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English 101
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Drug Use as a Social Construct
Whether we recognize it or not, all human beings’ lives are heavily influenced by the

culture that we live in. That is to say that most of us probably take for granted many of the

abstract ideals that we build our entire existences around. These unspoken rules (i.e. marriage,

beauty, money, and gender) are determined by our culture and are called social constructs.

Because they are so deeply embedded in whom we are as a society it is easy to overlook them

and forget that each of these constructs may vary greatly in other cultures. Drug use in particular

is something that Americans feel so strongly about that it seems almost ridiculous to imagine a

society in which drug use is acceptable. It is important to investigate its origins, meanings, and

effects both in the United States and in other cultures so that we can gain an understanding of

why drugs are so feared in our country and decide whether or not this fear is rational. If the

research indicates that the stigma on drug use is not proportional to its risks, then we will

propose reasonable improvements to be made upon this social construct.

We will begin investigating drug use as a social construct by first tracing its origins to its

present stigma in American culture. An article published in Scientific American interestingly

points out that as Americans, our view on drug use may be so distorted that much of the factual

history of drug use has been lost from public record: “…drug taking has been either erased from

public memory or so distorted that it becomes useless as a point of reference for policy

formation.” (Musto). In response to this issue, the same article outlines a brief history of drug use

and the associated stigma as follows: “During the 19th century, certain mood-altering substances,
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such as opiates and cocaine, were often regarded as compounds helpful in everyday life.

Gradually this perception of drugs changed. By the early 1900s, and until the 1940s, the country

viewed these and some other psychoactive drugs as dangerous, addictive compounds that needed

to be severely controlled.” (Musto). The author also mentions in this article that there was a

noticeable resurgence of acceptance of drug use during the 1960’s and 1970’s, which was then

followed by a declaration of a “War on Drugs” by President Nixon that continues to fuel the

general anti-drug stigma in the country today (Musto).

It is important to note that like almost all aspects of American culture, drug use is not

native to North America. Cannabis use seems to be as old as human history itself; ancient uses of

the marijuana plant range from weaving material to spiritual rituals and medicinal purposes

(Blaszczak). Furthermore leaves from coco plants (from which cocaine is derived) native to

Latin America were chewed by indigenous people for their mood enhancing properties, and

opium found on the outside of poppy pods native to Eastern China were consumed in a similar

manner (Musto). The Old World explorers and settlers would have brought these traditional uses

of drugs with them from their indigenous cultures and endowed them to North America during

colonial times.

The use of drugs has always been a part of human cultures around the world and

currently continues in countries outside of the United States: cannabis, alcohol and other drug

consumption amongst underage males and females is reported in the Netherlands and Canada,

and in notably higher rates than those in the US. The differing rates in drug use between the

countries may be caused by more lenient drug policies in the Netherlands and Canada

(Netherlands). As will be discussed later in the research, many countries outside the US have less

strict drug policies so it follows that these countries would not carry the same negative anti-drug
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stigma. Therefore there is a greater presence of drug use, or at least a greater willingness of users

to report their habits, in the respective countries. Moreover, the negative attitude towards

drug use in America allows for only a very small window in the lives of individuals in which

drug experimentation may begin. Taylor Ozietta similarly describes the origins of drug use on

the individual level: “consequences of licit and illicit substance dependence have their beginning

in the onset of substance use, misuse, and abuse during the adolescent years.” (Ozietta). As the

start of drug use among individuals in America begins at a very particular time in their lives, it

follows that the meanings of drug use in our country coincide with adolescent lack of precaution.

It follows that when Americans think of drug use some very specific ideas and meanings

come to mind. Many of these meanings are derived from the most popularly used drugs. PBS

lists and outlines some of these drugs in a Frontline article: the five most frequently used illicit

drugs in the US are amphetamines, cocaine, crack, LSD, and marijuana. Amphetamines are a

popular choice among students and blue collar workers because its effects, which include

increased energy, wakefulness, and focus, help students to put in long hours of studying and

workers (i.e. truck drivers) to stay awake to work long and odd hours. Cocaine was viewed as a

harmless drug that increased mood and wakefulness for centuries and was a popular ‘club drug’

during the 1970’s and ‘80’s, until crack cocaine (a smoke able form of the drug) hit the streets in

1985. Crack cocaine received a negative stigma because it was the primary target of the US

government’s fight against drug use in impoverished inner-city neighborhoods; a survey

conducted in 1994 that reported as many as “84.5% of convicts of crack possession being black,”

is a testament to the popular view of the type of people who used the drug (A Social History).

Both LSD and marijuana became popular during the 1960’s and ‘70’s as therapeutic and

recreational drugs; however use of LSD declined during the ‘80’s as cocaine became more
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popular. Beginning in the mid 1990’s and continuing to the present, marijuana saw an increase in

popularity as some states began to pass bills for its legalization for medicinal and even

recreational purposes in many states in the Western US (A Social History). Since this country is

such a powerful global influence, it comes as no surprise that its domestic definitions of drug use

are hardly contained inside the US.

Drug use has a meaning in other cultures that is similar to that within the US. Although

the declaration of a ‘war on drugs’ will be discussed in more depth shortly, it is important to

realize that as an influential member of the United Nations, America superimposed its fight

against drug use on many Nations around the world. Fernanda Mena outlines how the United

States essentially cornered many countries into adopting their ideas toward drug use. “An

additional ‘war on drugs’ strategy,” she explains, “was to ‘certify’ countries for cooperation in

US anti-drugs efforts, and those who failed to meet US standards faced economic sanctions, such

as withdrawal of aid or trade benefits.” Mena goes on to explain how the US placed additional

pressure on Latin American countries to give into the fight against drugs because of their role as

a global supplier of coco plants for cocaine production (Mena et al.). Thus many cultures

worldwide share the same meaning of drug use as the US because they were forced into

compliance through ultimatums imposed by UN. However, fourteen of these countries now

enforce much less strict anti-drug laws after submitting and passing the “Support Global Drug

Policy Reform” through UN in June 2009, which claimed that the criminalization of drugs is

“both counterproductive and highly destructive” (Mena et al.). Due to their reformed drug policy,

many UN members (specifically the Netherlands and Canada) saw an increase in the rate of drug

use (“Netherlands compared with the United States”). It is only logical that a reduction in the
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stigma followed the reduction in the criminalization of drugs, and therefore the meaning of

‘harder’ drug use in the respective countries is now less negative than it is in America.

While the general meanings of drug use both inside and outside the United States as per

the most popular drugs of choice have been explored above, it is equally important to discuss the

implications, or uses, of drug stigma. A vast majority of the recent and modern research on drug

use focuses on the detrimental effects that it has on individuals. Take for example the claims of

the dangers of drug use found in The Cultural Influence of Adolescent Prescription Drug Abuse,

which argues that approximately 10-13% of high school students admit to using potent

prescription drugs for non-medicinal (recreational) use in the past. Most popular among these

abused prescription drugs are central nervous system stimulants prescribed as ADHD

medications such as Ritalin, Adderall, Concerta, and Vyvanse; and also opioids prescribed for

chronic pain or surgery recovery include Vicodin, codeine, Percocet and Oxycontin.

Unfortunately for the adolescents who misuse such medications, they are extremely habit-

forming and if users become dependent on them, users will face withdrawal symptoms that are

psychologically and physiologically costing (Ozietta). Not coincidentally, these types of claims

through research couple with laws prohibiting drug use in a way that seems to support the

popular view of drug use as a dangerous lifestyle choice that must be removed from the

American public. Another source explains that “In 1971, President Nixon identified [the

potential dangers of] drugs as the US ‘public enemy number 1’ and declared a ‘war on drugs’,

proclaiming that ‘every son and daughter’ in the US was ‘at risk’ because of drugs” (Mena et

al.). Therefore, we can see that the stigma on drug use was implemented by the government to

serve the purpose of protecting the public from the potential dangers imposed by drug addiction.
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The meaning of drug use has been continuously changing over the course of centuries in

the United States. Must explains the different meanings of drug use over time as follows: prior to

the industrial revolution (which occurred from about 1760 to 1840) users would have had to

chew coco leaves or poppy pods to achieve drug effects, but the advent of organic chemistry

toward the end of the revolution made new forms of these drugs available, such as injectable

morphine and a hydrochloride- powdered form of cocaine (Musto). As the view of drug use

became increasingly negative throughout American history, the implied effects of drug use

followed in a similar manner.

Unfortunately, the general stigma on substance use increases negative effects on both

individuals and society following drug use. Authors Manski, Pepper and Petrie point out an

important idea in their investigative text: “No responsible analysis of the harmful consequences

of drug use can ignore the possibility that many of the harms of drug use are either caused or

augmented by the legal prohibition against these drugs and its enforcement” (63). It is ironic that

in trying to protect its citizens, the government seems to only cause more harm. Another source

argues “Conversely, we argue that drug prohibition harms society in several ways, in particular

creating a black market that has little concern for human rights, as participants do not have

access to the legal and judicial system in order to resolve disputes, and as a consequence seek

other methods of reaching a resolution, in particular violence” (Mena et al.). Thus society as a

whole is negatively affected by the present social construction of drug use.

In some aspects the effects of drug use are even worse for the individual participants. One

source focuses on the direct effects of drug use, by reminding us that “the non-medical use of

certain drugs (i.e. opioids [and stimulants]) can lead to physiological and psychological

dependence and social stigma…” and also, “improper use can result in fatal and nonfatal
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overdoses,” along with other immediate health risks (Ozietta). While the effects can be quite

detrimental to the individual in American culture, individuals from the cultures discussed

previously do not suffer as many negative effects from drug use because the social stigma and

risk of incarceration are not as pronounced. However, drug users in all cultures can be affected

by the physical and mental risks associated with substance misuse (Mena et al.). Additionally it

is important to recognize that in time periods in which drug use was considered acceptable, the

absence of drug prohibition efforts would have removed the stigma on drug users (Manski 64).

In essence, stigma on drug use turns drug users into criminals and increases crime; but in times

when the stigma was removed users would not have become societal outcasts and criminals.

Now that the origins, meanings, and effects of drug use have been discussed throughout

time and around the world, some important implications of drug use can be used to suggest

improvements for this social construct, as well as employ some values of American culture.

First, recall that other cultures including Latin America, the Netherlands, and Canada chose not

enforce drug laws as strongly as the United States as per the “Support Global Drug Policy

Reform”. These countries’ decision to reduce criminalization of drugs was a decision made in

the interest of the overall wellbeing of the respective nations. In other words, Latin America, the

Netherlands, Canada, and the remaining countries who supported the reform did so because they

realized that drug prohibition was causing harm to the nations by creating black markets that

wrote business contracts in blood of individuals who crossed them. In doing so, these cultures

chose the health of their societies in their entirety over the possibility of diminished health of

individual citizens. Therefore the fourteen nations who reformed their drug policies proved that

they are less individualistic than America, who continues to attempt to preserve the health of

individuals over their nation.

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The research on drug use implies that Americans tend to believe that the mishappenings

of individuals (i.e. drug use and eventual addiction) is a result of that individual’s personal

decisions. America breeds a culture that places its strength on the people who inhabit so that they

may make meaningful contributions to the country throughout their lives. In conclusion, America

may benefit greatly if it adopted the value placed on community as demonstrated by other

cultures. In doing so, US officials may realize that the ‘war on drugs’ is costing the nation and

individuals who choose to use drugs more than what its worth to live in a world without drugs.

The use of virtually any drug other than marijuana in America is so stigmatized that most

Americans probably do not realize that drug use is a social construct and there is no “right” or

“wrong” answer to a culture’s view on drug use. In the research we have discussed periods of

drug acceptance and utter prohibition throughout American history. It has also been revealed that

the US essentially used its global influence through the UN to impose its ideas about drug use

onto many countries around the world. Furthermore, we recognized that in prohibiting drug use

America imposes many negative effects on drug users and on society, aside from the immediate

effects of substance misuse. Perhaps the most important finding was that fourteen members of

UN opened their eyes to the negative consequences of drug criminalization in 2009 by rewriting

their drug policies. The United States may benefit greatly if it were to adopt the ideals displayed

through its fellow UN members’ global drug policy reform.

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Annotated Bibliography

"A Social History of America's Most Popular Drugs." PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2015.

Discusses the past and present meanings of the use of the most popular drugs in America.
Includes amphetamines, cocaine, crack, LSD, and marijuana. I like this article because it
captures the general images that come to mind when prompted to think about what drug
use looks like in our society.

Blaszczak, By Agata. "Marijuana's History: How One Plant Spread Through the World."
LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 17 Oct. 2014. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.

This source is an article that briefly describes the ancient origins of cannabis (marijuana).
It was useful in exploring the origins of drug use: it helped me arrive at the conclusion
that drug use has always been a part of human cultures. Interestingly, I was also able to
use this article to explore how the meanings of drug use (particularly marijuana) have
changed throughout time.

Manski, Charles F., John Pepper, and Carol Petrie. “Committee on Law and Justice and
Committee on National Statistics, National Research Council. Informing America's
Policy on Illegal Drugs: What we Don't Know Keeps Hurting Us”. National Academies
Press, 2001. Web.

Discusses determinants/consequences of drug use and it acknowledges that many harms

of drug use are caused/amplified by the legal prohibition of certain drugs and its
enforcement. It also describes the negative effects of drug use on individuals caused by
the criminalization of drugs by the government. The article implies that drug use turns
people into criminals, not the other way around.

Mena, Fernanda, and Dick Hobbs. "Narcophobia: Drugs Prohibition And The Generation Of
Human Rights Abuses." Trends In Organized Crime 13.1 (2010): 60-74. Academic
Search Premier. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.

Main claim is that prohibition is driven by moralism rather than empirical findings. Drugs
have been prohibited in America as far back as 1870's in anti-opium laws aimed against
Chinese immigrants is a topic included in the article that will be useful in discussing the
meaning of drug use in different time periods. Prohibition continues in the present war
against Mexican drug cartels. Prohibition actually creates more problems for society than
it solves is useful for discussing the effects of drug use on individuals. Useful evidence of
the decrease in drug criminalization in countries outside of the US is mentioned in the
article.

Musto, David F. "Opium, Cocaine and Marijuana in American History." Nature.com. Scientific
American, July 1991. Web. 13 Nov. 2015.

I will primarily use this article to address the origins of drug use in America beginning in
Colonial times. This article is unique in that it offers extensive information on lesser
known historical facts about drug use and legal policy in America. It will be useful for
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the argument for the positive effects of drug use and against the stigma in the US. This
article also helps answer how the meanings of drug use have changed over time.

"Netherlands Compared With The United States." Netherlands Compared With The United
States. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.

This website offers a general comparison of the rate of drug use among citizens of the
US, Canada, and the Netherlands. It is useful in comparing the social construct of drug
use in America with other cultures. One important aspect of this source is that it
highlights the values that are important to each culture, and it also reveals the differences
that government policy makes in drug consumption among individuals.

Taylor, Ozietta D. "The Cultural Influence Of Adolescent Prescription Drug Abuse." Journal Of
Human Behavior In The Social Environment 25.4 (2015): 304-311. Academic Search
Premier. Web. 30 Nov. 2015.

Article's main quotable evidence are its statistics about the increasing number of
adolescents who use prescription drugs recreationally. This implies that the present
pharmaceutical abuse epidemic may have originated from the governments fight on illicit
substances. There is quotable evidence of adolescent experimentation as the origins of
drug use among individuals. Significance evidence of the current meanings of drug use in
America is stated, mostly regarding the percentage of high school students who admit to
abuse pharmaceutical forms of stimulants (amphetamines) and opioid painkillers.