Longitudinal layout 32.3 1. Harp pattern

Whilst the harp pattern is not the best from the static or economic point of view, it is attractive because of its undeniable aesthetic advantages The fact that the cables

GENERAL DESIGN

are parallel and cross each other at a constant angle ill the eye of the viewer gives the structure a most acceptable appearance This is why the architect F Tamms insisted that all the bridges crossing the Rhine at Dusseldorf should be constructed using this pattern In spite of their notable differences so far as the static system is concerned and their different methods of construction, the Knie Bridge, Oberkassel Bridge and Theodor Heuss Bridge (Fig 3.15) are all built with the cables in a harp pattern and form a harmonious ensemble, the only one of its kind in the world.

3 2 3.2. Fan pattern

The fan pattern brings all the stays together to the top of the pylons This solution was used ill several recent structures, such as the bridge over the Rio Parani (Fig 3.16) and the Pasco-Kennewick bridge (Fig 3,17), and can offer critical advantages:

• The total weight of the cables needed is substantially below that for a harp pattern, given the more favourable mean slope of the stays.

• The horizontal force introduced by the cable in the deck is less,

• Longitudinal bending of the pylons remains moderate

• It is not only possible but also necessary to select side spans which are less than half the central span in length. Where erection of the structure is by corbelling out, it is possible to take advantage of the stability provided by the piers or the abutments well before the closing of the central span

• Movements of the deck due to changes in temperature can be absorbed by conventional expansion joints placed across the abutments, if the horizontal connection between the pylons and the deck is freed. The deck-to-pylon connection provided by the stays is, in fact, too flexible to develop critical force systems

• I1\e flexibility of the structure is favourable where horizontal movements of the deck take place and increases the stability against seismic activity

• The high-capacity back-stay cables, anchored through the first piers or the abutments, reduce the. deflections of the pylons and the deck

At first sight, the fan pattern appears less attractive, from the aesthetic point of view, than the harp pattern, because of the optical effect of the crossing of the cables, depending on

25

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GENERAL DESIGN

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I') Convenlional suspension bridge

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Fig 3.10 Deformations of the structure, depending on the suspension method adopted

the angle of observation However, this disadvantage is not apparent in large-span structures, as has already been noted

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Fig 3.11 New Burrard Inlet Crossing, Vancouver; proposal

30

The Achilles' heel of the fan-pattern solution lies more in the design and construction of the heads of the pylons, towards which all the cables theoretically lead An ideal convergence cannot take place in practice, and for this reason it is necessary to spread the anchorages to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the geometry and size of the work In spite of this spread of forces, the heavily stressed zone can generally be constructed only by methods which are complicated, costly and often far from elegant This problem, typical of the fan-pattern type of structure, can be demonstrated by the Pasco-Kennewick bridge, where the architectural effect and the design are otherwise perfect

3 23 3 Semi-harp pattern

An intermediate solution, between the extremes of harp and fan patterns, makes it possible to combine in a satisfactory manner the advantages of both these systems, whilst avoiding their disadvantages A 'semi-harp' configuration has shown itself to be ideal, and a large number of modem cable stayed bridges have been built using this principle (Fig 3.8).

By spreading of the stays in the upper part of the pylon, good design of the anchorage details is possible, without appreciable reduction of the depth and hence the efficacy of the stay system Cables situated dose to the pylon are more steeply inclined than those in a harp pattern, which makes it possible to reduce the stiffness of the horizontal connection between the pylons and the deck-a stiffness which can itself be disadvantageous With the aim of simplifying the anchoring of the first

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GENERAL DESIGN

Fig. 312 Severin Bridge .. Cologne, Germany

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stay in the pylon, and fa! aesthetic reasons, the first bay is generally somewhat larger than the normal cable spacing throughout the bridge

3.2.3.4 Asymmetric layouts

Topographical conditions and longitudinal clearance requirements frequently call for the crossing of an obstacle by a single span, without it being possible to balance the structure by a rear bay. In this case, it may prove useful to adopt a 'reins' type of suspension, characterised by concentration of anchor cables

The choice of the slope of the rear ties depends mainly on the topography of the landscape and on the geological and geotechnical conditions of the anchorage zone From the point of view of economy of stays, an angle of 45° is the optimum Now, with the aim of reducing the counterweight or the necessary rock anchors, there is a general tendency to reduce the vertical component of the anchorage force by reducing the slope of the stays The limits of this reasoning, based purely on statics, lie in aesthetic considerations, as can be seen in the doubtful example of the bridge at Speyer (Fig. 318). It is, however, difficult to be entirely objective about the architectural effect of a structure. Lumberjack's Candle Bridge, Finland (Fig 319), provides an example of this problem Considering the statics, it appears that there is little logic in fixing all the anchorage cables through the abutment, when it would

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32

GENERAL DESIGN

Fig 3.15 Overall view of bridges crossing the Rhine at Dusseldorf, Germany

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Fig 3.17 (above and facing page) Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, USA

34

GENERAL DESIGN

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Fig. 3.18. Speyer Bridge, Germany

Fig 319 Lumberjack's Candle Bridge, Finland

have been possible to use the two 42 m shore bays to balance, at least partially, the main span of 126 m However, it must be said that the jury who awarded the first prize to this design were justifiably attracted to the originality of the architectural concept, which harmonises with the surrounding countryside

3 2.35 Multiple spans

The principle of suspending the deck by means of cable stays applies equally to multi-span bridges, although so far very few structures of this type have been built (Maracaibo, Genes) The main problem in this design is to obtain adequate longitudinal stability under the action of asymmetric traffic loadings

36

GENERAL DESIGN

Fig, 320 Proposal for crossing the Ganges9 in India (F Leonhardt)

Of the three load-bearing elements of a cable stayed bridge-deck, stays and pylons-only the pylons can provide sufficient stiffness to stabilise such a system in the horizontal direction In fact, the slenderness of a cable stayed deck is generally such that it cannot fulfil any function of this nature, and the absence of intermediate fixed points excludes the use of anchorage cables

Other methods of stabilisation have been proposed; for example, a horizontal connection between pylon heads, formed of cables anchored at the two abutments, Whilst this artificial solution may appear sensible from the point of view of statics, it has little aesthetic merit and construction is difficult

For the crossing of the Great Belt in Denmark, U Finsterwalder suggested a structure whose stability was provided by very stiff pylons (Fig 3 3)TItis scheme contained a large number of equal spans, 350 m in length, with a harp pattern of cables Expansion joints, intended to reduce the stresses in the deck under long term effects and temperature changes, were provided at the centre of each span

A similar solution was proposed by F Leonhardt in India, for crossing the Ganges The structure, with a total length of 1600 m, contained nine spans of 159 m and two spans at the banks of 75 mThe pylons were of a 'longil:udinal A-frame' type above the deck 'The two arms were two separate slender vertical walls below the deck, with the object of limiting the long term and temperature effects This wei! thought out compromise, between the exigencies of adequate longitudinal stiffness and that of suitability for use, made it possible to reduce the number of expansion joints, an advantage when considering maintenance and structural quality (Fig 320)

3 24 Stay spacing

In the construction of the first modem cable stayed bridges, only a limited number of stays was generally used to support the rigid decks (§ 3.1)-spacings of 30 m to 73 m were adopted for the Maracaibo Bridge (Fig 214), calling for Ctoss-sections reaching a depth of 5 m Sud"! a design is no longer competitive in modem conditions-at least not for

large structures Such stiff decks require both a large quantity of materials and expensive erection equipment In extreme cases, scaffolding may even be necessary (Maracaibo Bridge)

It must be said, however, that the structures built in this form are elegant and technically SOLmd The Kille Bridge (Fig 3 2) is a most noteworthy example With a span of L = 320 m and depth of deck It giving a ratio filL of 34/320 "" 1 /95, this structure has a slenderness made possible by the direct anchorage of aU the back-stays in tension piers This skilful design increases appreciably the overall stability, making it possible to cross the gap between the stays of I = 64 m with a deck of depth II = 3-4 m and slenderness ratio fI/1 = 1/19

The use of wide spacings between the stays may still be imposed today The bridge over the Danube at Metten actually has only two prestressed ties, on either side of a central pylon (Fig 321) This solution proved to be successful by reason of the erection method chosen: the deck was incrementally launched from one end, using temporary intermediate piers. In the central zone, designed to allow river traffic, the temporary piers were replaced by concentrated stays.

H Homberg gave a definite impetus to the development of modern cable stayed bridges with the design and construction of the Friedrich Ebert Bridge in Bonn (Fig 215), the first structure containing a large number of cables, spaced relatively close together This multiple-stay type of design has numerous advantages:

• The large number of elastic supports leads to moderate longitudinal bending in the deck, both during construction and in operation, making for simple and economic construction methods-for example, by corbelling out

• 'The individual cables are smaller than in a structure with concentrated staying, which simplifies their installation and anchoring

• Replacement of stays is relatively simpleTItis measure has already been seen to be essential, in spite of the arrangements taken to protect the stays, against corrosion especially

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In the case of the Friedrich Ebert Bridge, in spite of the reduced spacing of the cables, a relatively deep deck was adopted, II = 42 m (slenderness hit = 1/67) The choice of a torsion-stiff section is due to the method of central suspension adopted, which introduces large torsion moments under the action of wind and eccentric loads

The principle of multiple suspension was rapidly forced on designers, as may be seen from the numerous examples presented here When it is a matter of major bridges, with spans of some hundreds of metres, this design is really the only possible solution The maximum spacing of the stays depends of several parameters, in particular on the width and shape of the deck

38

C'OSS· seclion 01 the slays

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Fig. 321 Danube Bridge,IO Metten, Germany

Where the deck is in steel, or in a composite steel-concrete design, it is generally possible to carry out construction by corbelling out, and there is no appreciable advantage in having stays very close together As a general rule, spacings between 15 m and 25 m are adopted In the design for crossing the Straits of Messina, prepared by the Lambertini-Leonhardt group, the choice, for reasons of stability, fell on a metal deck 7 m deep for a central span of 1700 m (Fig 322) As a result, a stay spacing of a slightly larger order was chosen-with an average of 35 m

On the other hand, where the deck is in concrete, designs with multiple stays 5 m to 10 m apart offer numerous advantages and may be essential in structures with large

GENERAL DESIGN

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spans TIle choice of cable spacing depends, above all else, on the erection equipment (concreting train, lifting gear etc.) Where the deck is made up of prefabricated sections, it is necessary to apply prestress during erection in order to key the sections together If, however, it is poured in situ, it is possible to make direct use of the stays to act as supports and thus avoid this erection prestress While the concrete is hardening, the compressive force applied by the cable should be transmitted to that part already completed by means of suitable shores

Reservations held over the effects of multiple stays on the transparence and elegance of cable stayed bridges have been shown to be groundless Diagrammatic representations in various publications give totally erroneous impressions, since the technical means available do not make it possible to show the cables on the correct scale Thus, in spite of a longitudinal spacing of about 3 m, the main stays of the Rio Ebro Bridge by C F Casado do not give any impression of being an opaque wall TIle effect of transparence and lightness restored by photographs is quite astonishing (Fig 3,23)

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The spacing of 3 m mentioned seems very small for a concrete deck, but this choice appears to have been dictated more by considerations of aesthetics than by criteria of economics or statics

3.3, Deck 3,3.1 General

As has already been mentioned, the first modem cable stayed bridges had a reduced number of stays and the distances between the elastic supports thus created were generally large It was therefore necessary to have relatively stiff decks, generally in steel (Figs 2.12 and 3.2). The selfweight was reduced to a minimum and the slenderness ratio of the principal span, /IlL, varied between 1/50 and I/7O-with the exception of the Knie Bridge, where the figure was 1/100, this value being reached thanks to the fact that all the back-stays were rigidly fixed through piers in the approach spans

With the appearance of multiple-stay bridges, which favoured the development of concrete decks, the need to provide the cross-section with a high degree of stiffness

39

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

l

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Fig 323 (above and facing page) Bridge over the Rio Ebro. Spain

40

GENERAL DESIGN

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disappeared As will be seen in the parametric study (chapter 4), the longitudinal moments increase as the deck becomes stiffer It is thus wise to select the deck to be as flexible as possible This fact led to the development of cable stayed bridges with very slim cross-sections, where the slenderness ratio may reach values of hlL = 1/500

However, the optimum rigidity does not only depend on the spacing of the stays, The method of suspension and the width of the bridge are equally important factors In the case of a bridge with central suspension, high torsional stiffness is essential, which in tum means high stiffness in bending As a general rule, the choice is for box sections or closed space frames in steel or concrete

For bridges using multiple lateral suspension, it is generally possible to have slender decks, given that the longitudinal bending is relatively low and that a high

torsional stiffness is not called for The minimum dimensions are then governed by the transverse moments and by the considerable point loads introduced at the anchorages. These two effects increase as the width of the deck increases If the deck width is about 30 m-a normal value for motorways-the depth required from analysis of the statics lies between 12m and 2 m There are thus usually two opposed design criteria in the longitudinal and transverse directions and it is not easy, in practice, to find the system which provides the optimum answer to these two requirements This difliculty is one of the reasons why axial suspension is more logical than at first appears

In view of the above, a solution using three planes of stays appears more logical still, in particular for very large bridges This design offers the outstanding advantage of a good balance between forces in the longitudinal and transverse directions, which call lead to considerable savings of materials in the deck As has already been mentioned, such a solution has certain aesthetic problems It is, however, possible to surmount these problems in a satisfactory manner, as shown in the example in Fig 314

Along with the method of erection chosen and the local economic considerations, the choice of material for the deck is one of the main criteria governing the overall cost of U1e

41

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

S~v"rin Sridge 12 Coloon"- Fadernl Republico! Germnny

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work The self-weight has a direct influence on the required capacities of the stays, pylons and foundations The following figures may be used as indications:

• steel deck

• composite deck

• concrete deck

25-35 kN/m" 6-5-85 kN/m2 100-15 kN/m2

3.32 Steel decks

A metal deck provides the optimum answer to the demand for economy in the use of materials It is, in fact, possible to limit its self-weight to a value which is about one-fifth of that of a concrete deck Different typical examples of steel decks are given in Fig 3.24

On the other hand, in spite of the use of ever more advanced methods of rationalisation and automation (in particular with orthotropic slabs), the use of a steel cross-section is, today, two to four times as expensive as its equivalent in concrete Thus, the reduced self-weight of the deck slab must result in appreciable savings in the

The cost of manufacture of steel sections is, today, very high It is thus necessary to analyse very carefully all the consequences of the choice of the deck system in order to obtain the most satisfactory overall answer

42

GENERAL DESIGN

2310

Fig 325. Steel deck of the Rio Parana Bridge, Argentina, 1978

other load-bearing elements (stays, pylons and foundations) if a cable stayed bridge with a steel deck is to be competitive

For small- and medium-span structures, the cables represent only 10-20% of the overall cost Thus, the saving which can be made in the cost of the stays is generally marginal, especially since the fatigue strength criteria may be predominant where there is a high qlg ratio Conditions are, however, totally different for large-span bridges The reduction in self-weight becomes vital and only very light decks may be taken into consideration The scheme for crossing the Straits of Messina is a typical example in this respect (Fig. 322)

Appreciable savings may be made by limiting the use of orthotropic panels to the running surfaces, the other elements of the cross-section being made up of beams with solid or lattice webs This principle was partially adopted for the deck of the Rio Parana Bridge (Fig 3 25) The mid-portion, in steel, intended for road traffic, is supported by a triangulated structure. The side box sections, one of which is intended for rail traffic, are, on the other hand, formed entirely of the above-mentioned panels. The cross-section of the Faro Bridge in Denmark has approximately the same external dimensions (Fig 326). With the object of increasing the torsional stiffness required in a centrally supported structure, and, in consequence, the aerodynamic stability, the section was camp letely closed

3.33 Concrete decks

The idea of a multiple-stay system, initially developed for steel structures, rapidly led to the construction of decks in concrete--poured in situ or prefabricated This led to the construction of bridges by corbelling out, the short stages

being directly supported by permanent cables The forces in the cross-section thus remain moderate during construction and the equipment needed during erection is reduced to a minimum. The high self-weight of concrete decks is not a major factor in the case of small and medium spans. Such a solution may also prove economical for more important works

The first cable stayed bridges constructed entirely of concrete were designed by R Morandi (Maracaibo (Fig 214), Wadi-Kuf, Genes etc). These structures, of a similar nature to each other, were provided with a fairly stiff cross-section, formed of precast beams, the suspension offering only two intermediate supports pet bay Today, a design of this type is out of date partly because of the extensive erection equipment required

The bridge at Hoechst, over the Main at Frankfurt, was the first application of the use of multiple stays to support a concrete deck This remarkable structure shows, moreover, the valuable influence that an architect, in this case G Lehmer, can have on the appearance of a bridge (Fig 3.27)

The Brotonne Bridge, over the Seine (1977), is one of the most notable examples of the use of new techniques (Fig 38) This elegant structure, using central suspension, has a centre span of 320 m It is, in a way, a clever adaptation of the design of the Friedrich Ebert Bridge to the possibilities offered by prestressed concrete The transverse section includes a single box section with prestressed inclined struts which transmit the loads from the webs (prefabricated and prestressed, using strands) to the suspension points Erection was carried out by corbelling, using precast voussoirs 4 5 m long, the dimension corresponding to the spacing of the stays at deck level

43

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Fig 326 (above and facing page) Faro Bridge, Denmark

44

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GENERAL DESIGN

An ingenious method was developed for placing the cables Steel ducts were hoisted, in advance, towards the pylons, by means of a system of wheels, rolling over the preceding stays TIle cables were then threaded into these tubes without anchorages to the pylons, the strands being

directly supported on saddles. This new design was later used, with success, in several major structures, such as the bridge at Coatzacoalcos in Mexico (Fig. 328), and even the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Florida (central span of 360 m) Whilst the transverse sections of these structures are similar,

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47

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

the inclined struts and anchorages within the box sections have had to be strengthened In addition, so as to reduce the excessive width of the deck, due to the presence of central pylons (Brotonne, Sunshine Skyway), these have sometimes been separated over the lower part (Coatzacoalcos)

In 1978, F Leonhardt and A Grant constructed the Pasco-Kennewick Bridge, USA The deck, entirely prefabricated, is supported by fan-pattern lateral suspension (Fig 3.17). The three voussoirs are formed from two edge box girders with triangular section, connected by cross-girders

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After being transported on the Columbia River, these elements were lifted into their final positions and then fixed, using synthetic resin and prestressing cables Under operating conditions, the floating deck has no direct connection with the pylons This solution, made possible by the layout of the stays, assists in limiting long term effects and those due to temperature changes, while ensuring good resistance to earthquake actions

In Spain, two noteworthy structures have recently been built entirely in concrete The first, the bridge over the River Ebro, is particularly interesting, because of its original

156 405

GENERAL DESIGN

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design and shape (Fig 3,23) This structure has only one inclined pylon and one single span, provided with central stays Overall stability is ensured by two planes of back-stays, in fan patterns and anchored by means of large masses of concrete. The deck, 28·9 m in width, is a prefabricated box section, cross-braced and fitted with large corbels, spaced at 3·0 m like the stays It is encouraging to find, today, that there are still authorities capable of taking the responsibility for the construction of such original structures, even abandoning purely economic considerations

The Barrios de Luna Bridge (Fig 3.29) is another superb example of the richness of Spanish design Its centre span of 440 m was the world record for cable stayed btidges when it was built in 1984 The transverse section in prestressed concrete, poured in situ by corbelling, consists of a multicellular box, braced every 4 5 m. So as to reduce the selfweight, the lower slab was partially omitted in the mid-section of the main span. The back-stays are steeply inclined, because of the lack of space for the side spans in this mountainous region, calling for large counterweights to provide overall equilibrium Given that the deck is rigidly fixed to the abutments, an expansion joint was provided in the centre of the main span,

49

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GENERAL DESIGN

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CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Of the two alternatives examined in the preparation of the scheme for the Annacis Island Bridge over the Frazer River in Vancouver, the first included a concrete crosssection and the second a composite deck With a centre span of 465 m, dictated by navigational requirements, this was at the time the largest cable stayed bridge, The concrete scheme envisaged a multi-cell deck, not braced and poured in situ (Fig. 3.35), a solution adopted with the aim of simplifying the movement of the internal shuttering When tenders were submitted, the composite alternative proved to be much more economical than the concrete scheme. A detailed analysis of the prices showed in the end that the extra weight of the pure concrete section was not the

Table 3.1

1

determining factor in the cost of the deck itself, nor in the cost of the stays The large difference was due in part to the increase in the cost of the pylons and even more to the cost of deep foundations, which is very sensitive to any increase in loads

It is interesting to note that the average thickness of concrete transverse sections in the bridges described above has an almost constant value-dose to 50 em (Table 3.1)

The potential advantages of multiple stays can be still better exploited in the design of flexible decks, developed by the authors of this volume. In fact, given that the longitudinal bending moments in the deck are reduced as its stiffness decreases, the deck can be constructed as a single concrete

Bridge

Number
of pylons
2
inclined
2
2
2
2
2
2
inclined
2 Brotonne (France) Completed

Rio Ebro (Spain) Completed Pasco-Kennewick (USA) Completed

Rio Paranaiba (Brazil) Proposed

Danube (Vienna) Completed

Waal (Holland) Completed

Rio Magdalena (Colombia) Completed

Carpenti no Viaduct (Italy) Completed

Annacis (Canada) Completed

Napoleon (Switzerland) Proposed

Akkar Bridge (India) Completed

Caron! (Venezuela) 2

Proposed (road and

rai I bridge)

Railway bridge (GB)

Completed

Barrios de Luna (Spain) 2

Completed

Diepoldsau (Switzerland) 2

Completed

Type of Main Width Mean
suspension span of deck thickness
(m) (m) (m3rm2)
Axial 32000 1920 048
Multi-cable
Axial 14630 2460 049
Multi-cable
2 planes 29900 2433 052
Multi-cable
2 planes 35000 1720 052
Multi-cable
2 planes 11900 1580 057
Concentrated cables
2 planes 26700 3120 052
Concentrated cables
2 planes 14000 1250 055
Concentrated cables
2 planes 181 00 950 062
Concentrated cables
2 planes 44000 3180 053
Multi-cable
2 planes 99,00 1380 035
Multi-cable
2 planes 7500 1110 031
Multi-cable
2 planes 28000 2610 069
Concentrated cables
2 planes 5487 11·56 109
Concentrated cables
2 planes 44000 2250 057
Multi-cable
2 planes 9700 1450 049
Multi-cable 52

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slab, with construction on site requumg only light and inexpensive shuttering The thickness of the slab depends mainly on the transverse loads and, to a lesser extent, on the normal forces set up by the stays At first sight, the use of such a slender section may seem unsuitable for a member in compression Now, the stability of the deck depends on the whole structure and cannot be considered in isolation, neglecting all interaction with the pylons and the stays. These latter, together with the self-weight, apply stabilising forces which greatly reduce the slenderness of the section. In addition, for bridges of small or medium span, the compressive stresses in the deck remain moderate

This idea, applicable solely in the case of a two- or three-plane suspension, was adopted for the first time for the construction of the Diepoldsau Bridge over the Rhine, in Switzerland. The basic features of this structure are given in Fig 330 It is a road bridge with a centre span of 97 m and two planes of stays 1410 m apart The deck is a single concrete slab with an average thickness of 45 em. It was poured in situ by corbelling in stages of 6 m in length, which is also the standard spacing of the stays The method of construction adopted proved to be very simple and economical It was possible to use an extremely light movable scaffold, suspended directly from the permanent stays This method, however, calls for a transmission of the horizontal component of the force in the new cables to that part of the deck already concreted To achieve this, special edge slabs, in concrete, were provided, temporarily fixed to the mobile centring and containing the anchorages for the stays. In the final structure, these slabs contribute towards the strength of the heavily loaded edge zones

The same method of erection is proposed for the bridge over the Dala, crossing a deep gorge in the Valais Canton, in Switzerland, with a single span of 210 m (Fig 331) Overall equilibrium is ensured by back-stays fixed into rock at the abutments In an initial proposal, the project included a central span of 180 m, with lateral suspension placed between the roadway and the pedestrian walkways (Fig 331(a)), with the object of limiting the transverse forces in the deck, whose mean thickness was only 049 m A more thorough analysis of the rock strata called for the abutments to be moved farther back, increasing the span to 210 m. As was confirmed by an aerodynamic analysis, it was no longer possible, under these conditions, to ensure adequate safety against 'flutter' while retaining the stays inside the walkways It was thus necessary to place them at the

GENERAL DESIGN

edge of the deck (Fig 3.31(b)), to increase the torsional rigidity of the overall system, although this was to cause greater transverse forces in the slab, which had to be strengthened accordingly

The design of thin slabs is promising T here are, however, difficulties when considering wide bridges with four or more traffic lanes In such cases, the deck dimensions required by the transverse bending moments may become excessive

This problem can be met by the use of slabs with transverse ribs in concrete or steel (§ 334). A more economical design makes use of three planes of stays-the solution proposed in the scheme for the bridge at Riddes, mentioned above (Fig 3.32) This system makes it possible to keep the thickness of a concrete deck within reasonable limits so as to benefit from the potential advantages offered by this design method.

33.4. Composite decks

As confirmed by several recent studies and actual bridges, the use of mixed concrete and steel designs in cable stayed structures can show considerable advantages, which are still not fully exploited In fact, as the excessive cost of orthotropic slabs is generally leading engineers and employing authorities to discard this solution, technically interesting though it may be, it may prove wise to construct the running surface in concrete, while still making use of advantages inherent in metal construction for the other elements of the superstructure. The interest of this composite construction lies in the appreciable reduction in dead weight and in the ease of erection of the steel parts The fact that the dead weight of a composite deck is somewhat greater than that of a pure steel deck (but nevertheless far below that of a concrete deck) is generally not a critical disadvantage, except in bridges with very large spans The higher qlg ratio, in fact, makes it possible to use to greater effect the static strength of the stays, insofar as the criterion of fatigue safety becomes less critical

The bridge at Hoogly (Fig 333), which has been under construction for many years over the Ganges in Calcutta, was the first major application of this new design The deck consists of three solid web longitudinal beams, about 2 m deep and with an in situ concrete slab 23 ern thick. The steel cross-beams are at 410 m centreslhis relatively light transverse section was chosen on account of the bad foundation conditions on the one hand, and with the object

53

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54

GENERAL DESIGN

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Fig. 332. Cross-section of the bridge at Riddes

of making the best use of local steel manufacture on the other. DUring the preparation of the design, the delicate key problem of ascertaining to what extent the participation of the concrete in resisting normal forces would be reduced by shrinkage and creep was the subject of long debate. It was finally stipulated that this normal force should act only on the steel, calling for stiffening of the main beams

So as to limit the unfavourable influence of shrinkage and creep, one of the proposals put forward for tile Sunshine Skyway Bridge was based on composite construction (Fig 334(a)), with the deck slab prefabricated in panels 14·80 m x 345 m These panels were to be stored during the time necessary for the construction of the foundations and pylons This measure, which considerably

56

GENERAL DESIGN

Fig. 3.33 Hoogly River Bridge, Calcutta
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57

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

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58

GENERAL DESIGN

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reduces the long-term effects, dearly has no effect on the performance of the joints between the panels The tender for the alternative in concrete only (Fig 3.34(b)) proved, on examination, slightly less costly than the composite solution This was probably due to the market fluctuations rather than to the economic advantages which one had over the other

In contrast, in the case of the Annacis Island Bridge, mentioned above (Fig 3.35), for which the same study was carried out, the difference in prime cost of about 20% in favour of composite construction dearly shows the potential advantages of this type of design This was a case of a bridge with a large span (L = 465 m), located in ground which was difficult from a geotechnical point of view and calling for deep and expensive foundations The solution adopted for the actual construction, now completed, is very similar to that rejected for the Sunshine Skyway Bridge, including the construction of the running surface panels in precast concrete The designers had originally intended to place the main beams at a certain distance from the edges of the deck (Fig 335(a)), in the hope of reducing wind effects Tests carried out in a wind tunnel showed, however, that the aerodynamic stability is ensured even if these beams are placed very close to the edges (Fig 3.35(b)), which simplifies the internal stress distributions and, in consequence, the metal framework As for the anchoring of the stays in the deck and in the pylons, original solutions were put forward (Fig. 335(c) and (d)).

It may, however, be asked if the concept of the structures described above is fundamentally correct. Would it not be better to attempt to exploit the specific advantages of each material? In this respect, there can be doubts about the wisdom of submitting steel members, in this case the main beams, to the high compressive forces introduced by the stays, these being accentuated by shrinkage and creep TIle forces may become critical both in a serviceability state and a limit state (local buckling, for example) The possibilities for fully exploiting the high compressive capacity of the running surface are, in fact, limited These considerations should, in our opinion, lead to a modification of composite design methods for cable stayed bridges This would consist of using concrete for all members highly loaded in compression (running surface, longitudinal ribs if used, etc.), and reserving steel for elements mainly subjected to bending or tension (cross-beams, wind bracing, tension struts etc)

60

The construction of the bridge at East Huntington (Ohio, USA, Fig 336) is a first step in this direction Its transverse section includes two relatively squat edge beams in concrete, connected by a running slab in the same material The cross-beams, however, are of rolled steel sections This example, however, is not truly representative, since the deck in question is too narrow to make full use of the potential advantages of this new design.

The solution, the principle of which is shown in Fig. 3.37, can offer great advantages in the case of large-span bridges

335 Special designs

The wide range of possible shapes in the field of cable stayed bridges also extends to the design of their decks, as may be seen from the following examples.

French engineers have always had a taste and the courage for the innovative They recently proposed particulady interesting decks to be used in cable stayed bridges In fact, their idea of prefabricated space-frame type voussoirs (used for the first time in the construction of the famous Bubyan Bridge in Kuwait) combined with the technique of match-cast joints may prove very fruitful where multiplestay bridges are considered. These maintain bending and shear in the longitudinal direction at a moderate level, while producing a favourable compression to keep the joints closed.

This solution can be applied with central suspension (Fig 338(a» as well as with lateral suspension (Fig 338(b» However, the example shown in Fig 3.39 does appear to be a little over-audacious This is a proposal for a deck 45 m wide for a bridge in the Ivory Coast and includes, most notably, provision for a railway line within a concrete space frame There could well be reservations as to the feasibility, stability and durability of this structure, especially as central suspension, little adapted to such widths, is proposed

The potential advantages of composite steel and concrete construction, set out in § 33.4, could well be combined with those of space frames Very interesting research work on this subject is, at present, being carried out in France and promising solutions have recently been put forward 17 By adapting these ideas to cable stayed bridges, a solution which meets the requirements of this type of structure has been obtained (Fig 3.40) The interest of this idea lies in the fact that the dead weight of the webs is greatly reduced, as

GENERAL DESIGN

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61

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

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Avemge ihickness 50 em

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Fig 3.39 Example of a deck formed by a space frame for a proposed cable stayed bridge in Abidjan, Ivory Coast

Rolled Sleelsecllons

Fig. 340 Proposed section with webs formed of steel members

62

compared with a concrete box section Moreover, the longitudinal compression is taken up by the concrete, without significant forces, due to shrinkage and creep, being introduced into the steel framework. Similarly, problems connected with the connections and with erection can be resolved with little difficulty

Always with a view to a reduction in the dead weight of the structure, but perhaps also to leave the beaten hack, J Mathivar proposed an original deck formed of a box section with triangulated concrete members (Fig 341) Steel struts lead the forces in the concrete to central suspension points (along the axis of the structure), and large corbels in the running surface are supported by lateral shores

Lastly, mention may be made of a two-level bridge proposed in Japan, where the deck is a Vierendeel girder (Fig 3 ·42)

It seems certain that the possibilities for new formations, so far as specially designed decks are concerned, are today far from being completely exhausted

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GENERAL DESIGN

Fig 3.41 Proposed composite deck. webs in triangular prefabricated members; internal struts in steel; corbels supported by concrete shores

34 Pylons

3.4.1 Introduction

The general design of a cable stayed bridge is a task which is concerned with all the various parts of the structure. The aim of this section is to reveal the key role played by the

design of the pylons in this iterative process, by means of a qualitative description of the specific conditions which these members must meet

34 2 Longitudinal configuration 3 4 2 1 General

The longitudinal configuration of the pylons and the associated static condition must comply, in an appropriate manner, with the dual requirements of adequate longitudinal stability and good performance under operating con-

Fig 342 Proposed deck in the form of a Vierendee/ girder

63

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

ditions, The number of bays erected, the proposed placing of the stays, and the local conditions are all relevant parameters in this element of the design

3 4 2.2. Harp-pattern stays

With the stays in the harp pattern, the non-symmetrical traffic loadings can only be balanced at the cost of significant longitudinal bending in the pylons These, therefore, must have not only adequate bending resistance, but also sufficient stiffness to reduce the deformability of the deck, particularly if this is flexible.

The short cables in a harp pattern form a link between pylons and deck which rigidly resists any relative horizontal displacement. As a result, it is not possible to limit, in an effective manner, the forces introduced by shrinkage and creep or changes in temperature by simply freeing the connection of one of the pylons with the deck, Where the bridge has a large span, for which the phenomenon of imposed displacements becomes critical, it is necessary to free the superstructure externally in the longitudinal direction, by providing expansion joints or sliding bearings fOE the deck and the upper part of one of the pylons If the centre span is below average, the lower part of the pylons can generally be formed of elements sufficiently flexible to avoid the use of such bearings

342.3 Fan-pattern stays

Use of the fan pattern for stays offers undeniable advantages from the point of view of forces in the pylons, in that it is possible to create a horizontal bearing at the head of the pylon, using concentrated back-stay cables, and this confers great stiffness on the whole structure

The value of the longitudinal stiffness of the pylons has only a moderate influence on the structural behaviour of the whole. The corresponding bending remains small and the required cross-section is dictated mainly by the need for adequate stability, particularly during erection.

The short cables are nearly vertical and offer only nominal resistance to relative horizontal displacement between the pylons and the deck It is thus possible to make effective reductions in the stresses induced by shrinkage, creep and temperature changes by freeing the connection between at least one of the pylons and the deck. The movements of the deck can then be absorbed by means of conventional expansion joints placed at the abutments.

64

342.4. Semi-harp-pattern stays

The semi-harp pattem-a compromise solution between the aesthetic and economic requirements-is generally adopted with a view to easing the design of anchorages to the stays The pylon section needed is closely linked to the choice of static system and can result equally from providing sufficient load-bearing capacity or from good behaviour under imposed deformations. If there is a flexible deck, the value of the longitudinal stiffness of the pylons can have an appreciable influence on the structural behaviour of the whole (chapter 4),

342.5 Strength of the lower part of pylons

Whatever may be the number of spans and the layout of stays adopted, the structure behaves generally like a floating bridge in the longitudinal direction The stabilising pylons must take up the forces due to wind, braking of vehicles, differential friction and seismic actions, while still guaranteeing overall stability This essential function comes down to the provision of sufficient strength in that part of the pylons below the deck Where the structure is a major one, with a considerable free height below the deck, or intended for crossing waterways (danger of impact), this necessary strength can only be ensured through a massive pier (Figs 343 and 344(c) and (d))

34.3, Transverse configuration

The choice between lateral and central suspension is the critical factor which governs the transverse design of pylons The advantages and disadvantages of these two types of stay formation are given in a general manner in § 32.2

3431 Lateral suspension

Where lateral suspension is envisaged, the design of the pylons should be based on the following conditions:

• Transverse tree clearance (Fig 3.45)

Conventional clearance conditions must be extended and clearly defined when dealing with cable stayed bridges The cross-fall of the roadway is of special importance because of the presence of lateral obstacles in the form of the arms of the pylons and the cables The minimum distances required between the roadway and these load-bearing elements are generally fixed by the employing authority

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(d)

65

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

No Iransverse bending

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• Transverse static performance of the pylons (Fig. 3.46)

The transverse static system must permit the establishment of a state of stable and permanent equilibrium, taking into account the influence of creep under the action of permanent loadings If necessary, the transverse slenderness of the arms should be maintained within reasonable limits by means of cross-beams

Where there is a structure of moderate dimensions, the pylon can be constructed as two independent vertical arms By locating the stays in the same vertical plane, all transverse forces due to displacements which could act on them are eliminated (Fig. 3.46(a)) This solution, ideal for the loading of the arms of the pylon, nevertheless leads to an increase in the width of the deck, which can adversely affect the economy of the whole (Fig 3.45(a)

66

i

I

00 00

Fig 3A7. Designs of pylons with one single plane of stays

Where the cables are in an inclined plane, making better use of the transverse clearance conditions, the arms of the pylon are subjected to significant transverse bending under permanent loads (Figs 345(b) and 346(b)) In order to minimise such forces and to provide against the damaging influence of creep (deformation of the cantilevers), it may be appropriate to adopt an asymmetric pylon cross-section

When the span of the bridge and hence the height of the pylons above the deck become greater, it is generally necessary to arrange cross-bracing, intended to reduce the transverse bending due to the slope of the stays (Fig 3 46(c)) This transverse bending can even be totally eliminated when a fan pattern is adopted for the stays, concentrated in the area of the cross-beams.

In large-span structures, the height of U1e pylon above the deck is sufficient to make it possible to slope the arms and join them at the top, WiU10ut reducing the free clearance

GENERAL DESIGN

(c)

(Figs 346(d) and (e) and 3.45(c)) The system thus produced offers all the strength and stability needed to take up the forces arising from the stays and from cross-winds. This can, in fact, become a governing factor, due to the significant effect of winds on the stays and pylons

3 4 3 2 Central suspension

Where central suspension is used, the pylons must meet basic conditions similar to those set out in § 3431

Where the structure is of moderate dimensions, provided with central cables in the harp pattern, the upper part of the pylon generally consists of a single central arm (Fig. 347(a)),

ntis solution can be extended to larger spans with central, semi-harp-pattern cables (Brotonne Bridge, Fig 3 47(b»)lhe transverse slenderness of the central arm is kept within reasonable limits by the presence of a horizontal adjusting force introduced by the cables (chapter 6). If the

67

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

central pylon is regarded as a point support, respecting the minimum distance em required from the roadway leads to an increase in the width of the deck (Fig 348(b» If, on the other hand, the pylon is designed to withstand traffic impact loads, it is possible to place the safety barrier on the pylon itself, thus avoiding any increase in width This alternative may prove to be a determining factor in the overall economy of the work

With a large span structure, calling for a considerable height of pylon above the deck, the transverse stability of the pylon may be ensured by dividing it below the anchorage zone (Flehe Bridge, Fig 3.47(c}). Whilst the architectural effect obtained may be interesting, it must still be said that this type of solution has economic and aesthetic limitations, because of erection difficulties and the dimensions required for the pylon

34A Operatronal qualities required and constructional details

344.1 Introduction

Experience gained since the days of the earliest cable stayed bridges shows that the design of the anchorages in the pylons must meet the following three conditions

• The anchorage must be accessible and must even permit replacement of the cable

• Structural detailing must permit Simple and economic placing of the stays

• The horizontal components of the forces in the stays should be balanced in a simple and permanent manner, without the introduction of torsion into the pylons

These elements can play a governing role and should

thus be taken into account in the initial design, in the same way as roadway clearance or structural behaviour as presented in §§ 3.4.2 and 34.3

3 4 4 2 External anchorages

Where the structure is of moderate size, pylons with plain sections can be used and the anchorages can be placed in traditional recesses, accessible from the outside (Fig 349) This simple and logical solution is very suitable for harp and semi-harp patterns Care should be taken, however, to see that torsional moments, whose cumulative effects could lead

68

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Fig. 3.48 Central suspension and clearance conditions

to unwanted deformations under the action of creep, are not introduced The splitting-up of one of the planes of cables avoids this problem in a way which is both simple and elegant Such a solution is perfectly adapted for dealing with a non-symmetrical structure, which needs bigger cable layouts in the back spans

0·11 096-1 86 017

1 30-220

Fig 3 49 External anchors

3.443 Anchorage by 'hooking'

An elegant solution, intended to simplify the construction procedure as much as possible, involves placing metal formers, fitted with a U-shaped opening at either end,

GENERAL DESIGN

in the pylons In these, the stay anchors are 'hooked' during erection These metal sections also provide for automatic balancing of the horizontal components of the forces in the stays (Fig 3 50).

This solution can lead to an overall saving, in spite of the use of costly metal elements It is particularly suitable for harp-pattern stay systems

3 444 Internal anchorages

For large-span structures, where the pylons have hollow sections, internal access to the anchorages can be gained by ladder or elevator (Fig 351). The space available within the section must be sufficient to receive the equipment needed for placing the stays and, as may be, their stressing In fact, stressing cables from the pylon can reduce the number of repositionings of the jacks and affect erection costs.

Balancing of horizontal forces is generally done by applying the appropriate prestress within the side walls (Fig 351(b))

3.4 5 Aesthetics and economy

Because of their very function as load-bearing elements, centralising the loads, the pylons have a governing influence on the overall architectural effect of a cable stayed bridge Now, a brief analysis of the most notable structures shows that aesthetic requirements do not clash with those of suitable structural behaviour, nor even with those of good structural detailing In other words, where a pylon meets the conditions set out in §§ 3.42 to 3.4.4, only minor modifications are generally required for it to be satisfactory from the aesthetic point of view

On the front face of a pylon (viewed from the traffic lanes) it is wise to emphasise the presence of anchorages by means of a groove, which can be extended beyond the anchorage zone (Fig 3 52) A similar groove or projection may also be provided on the side faces. By the use of climbing shutters, it is generally possible to incorporate aesthetic measures of this nature within the erection programme, with no appreciable increase in erection costs.

In the pylon of the Dusseldorf-Plehe Bridge (Fig 3 53), the stairs and lift provided in the two lateral grooves were hidden by coloured metal panels, so as to divide the massive pylon into two slender walls

The asymmetrical pylon of the bridge over the Rio Ebro (Fig 354) clearly illustrates the richness and elegance of the shapes which it is possible to conceive

69

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70

In major works, where there is a considerable free height below the deck, the lower part of the pylon should meet the strength condition mentioned in § 3425 The aesthetic appearance of a pylon should be treated with care, using scale models if necessary (Fig 3 55).

On the subject of erection, it should be stated that the erection of inclined arms of pylons is somewhat dffHcult and has a negative effect on the economy of the structure The choice of curved shapes (Fig 356) can also lead to a substantial increase in the cost of construction

The fact that the aesthetic appearance of cable stayed bridges depends to a large extent on the shape of the pylons has led many designers to search for new architectural forms, sometimes even to the detriment of strict statical logic While such endeavours may indeed be quite original and aesthetically pleasing, they usually result in a substantial increase in the cost

As examples of this trend, the Guadalquivir Bridge at Sevilla (Fig 3,57) and the Erasmus Bridge at Rotterdam (Fig 358) may be cited The first does not have any back-stay cables and the statical equilibrium was therefore partially achieved by the concrete counterweight of the massive inclined pylons Only two concentrated back-stays have

GENERAL DESIGN

been employed at the peak of the Erasmus Bridge The reactions of the main stays have thus to be taken by the branches of the kinked pylon, by a kind of arch action, which, however, introduced important bending moments in the latter. In both cases these particular measures Were quite expensive.

The extremely audacious Grand Viaduc de Millau (see Fig 216) which crosses the Tam Valley some 250 m above the ground serves as an excellent example of a fruitful and successful collaboration between engineers and architects: the high pylons (Fig 359) are very elegantly shaped by respecting the dictum 'that 'form follows function'

3.4 6, Choice of materials

Detailed analyses carded out during the construction of recent works have shown, in present market conditions, that steel pylons are more expensive than those in concrete The operational qualities required and the demands of statics lead to steel sections whose external dimensions are not far below those of a concrete section

A reinforced concrete pylon, or even a prestressed one, may be seen to be the answer, because of the appreciable savings in subsequent maintenance costs.

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72

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Fig .. 3 55 Study of overall aesthetics of a pylon using scale models

Fig 3 56 Curved arms of a pylon for the Coatzacoalcos Bridge, Mexico

Fig. 3.57. Guadalquivir Bridge at Sevilla, Spain

Fig. 3.58 Erasmus Bridge at Rotterdam, Netherlands

Fig. 359 Pylon of the 'Grand Viaduc de Mil/au', France (impression)

73

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The steel solution seems to be the answer only for structures with central suspension, when the minimum width of deck required is a governing factor in the overall economics

References

Brault J-l and Mathivat J Pont de Brotonne (France) ReVile Trmmux, Feb. 1976

2 Leonhardt F, Andra Wand Wintergerst L Kniebrucke Dusseldorf, Entwurfbearbeltung und Versuche BetonVerlag GmbH, Dusseldorf

3 Troitsky M S Cable-stayed bridges Crosby Lockwood Staples, London, 1977

4 De Miranda F II ponte strallato sull'Amo a Firenze in localita l'Indiano Cotlslruziolli Mela1liclw, 1978, p 241

5 Modemann J and Thonnissen K Die neue Rheinbrucke Dusseldorf-Fleha/ Neuss-Uedesheim, Plannung. Entwurf, Ausschreibung, Vergabe und Oberblick tiber den Ausfiihrungsentwurf, Bauingenieur, 54, 1979, 1-12, P 2

6 Leonhardt F, Zellner Wand Saul R Zwei Schragseilbrucken fur Eisenbahn und Strassenverkehr uber den Rio Parana (Argentinien) Siah/barl, 8/1979, p 228

7 Grant A and Prozzi V Ponte strallato in cementa arrnato precompresso suI fiume Columbia negH Stati Uniti ['Industrin liaiiana del Cementa, 411982, p 230

74

l

8 Leonhardt F Brilcken bridges, p 263 Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1982

9 Podolny W. and Scalzi J. Construction and design of cnble-sfa!fcd bridges, p 28 John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.

10 Scharnbeck H Abgespmmte MlIssivbriickell-11rliiuieri am Beispiel der Donmrbrilcke Metlen, pp 114-118 Vortrage Betontag 1981, Deutscher-Verein E V

11 Casado C. F, Javier M. A. and Troyano L. F Ponte strallato sui fiume Ebro presso Castejon per l'autostrada di Navarra (Spagna) L'brdustrin lialuma del Cemel1to, 3/1981, p. 154

12. Hess H and Vogel G 5talJ/bmr, 29, 1960, 8/p 225, 9/p 269 13 Faems L Ponts a haubans sur le canal Albert il Godsheide.

Acier-Siahl-Steel, 311978, p 87

14 Finsterwalder U Festschrift 50 JalIre filr DYTl)idag, p 190 Verlag G. Braun Karlsruhe, 1973

15 Paulik L and Sanchez Sanchez A Proyecto y construccion de los puentes atirantados Coatzacoalcos IT y Tampico 9th Int Conf DIP, Estocolrno, 1982

16 Paulik L. Le pont de Coatzacoalcos, Golfe du Mexique Grands travaux tail pont batirnent, peM, 11 Nov 1982

17 Association Franraise des Pants et Charpentes 12th Congress, Vancouver, 1984

4. Parametric study

75

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Contents
4,1, Introduction 77 43.,2 First order analysis 80
4,3.,3 Second order effects 81
4.2. Influence of stay layout 77
4.,2.1., Parameters imposed 77 4.4. Influence of pylon inertia on
42,2" Layout adopted 77 first order forces 82
42.3, Normal forces 78 441. Range of variation 82
4,,24., Moments in the deck 78 44,2, Moments and deformations in the deck
4,2.5. Moments in the pylons 79 and pylons 83
4,26, Deformations 79
4,5. Influence of connections between
4.3. Influence of deck inertia 80 pylons and deck 83
43,,1, Range of variation 80 4,,51, Range of variation 83
4,5,2, Moments and deformations 84 Evrlpos Bridge, Greece

Large span (215 m) cable stayed bridge with slender concrete deck (d = 45 cm)

76

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4,.1 Introduction

The static behaviour of cable stayed bridges is the result of a complex interaction between several parameters The aim of this chapter is to point to the influence of the principal characteristics, which are the layout of the stays, the inertia of the deck and the pylons, and the type of connection between the pylons and the deck

The examination is based on a symmetrical reference structure with multiple stays, having two pylons and a centre span of about 200 m (Fig 41) 'The analysis is carried out on an elastic model frame, making it possible to take into account the influence of geometric non-linearity in members in compression (second order effect), The loads on the structure are those due to permanent loads and the live loads defined in Fig 4 2

4.2 Influence of stay layout

42 1 Parameters Imposed

The influence of the layout of the stays is analysed on the basis of a static system with the following characteristics:

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PARAMETRIC STUDY

• The pylons are composed of two arms 4 5 m x 30m giving an inertia of 48 rn", that can be considered as a medium value (Fig 43)

• The deck has an equivalent thickness of 0 4 m, with a width of 13 m and an inertia of 007 m" (Fig 4.4)

• The two pylons are connected to the deck by an articulating joint

422 Layout adopted

The static behaviour of the structure can be understood by means of the three characteristic stay layouts shown in Fig 4.L Referring to the ideal fan pattern, a larger central span has been adopted with the aim of avoiding complete slackening of the back-stays

Fig 4 2 Live loads

77

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4.2.3 Normal forces

Normal forces in the deck and the pylon are shown in Fig 4 5. It should be said that the deck is appreciably more heavily stressed in a bridge of harp pattern than in one of fan pattern. In the particular case of this study, the difference is about 70% under dead load and 80% under dead and live loads As a result, the harp layout appears to be less suitable for large-span bridges, since the value of the normal force calls for considerable strengthening of the cross-section, to provide both strength and stability In addition, the total quantity of cables required is higher

78

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424 Moments In the deck

It can be seen in Fig. 46 that, under the effect of dead load, moments in the deck are small This is due on the one hand to the relatively close spacing of the cables, and on the other to the fact that these are tensioned so as to act as point supports to a continuous beam The moment at the pylon depends only on the distance to the first stay The choice of this distance is mainly dictated by aesthetic considerations and constructional procedures and is very little influenced by the cable layout

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PARAMETRIC STUDY

The moment envelopes under dead and live loads have three distinct zones (near to the abutments, in the vicinity of the pylons, and at the centre of the main span) where U1e maximum positive and negative moments appear The differences to be observed between the three types of stay pattern are not very marked, since the cables have comparable slopes in these zones

4.2 5 Moments In the pylons

Given that the tensions in the stays can be controlled in such a way that the moments are zero under dead weight, it is sufficient to show in Fig 47 the envelope of moments under live load. The maximum moments appear at deck level because of the connection with the pylon (framing effect)

4.26. Deformations

In Fig. 48, whatever the type of staying and the load case considered, it can be seen that there is very little difference in the level of deformation. However, the side span of a

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Fig. 4.8 Deck deformations under different load cases

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bridge using a fan pattern has smaller deflections for an unsymmetrical load This phenomenon is accentuated by the fact that this bay is shorter, and the fact that the deformations of the pylon, which correspond to the integral of the bending moments, are themselves smaller

4.3. Influence of deck inertia 4 3 1 Range of variation

The inertia of the pylon remaining constant at its assumed value of 48 m", that of the deck can be varied between 0·07 rn" and 105 rn" In Fig 4.9, several normal cross-sections can be seen corresponding to these values and with dead weights assumed to be the same

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Fig 410 Maximum moments in the deck as a function of deck inertia

80

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Fig. 411.. Envelope of moments in the deck (semi-harp pattern, [pylOn = 48 m4) as a function of deck inertia

So far as loading effects are concerned, only the moments are shown The normal force is not considered, given that the inertia of the deck has little influence on its maximum value, and that the self-weight, on which it mainly depends, remains constant

43 2 First order analysis

4.32.1 Moments in the deck

111e development of maximum positive and negative moments in the centre span, as a function of the inertia of the deck, is shown in Fig 4.10 It can be seen that they increase considerably and that the influence of the layout of the cables is relatively unimportant. The shape of the envelope of forces in the deck for three different values of the inertia (007 m", 1 05 m" and 350 m" respectively) is shown in Fig 4.11. It can be seen that the increase in moments is accompanied by an extension of the highly stressed zone of the deck, calling for corresponding reinforcement,

These observations lead to the conclusion that a deck with a high inertia in the longitudinal direction is not basically favourable It attracts considerable bending moments, without appreciably reducing the forces in the pylons and the cables, and it must be dimensioned in an appropriate manner The share of the overall forces which it takes up is not significantly increased Thus, by way of example, for case 3, inertia 3 5 rn", the sum of the maximum positive and negative moments is 55000 kN m, which represents only about 20% of the force system corresponding to a simple beam of the same length However, this conclusion must be treated with reservation, since high inertia may be seen to be necessary for large-span bridges where dynamic problems become important

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4.32.2. Moments in the pylons

In Fig 4 12, the development of extreme moments in the pylons can be seen as a function of the inertia of the deck, and the reduction of these forces is apparent This foreseeable behaviour (since a more rigid deck gives rise to larger moments) is particularly noticeable for decks of small inertia Comparison between Figs 4 10 and 4.12 shows that the variation in moments in the deck is much greater than that of moments in the pylons

43 2.3 Deformations of the deck

Figure 4 13 represents the maximum deformations of the centre span and side span as a function of the inertia of the deck They decrease, but only to a limited extent In fact, increasing the inertia of the deck from 007 m" to 105 m" reduces the deflection at mid-span in the centre bay by only 30% This underlines the importance of the role played by the stays

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PARAMETRIC STUDY

4.3.3 Second order elfects

433 1 Moments in the deck

The results of § 423 show that the normal force introduced into the deck by the stays can have quite high values Hence, depending on the deformability of the structure, it may be considered necessary to take into account the deformations when ensuring the equilibrium of internal forces (second order effects) Many computer programs are now available which will calculate this influence for plane frames The fundamentals of such a program are given in § 65.3.2. The aim of this section is to give some estimation of the second order forces and deformations and to show their changes as a function of the inertia of the deck

Figure 414 shows the variation, as a percentage, of the ratio of the moments of the second order Mil to those of the first order M' In the case of a loaded centre span, it will be seen that this ratio decreases. This is the result of the effects of a reduction of the deformations and an increase in moments This observed fact should not, however, be regarded as decisive when considering the choice of inertia

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81

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

for the deck during design The same applies when the load acts on the two side spans (The curve for the ratio M"/M' in the centre span is not given since the absolute value of the moments is very low)

4.332 Deformations of the deck

So far as the second order deformations are concerned, a similar behaviour is to be seen (Fig 415) Deformations of the second order represent at most 10% of those of the first order

4.4. Influence of pylon inertia on first order forces

4.4 1 Range of variation

The inertia of the deck being maintained at its basic value of o 07 m", that of the pylon is varied from 12 m! to 300 m" High values such as the latter can be called for in multi-span bridges where overall stability is entirely ensured by the stiffness of the pylons

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Fig 4.19. Envelope of moments in the deck for different pylon inertias

4.4.2 Moments and deformations in the deck and pylons The influence on the size of the moments and deformations is only significant between 12 m" and 150 m" (Figs 4 16 to 418). Beyond this limit, the curves become asymptotic However, the extent of the heavily stressed zones of the deck is hardly affected (Fig 4.19)

If bridges with three spans only are considered, it then appears that the choice of a very stiff pylon is not advisable ill fact, the increase in inertia results in an increase in maximum moments in the pylons (Fig 420), as opposed to the deck, for which the effect is favourable From an economic point of view, it is perhaps better to make fuller use of the stays Thanks to their large lever ann, the cables make it possible to relieve the superstructure efficiently, without it being necessary to strengthen the pylons

4 5. Influence of connections between pylons and deck

4 5 1. Range of variation

In the design of cable stayed bridges, the type of connection between the pylon and the deck can playa dominant role Among the various possible solutions, only the two extreme cases will be considered here:

• the deck is integral with the pylon

• the deck is 'floating', relative displacement between the deck and the pylon being possible

PARAMETRIC STUDY

The relative advantages of the two solutions arise from opposing conditions. As will be seen later, under the actions of live loads, considerable moments arise and these are less when the two elements are solidly linked The floating deck, however, can have decisive advantages, notably when dealing with the influence of creep, shrinkage, changes of temperature and seismic forces During the design of a scheme, the optimum solution may be found in choosing a hybrid system (fixing to only one pylon, or the use of elastic or hydraulic dampers)

1\
l\
~ IIJi'
!®~ :'-'
~ ~
IIJVV~
Wi6 \ ~
'L1 V 1& ~
I~
, ~ 1\ / V
-200000 a 200000 M(kNml

-300 000 -100000

@ Fan

100 000

300000

M (kNm)

-200 000 0 200 000

-300 000 -100 UOO 100 000 JOO 000

@ Ipylo• ~ 208 m'

Fig. 4 20 Envelope of moments in the pylon (or different pylon inertias (ldoCk = 007 mJ)

83

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

61cml

e tern! ® Fan

-,~r~

61eml

@ DecK "x.lllo pylon

@ Decklr."

Fig" 421 Deformations of the deck for different types of deck-to-pylon connection

CD Harp

o tern)
® Semi-harp
-100
-50
a
50
100
ISO
o (ern]
® Fan

-101)
SO
100 @ Dccl<lixedlopylon

@ Dcc.hee

Fig. 4.22 Deformations of the deck for different types of deck-to-pylon connection

84

M I~Nm)

-10 000

-5000

o

5 000

10 000

M IkNmi

@ Deckfiaed tu pylun

@ Dccklrec

Fig. 4.23. Envelope of moments in the deck for different types of deck-to-pylon connection

45 2 Moments and deformations

Relaxing the deck-to-pylon connection produces greater flexibility in the overall static system, with the result that there are increased deformations (Fig, 4.2n This effect is accentuated where there are asymmetric loads which cause longitudinal displacements of the deck The vertical deflections can then be three times those of the connected system (Fig 4.22)

This increase in deformations, which is accompanied by increase of the moments (Figs 4 23 and 4 24), is particularly noticeable for harp and semi-harp patterns These are also characterised by appreciable extension of the very heavily stressed zones, giving rise to the need to strengthen considerably greater areas of the deck In this respect, the fan pattern seems more favourable

PARAMETRIC STUDY

G) Harp

V1 i\
I I
,@ 1 I "t[?
V \ r- ~
/x ,
:8 ,
/ (\ 'tZ;)
/ 1\' ~.
~I' -,
,/ I
V \ K
/ \ r,
/ \ 1\
-200000 0 200000 M IkN rn]

-300 000

-100 000

100000

lOO 000

® Fao

10 V ~ G
> / 1\ 0)
'i?
, -.:;J ~ \ \
J
/
/ I
\
j \
/' ~
I
/ \
I
I
-200 000 0 200000 M ,kN rn)

-300000

- 100 000

100 000

300 000

@ Deck Ilxed In pylon

@Dacklme

Fig 4.24. Envelope of moments in Ihe pylon for different types of deck-to-ovton connection

85

5. Stay technology

87

l

CABLE ST A YEO BRIDGES

Contents
5.1. Introduction 89 5.3$ Anchorages for locked-cell cables 97
5.3,6. Carbon fibre cables 98
5.2. Cables 89
5.2-1, Types of cable 89 5.4. Protection of cables 99
5.2,2 Parallel-bar cables 89 5.4-1. General 99
52,3. Parallel-wire cables 91 5A,2. Ducts and tubes 99
5.2.4- Stranded cables 91 5A3, Galvanisi ng 99
5,2.5. Locked-coil cables 92 5 .. 4.4- Coating 100
5.4.5. Protection of anchorages 100
5.3. Anchorages 93 5 .. 4 .. 6., Protection against accidents 100
5.3,1 General 93
5$.2 .. Anchorage for parallel-bar cables 93 References 100
5.3.3. Anchorage for parallel-wire cables 94
5,3A. Strand cable anchorages 95 Bibliography 101 Vasco da Gama Bridge, Lisbon Erection of the stays

BB

5. 1 .. Introduction

As has been seen in chapter 2, the inadequate quality of the anchorages and of the steel used for the manufacture of the stays were the basic causes of the set-backs experienced with the first cable stayed bridges to be built. The development of high-strength steels and suitable anchorages within the general realm of prestressed concrete made it possible to overcome in a satisfactory manner these problems in this type of structure

However, the search for maximum static resistance sometimes goes contrary to good fatigue- and corrosion-resistance If particular care is paid to the design of the constructional details and to protective measures, modem technology nevertheless makes it possible to manufacture stays which offer the required guarantees of suitability, durability and load-bearing capacity.

521 Types of cable

The suspension systems of bridges at present in service fall into the following categories (Table 51):

• parallel-bar cables

• parallel-Wire cables

• stranded cables

• locked-coil cables

Slaellube

Th,eaded bar

Spate, + Inlecledgroul

If 7'f ,m ", 'f 7' ,,), 7 P ifi "P}'tJ..!1.!f._ I1Jr _·ZJ:Z47Ii17i7Vd,i7iJTIZ,j?1777I( u d'4 ,.~

Fig 51. Threaded bars, 16 mm die

ST A Y TEOHNOLOGY

The choice of one of these types depends on the mechanical properties required (modulus of elasticity, ultimate tensile strength, durability etc) as well as on structural and economic criteria (erection, design of the anchorages etc) ..

52 .. 2. Parallel-bar cables

Parallel-bar cables are formed of steel rods or bars, parallel to each other and in metal ducts, kept in position by polyethylene spacers The bars can slide in the longitudinal direction, which Simplifies the process of tensioning them individually Injection of cement grout, carried out after erection! makes sure that the duct plays its part in resisting the stresses due to the live loads

Since transport in reels is only possible for the smallest diameters (diameter 16 mrn, Fig 5.1), other members (Fig 5 2) are delivered in bars of lengths 15-20 m Continuity then has to be provided by the use of couplers, which considerably reduces the fatigue strength of the stay

The use of relatively mild steel (Table 5.2, St 85/105 and 110/125) necessitates larger sections than when using high-strength wires or strands This leads to a reduction in the stress variations and thus lessens the risk of fatigue failure I However, the placing of such bars can only be envisaged when dealing with a bridge where the dead loads are predominant compared with the live loads, so that the reduced bar stiffness does not ptove to be critical (§ 6.4.1, Ernst's modulus).

Sloel lube

Th,eaded bar

Spacer + intecHH1graut

Gauphu

Fig. 5.2. Threaded bars, 26 5 mm dia , 32 mm dia and 36 mm dia

89

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Table 51 Principal types of cable

15 mm

Typo 01 oabl;

Coupled bars 7036 Steel 835/1030

Uncoupled bars 26016

Parallel wires 12807

Strands 27015

Locked-col I cables

~-

IF- .... *2 .c.'''' -?~--'=8'?2$

Tendons Bars Bars Wires Strands Wires with different
0265,32,36 016mm o 6,7 mm o 05,06,07 in profiles
of 7 twisted wires 029-7 mm
0·2% proof stress, 835 1080 1350 1470 1570 - 1670
0"02 (N/mm2)
Ultimate tensile strength, 1030 1230 1500 1670 1770 -~ 1870 1000 ~- 1300
p~ (N/mm2)
Fatigue'
t;,.(J (N/mm2) 80 350 300 - 320 120 - 150
(Jm a .lP, 060 045 05 - 045 -045
Modulus of elasticity, 210 000 210000 205000 90 000 ~. 200 000 160 000 ~- 165000
E (N/mm2)
Failure load 7339 7624 7487 7634 7310
(kN)
, Cable strength without taking into account the effect of the anchorages Table 5.2. Capacity of normal bars

Quality of steel St 85/105 St 110/125 St 135/150
Nominal diameter (mm) 265 32 36 265 32 36 16
Nominal cross-section of steel (mm2) 5515 8042 10179 551 5 8042 10179 201 1
02% proof stress, 0"02 (N/mm2) 835 835 835 1080 1080 1080 1325
Ultimate strength, pz (N/mm2) 1030 1030 1030 1230 1230 1230 1470
Ultimate foad per bar (kN) 568 8284 10484 6784 9892 1252 2956
Service load per bar (at 045Pz) (kN) 2256 3727 4718 3053 4451 5634 133 Table 5 3. Capacity of normal parallel-wire cables, 7 mm dia
Number of wires' 61 91 121 163 211 253 313
Nominal cross-section of steel (mm2) 385 23485 35035 46585 62755 81235 97405 12050 5
02% proof stress, 0"02 (N/mm2) 1520 1520 1520 1520 1520 1520 1520 1520
Ulti mate strength, pz (N/mm2) 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670 1670
Ultl mate load (kN) 643 3922 58508 77797 10480 1 135663 162666 201243
Service load (at o 45flz) (kN) 189 17649 26329 35009 4716 61048 7320 9056
• Currently proposed by the manufacturers
90 Having developed this technique, Dywidag applied it to the construction of the Hoechst Bridge, in Germany (1971) The cables used? consist of 25 threaded bars (16 mm dia., St 135/150) placed in metal ducts (St 35, thickness 54 mm) with an external diameter of 1937 mm

523 Parallel-wire cables

In the 19th century, J Roebling developed a technique of spinning parabolic cables for suspension bridges, little improved upon since that time It consists of drawing between the two towers a group of small-diameter, mild steel wires, using a carriage running on those members already stretched across,

Today, parallel wires are to be found in other fields of action, for cable stayed bridges and prestressed concrete, They are of high-strength, drawn steel and are placed in metal or polyethylene ducts The ducts are generally injected with a cement grout after erection (Fig 533)

In the BBRV process, each stay consists of a bundle of 7 mm dia. wires, the number varying between 50 and 350, The stays are thus formed from members which can be delivered on reels, and in operation they can withstand forces of 1300-9000 kN (Table 5,3) Their fatigue strength is satisfactory, mainly because of their good mechanical properties

Polyethylene duct

Protective gfOut

Prestressing wires

88 RV bul10n nead

-,

~!C! ~==~==~~==~-£r

Fig 53 Parallel-wire cables

STAY TECHNOLOGY

It can be deduced from test results" that the wires can withstand a stress variation of 350-400 N/mm2 over two miIlion cycles with a maximum stress of 750 N/mm2, which is 44% of the tensile strength of the steel, p,

5,2.4 Stranded cables

With widespread uses in the various prestressing procedures, strands have recently been newly applied in a major way to the manufacture of stays, mainly for economic reasons, In fact, in spite of the fluctuations in the market-often unforeseeable=-strand is now available fairly cheaply because of mass production.

Each strand consists of seven twisted wires, with an external diameter of 127 mm (05 in) or 1778 nun (07 in) (Fig 54, Tables 54 and 55) When the cables are stressed, the lateral stresses which are produced have a bad effect on their fatigue resistance Also, their sensitivity to corrosion is increased, since, for a given cross-sectional area, the perimeter of a section made up of many wires is greater than that of a single circular member. However, technical progress associated with effective protection measures has made it possible to overcome these problems in a satisfactory manner

Table 5 4 Strand capacities

..
Nominal diameter:
mm 127 152t 157t 178
inch 05 06 06 07
Standard SIA 162 ASTM Euro- SIA 162
A 416-74 norme
Grade 270 138-79
Nominal 100 140 150 195
cross-section
of steel (mm2)
02% proof stress, (1500)" ( 1500)* (1500)' ( 1500)'
0"02 (N/mm2) 1640 1670 1570 1590
(1700)' (1700)' (1700)' ( 1700)'
Ulti mate strength, (1700)' (1700)' (1709), (1700)'
flz (N/mm2) 1820 1860 1770 1770
(1900)' (1900), (1900)' ( 1900)'
Ultimate load per 182 2604 2655 3452
strand (kN)
Service load per 81 9 117 2 1195 1553
strand (at 045flz)
(kN) • limiting values guaranteed by the different manufacturers t Usual strands

91

~..,_ c • , • ,. •

. .

, ,

····I}I)): '. . ,

~~~h •

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Table 5.5. Capacity of usual strand cables

37 strands' 61 strands' 91 strands'
Ultimate load Service load Ultl mate load Service load Ultimate load Service load
(at flz) (kN) (at o 45flz) (kN) (at {lz) (kN) (at OA5Pz) (kN) (at fiz) (kN) (at 045/3z) (kN)
Nominal diameter (mm):
127 6734 30303 11 102 49959 16562 74529
152 96348 43357 158844 7148 236964 10 663 4
15·7 98235 44206 16 1955 7288 24 1605 108722
178 127724 57476 21 0572 94757 31 4132 14 1359 • Currently proposed by the manufacturers

It must also be mentioned that strands are of widely varying quality This is due, in particular, to the large number of manufacturers, to alloys and to the ways in which the steel is treated It is thus necessary to carry out tests in official laboratories, to check products in advance

52.5. Locked-coil cables

Experience acquired with suspension bridges, where locked-coil cables are used as the vertical suspension rods, led to the erection of the first cable stayed bridges using this type of cable Since then, the methods of manufacturing these cables and the quality and mechanical strength of the wires of which they are made up have been greatly improved. The wires are arranged in successive layers, wound around a central core which consists of circular, parallel wires (Fig 55) On the outside, elongated S-sections

Polyelhylene duel

/-=.:

Spacer

Slrand

are used, and in view of the extent of their overlapping, these form an envelope which is more or less watertight (hence the name 'locked-coil cable') This effect is even more emphasised by the action of the lateral stresses produced during tensioning+" Units are thus obtained which consist of eight or nine layers of 4,7 nun dia wires, reaching an ultimate load of 6000-12900 kN (fable 56).

The advantages of locked-coil cables lie in the ease of placing, the economy arising from the fact that ducts and grouting are unnecessary, the reduced anchorage space and

S·seclionw'res

Tr.ilpezoi-dilJ 9CC~J0!1 wiles

RoundwlJo

l

, ." ~ ,~/. ,;' t : ',' '/ I, ~I~",;,. ~,.""JI .~Pt .~; '::;"1'J.,;JIJ~;~~\-;'.$-;'TJ.N.'hl~<~~~~j:;~;'4;'''>~..,..,J'''~--'''~~''''~"~ ~-

" > '

>" ' ' - •

" . ,

f ,? c " "

" '~' .: "". .': l'" ~ \ ,

, .

Sirand

Fig. SA Strand cable

92

Fig 5.5 Locked-coil cable