Boundary layer thickness

This page describes some parameters

used to characterize the properties of
a boundary layer formed by fluid
flow along a wall. The boundary
layer concept was first described by
Ludwig Prandtl.[1] Consider a
stationary body with a fluid flowing
around it, like the semi-infinite flat
plate with air flowing over the top of Schematic drawing depicting fluid flow over a flat plate.
the plate (assume the flow and the
plate extends to infinity in the
positive/negative direction perpendicular to the plane). At the solid walls of the body the fluid
satisfies a no-slip boundary condition and has zero velocity, but as you move away from the wall, the
velocity of the flow asymptotically approaches the free stream mean velocity. Therefore, it is impossible
to define a sharp point at which the boundary layer becomes the free stream, yet this layer has a well-
defined characteristic thickness. The parameters below provide a useful definition of this characteristic,
measurable thickness. Also included in this boundary layer description are some parameters useful in
describing the shape of the boundary layer.

Contents
Boundary Layer thickness
Displacement thickness
Momentum thickness
Energy thickness
Shape factor
Moment Method
Further reading
Notes
References

Boundary Layer thickness

The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance across a boundary layer from the walls to a point where
the flow velocity has essentially reached the 'free stream' velocity, . This distance is defined normal to
the wall. It is customarily defined as the point where:
at a point on the wall . For laminar boundary layers over a flat plate, the Blasius solution to the flow
governing equations gives:[2]

For turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate, the boundary layer thickness is given by:[3]

where

is the overall thickness (or height) of the boundary layer

is the Reynolds number

is the density
is the freestream velocity
is the distance downstream from the start of the boundary layer
is the dynamic viscosity
is the kinematic viscosity

The turbulent boundary layer thickness formula assumes 1) the flow is turbulent right from the start of
the boundary layer and 2) the turbulent boundary layer behaves in a geometrically similar manner (i.e.
the velocity profiles are geometrically similar along the flow in the x-direction, differing only by
stretching factors in and [4]). Neither one of these assumptions are true for the general turbulent

boundary layer case so care must be exercised in applying this formula.

The velocity thickness can also be referred to as the Soole ratio, although the gradient of the thickness
over distance would be adversely proportional to that of velocity thickness.

Displacement thickness
The displacement thickness, δ* or δ1 is the distance by which a surface would have to be moved in the
direction parallel to its normal vector towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity
to give the same flow rate as occurs between the surface and the reference plane in a real fluid.[5]

In practical aerodynamics, the displacement thickness essentially modifies the shape of a body immersed
in a fluid to allow an inviscid solution. It is commonly used in aerodynamics to overcome the difficulty
inherent in the fact that the fluid velocity in the boundary layer approaches asymptotically to the free
stream value as distance from the wall increases at any given location.

The definition of the displacement thickness for compressible flow is based on mass flow rate:

The definition for incompressible flow can be based on volumetric flow rate, as the density is constant:
where and are the density and velocity in the 'free stream' outside the boundary layer, and is the
coordinate normal to the wall.

For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time averaged density and velocity at the edge of the
boundary layer must be used. In the equations above, and are therefore replaced with and .

The displacement thickness is used to calculate the boundary layer's shape factor.

Momentum thickness
The momentum thickness, θ or δ2, is the distance by which a surface would have to be moved
perpendicular from the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity to give the same total
momentum as exists between the surface and the reference plane in a real fluid.[6]

The definition of the momentum thickness for compressible flow is based on mass flow rate:

The definition for incompressible flow can be based on volumetric flow rate, as the density is constant:

Where and are the density and velocity in the 'free stream' outside the boundary layer, and is the
coordinate normal to the wall.

For turbulent boundary layer calculations, the time averaged density and velocity at the edge of the
boundary layer must be used. In the equations above, and are therefore replaced with and .

For a flat plate at zero angle of attack with a laminar boundary layer, the Blasius solution gives.[7]

The influence of fluid viscosity creates a wall shear stress, , which extracts energy from the mean flow.
The boundary layer can be considered to possess a total momentum flux deficit, due to the frictional
dissipation given by:

Energy thickness
The energy thickness, , is the distance by which a surface would have to be moved parallel to its
normal vector towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid stream of velocity to give the same total
kinetic energy as exists between the surface and the reference plane in a real fluid.[8]

The definition of the energy thickness for compressible flow is based on mass flow rate:

The definition for incompressible flow can be based on volumetric flow rate, as the density is constant:

Where and are the density and velocity in the 'free stream' outside the boundary layer, and is the
coordinate normal to the wall.

Shape factor
A shape factor is used in boundary layer flow to determine the nature of the flow.

where H is the shape factor, is the displacement thickness and θ is the momentum thickness. The
higher the value of H, the stronger the adverse pressure gradient. A high adverse pressure gradient can
greatly reduce the Reynolds number at which transition into turbulence may occur.

Conventionally, H = 2.59 (Blasius boundary layer) is typical of laminar flows, while H = 1.3 - 1.4 is
typical of turbulent flows.[9]

Moment Method
A relatively new method[10][11] for describing the thickness and shape of the boundary layer utilizes the
moment method commonly used to describe a random variable's probability distribution. The moment
method was developed from the observation that the plot of the second derivative of the Blasius
boundary layer for laminar flow over a plate looks very much like a Gaussian distribution curve.[12] It is
straightforward to cast the properly scaled velocity profile and its first two derivatives into suitable
integral kernels.

The velocity profiles central moments are defined as:

where the mean location is given by:

There are some advantages to also include descriptions of moments of the boundary layer profile
derivatives with respect to the height above the wall. Consider the first derivative velocity profile central
moments given by:

where the mean location is the displacement thickness .

Finally the second derivative velocity profile central moments are given by:

where the mean location is given by:

With the moments and the mean locations defined, the boundary layer thickness and shape can be
described in terms of the boundary layer widths (variance), skewnesses, and excesses (excess kurtosis).
Experimentally, it is found that the turbulent boundary layer thickness defined as where
, tracks the 99% thickness very well.[13]

Taking a cue from the boundary layer momentum balance equations, the second derivative boundary
layer moments, track the thickness and shape of that portion of the boundary layer where the viscous
forces are significant. Hence the moment method makes it possible to track and quantify the inner
viscous region using moments whereas the outer region of the turbulent boundary layer is tracked
using and moments.

Calculation of the derivative moments without the need to take derivatives is simplified by using
integration by parts to reduce the moments to simply integrals based on the displacement thickness
kernel:

This means that the first derivative skewness, for example, can be calculated as:

This parameter was shown to track the boundary layer shape changes that accompany the laminar to
turbulent boundary layer transition.[14]

Further reading
Rosenhead, Louis, ed. Laminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press, 1963.
Lagerstrom, Paco Axel. Laminar flow theory. Princeton University Press, 1996.
Schlichting, Hermann, et al. Boundary-layer theory. Vol. 7. New York: McGraw-hill, 1960.
 Frank M. White, "Fluid Mechanics", McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, 2003.

Notes
1. L. Prandtl, (1904), “Über Flüssigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung,” Verhandlungen
des Dritten Internationalen Mathematiker-Kongresses in Heidelberg 1904, A. Krazer, ed.,
Teubner, Leipzig, (1905) 484–491.
2. Schlichting, p.140.
3. Schlichting, p. 638.
4. Schlichting, p.152.
5. Schlichting, p. 140.
6. Schlichting, p. 141.
7. Schlichting, p. 141.
8. Rosenhead, Louis, ed. Laminar boundary layers. Clarendon Press, 1963.
9. Schlichting, p. 454.
10. Weyburne, 2006.
11. Weyburne, 2014.
12. Weyburne, 2006, p. 1678.
13. Weyburne, 2014, p. 26.
14. Weyburne, 2014, p. 25.

References
Schlichting, Hermann (1979). Boundary-Layer Theory, 7th ed., McGraw Hill, New York,
U.S.A.
Weyburne, David (2006). "A mathematical description of the fluid boundary layer," Applied
Mathematics and Computation, vol. 175, pp. 1675–1684
Weyburne, David (2014). "New thickness and shape parameters for the boundary layer
velocity profile," Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 54, pp. 22–28

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