BIO 2401 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM page 1

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Functions of the Digestive System

1. ingestion – taking of food into digestive tract, usually via mouth
2. propulsion – moving of food through alimentary canal; includes swallowing and peristalsis
• peristalsis – means of propulsion involving alternating waves of contraction and relaxation
3. digestion – breaking down of food into very small particles; several parts
• mechanical digestion – physically prepares food for chemical digestion by enzymes
• chewing – mixing of food with saliva while teeth grind it
• churning – mixing of food with stomach enzymes
• segmentation – rhythmic local constrictions of intestines that allow mixing of food with
digestive juices
• chemical digestion – catabolic steps involved in breakdown of food molecules; accomplished by
digestive enzymes
4. absorption – passage of digestive end products from lumen of gut into blood or lymph
5. defecation – elimination of indigestible substances from body via anus

Major Structure of the Digestive System

ƒ Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract)
1. mouth (oral cavity, buccal cavity) – ingestion/food entry
2. pharynx – propulsion of food into esophagus
3. esophagus – propulsion of food into stomach
4. stomach – storage of food and initial chemical breakdown
5. small Intestine – major digestive organ; absorption of food molecules
6. large Intestine – absorption of water
7. anus – propulsion of indigestible food out of body

ƒ Accessory Organs
1. teeth – mechanical digestion
2. salivary glands – digestive enzymes
3. pancreas – digestive enzymes
4. liver – fat emulsification
5. gall bladder – storage of bile made by liver for later emulsification of fat

Basic Histology of the Alimentary Canal Wall

1. mucosa – moist epithelium; lines lumen of GI tract from mouth to anus; secretes mucus, digestive
enzymes, hormones; absorbs end products; protects; has 3 linings or sublayers
2. submucosa – dense connective tissue containing blood and lymph vessels, lymph nodules, and nerve
fibers
3. muscularis externa – responsible for segmentation and peristalsis; has inner circular layer and outer
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells
4. serosa or adventitia – serosa = visceral peritoneum; areolar connective tissue; adventita = fibrous
connective tissue; all retroperitoneal organs have both layers
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Mouth and Its Accessory Organs

1. mouth (oral cavity, buccal cavity)
ƒ histology: stratified squamous epithelium, except on gums, hard palate, tongue dorsum (these are
keratinized); bound by lips anteriorly, cheeks laterally, palate superiorly, tongue inferiorly
ƒ functions:
• ingestion: intake of food
• mechanical digestion: chewing of food
• chemical digestion: enzymatic breakdown of food
2. teeth (will be covered in lab) – grinding of food
• incisors – blade shaped; function in clipping and cutting
• cuspids (canines) – conical with sharp ridgeline and pointed tip; function in tearing and slashing
• bicuspids (premolars) – 1-2 roots with flattened crowns and prominent ridges; function to crush,
mash, and grind
• molars – flattened crowns with prominent ridges with 3+ roots; function in crushing and grinding
3. tongue - functions to manipulate food while chewing & swallowing
4. salivary glands
ƒ types: (will be studied further in lab)
• parotid glands – anterior to ear; between masseter muscle and skin; contain only serous
glands (water secretion with little mucus)
• submandibular glands – along the mandibular body; equal numbers of serous and mucus
gland cells
• sublingual glands – anterior to submandibular gland and under tongue; equal numbers of
serous and mucus gland cells
ƒ saliva
ƒ contents and their functions:
• mucus and water – coating and putting food into solution
• salivary amylase – digests complex carbohydrates
• antibacterial proteins – lysozymes and defensins; inhibit bacterial growth

Pharynx
• histology: stratified squamous epithelium with mucus producing glands plus 2 skeletal muscle layers
• subdivisions:
• nasopharynx – air passageway only; different epithelium
• oropharynx – food + air passageway
• laryngopharynx – food + air passageway
• function:
• swallowing and propulsion of food

Esophagus
• histology: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium; changes at junction of stomach to simple
columnar; submucosal layer has esophageal glands (mucus producing) that lubricate walls during
food passage; muscular wall is skeletal and two layered
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• location: courses through mediastinum and pierces diaphragm to enter abdomen; joins stomach at
cardiac orifice; is collapsible
• function: propulsion of food into stomach

Stomach
• location: below esophagus and under diaphragm; can extend into pelvic region when full
• gross anatomy: 3 major regions
• small cardiac region – surrounds cardiac orifice; mucus cells only
• dome-shaped fundus – bulges superiorly; gastric secretions
• body or midportion
• funnel-shaped pyloric region – empties into duodenum; has gastrin and mucus cells
• greater and lesser curvatures
• histology:
• mucosa
• epithelium type – simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells; cells are joined by tight
junctions to prevent gastric juice leaking between them
• gastric pits (gastric glands) – dots epithelial lining; produces gastric juice
• muscularis externa – has circular and longitudinal layers of smooth muscle and innermost
smooth muscle layer running obliquely
• functions:
• storage – cardiac region
• mechanical digestion – fundic region and body
• chemical digestion: HCl (acid environment) and pepsin (digests proteins) – fundic region,
body, and pyloric region
• propulsion
• substance produced
• chyme – semifluid, creamy mass of partially digested food and gastric juice produced by stomach

Pancreas
• location: extends across abdomen from its tail to its head; is retroperitoneal and lies deep to greater
curvature of stomach
• gross anatomy: divided into distinct lobules by partitions of connective tissue; within each lobule
have ducts that branch repeatedly and end in blind pockets called pancreatic acini; islets are scattered
between acini; has a large duct that delivers secretions to duodenum
• histology:
• endocrine cells in pancreatic islets (1% of cell population) – release insulin and glycagon
• exocrine cells = acinar cells in acini (clusters) (99% of cell population) – are secretory cells full
of rough ER (protein synthesis); contain digestive enzymes; are bulk of gland
• exocrine function
• produces bicarbonates (to neutralize acid) – are released by epithelial cells lining
smallest ducts
• produces pancreatic enzymes
• pancreatic amylase (digests complex carbohydrates)
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• pancreatic lipase (digests fats)

• pancreatic proteases (digest proteins) – are released in inactivated form;
activated in duodenum

Liver
• location – occupies most of right hypochondriac and epigastric regions; located under diaphragm and
almost entirely within rib cage
• gross anatomy (will be studied further in lab) – divided into lobes that are further divided into lobules;
cells within lobules form series of irregular plates arranged like spokes of a wheel
• right lobe - largest
• left lobe
• caudate lobe – posteriormost lobe
• quadrate lobe – inferior to left lobe
• functions:
• detoxification – inactivates toxins via macrophages and Kupffer cells; rids blood of ammonia
• red blood cell destruction - via phagocytosis by Kupffer cells
• bile production – produced by hepatocytes; is a solution of water, ions, bilirubin (pigment from
hemoglobin), and lipids; used in fat digestion
• other metabolic functions – process nutrients, store glucose as glucogen; use amino acids to make
plasma proteins; store fat-soluble vitamins; store iron reserves; synthesize and release cholesterol

Gall bladder
• location – thin-walled, green muscular sac; snuggles into shallow fossa on ventral surface of liver
• function – stores bile that is not immediately needed for digestion; concentrate biles by absorbing
some of its water and ions; expelled into cystic duct to flow into bile duct

FLOW CHART: PATHWAY OF BILE

Bile from Caudate, Quadrate

Bile from Right Lobe and Left Lobes

bile canaliculi bile canaliculi

È È È È
small bile ducts small bile ducts
È È È È
right hepatic duct left hepatic duct
Ì Ë
Ì Ë
Ì Ë
common hepatic duct
È
Stored Bile from È
Gall Bladder È
È
cystic duct È
Ì È
Ì È
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Ì È
common bile duct
È
È
È pancreatic duct
È Ë
È Ë
È Ë
hepatopancreatic ampulla
È
È
hepatopancreatic sphincter
È
È
duodenum

Small Intestine
• location – extends from pyloric sphincter in epigastric region to ileocecal valve in right iliac region
• gross anatomy – 6-7 m long (~20 ft) but is contracted to a length of 2-4 m (8-13 ft); 3 divisions
• duodenum – shortest and widest part of intestine; retroperitoneal, curves around head of
pancreas; bile duct and pancreatic duct unite here and empty their juices; chyme from stomach
enters here and is hypertonic; submucosa has submucosal glands that produce copious amounts
of alkaline (buffered) mucus to protect epithelium from acidic chyme (highest numbers of these
cells are at beginning of duodenum); chyme pH changes from 1-2 at beginning of duodenum to
7-8 at beginning of jejunum
• jejunum - ~8 ft; bulk of digestion and nutrient absorption occurs here
• ileum - ~12 ft; controls flow of materials into cecum of large intestine
• histology
• mucosa
• type of epithelium – single columnar absorptive cells bound by tight junctions; also have
mucus-secreting goblet cells
• levels of folding: folds are permanent structures here, unlike the rugae in stomach
• plicae circulares – deep, permanent folds of mucosa and submucosa; force chyme to
spiral through lumen; slows movement
• villi – fingerlike projections of mucosa >1 mm high; are absorptive columnar cells
with small bit of smooth muscle in core that allows for shortening and lengthening;
between villi are pits (crypts) that are lined with epithelial cells that secrete
intenstinal juices
• microvilli – tiny projections of plasma membrane (called brush border); bear
enzymes that complete final stages of digestion of carbohydrates and proteins
• blood capillaries – found in core of each villus; digested foodstuff are absorbed here
• lacteals – wide lymph capillary bed; digested foodstuffs are absorbed here
• submucosa – areolar connective tissue with lymphoid follicles
• Peyer's patches – aggregated lymphoid follicles; increase in abundance as get nearer to large
intestine
• functions:
• mechanical digestion
• chemical digestion:
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• brush border enzymes complete digestion of carbohydrates and proteins

• absorption across the small intestine wall: into capillaries or lacteals
• propulsion

Large Intestine
• location – frames small intestine on 3 sides and extends to anus
• four parts of the large intestine:
• cecum – blind pouch; saclike; 1st part (appendix is attached to it)
• colon – has distinct regions (ascending, right colic flexure, transverse, left colic flexure,
descending, sigmoid); walls form series of pouches called haustra (permit distension and
elongation); have 3 ribbons of longitudinal muscle (these create the haustra); serosa of colon
contains sacs of fat
• ascending colon – ascends along right lateral and posterior wall of peritoneal cavity to
inferior surface of liver (is retroperitoneal)
• right colic flexure – marks end of ascending colon and beginning of transverse colon
• transverse colon – curves anteriorly and crosses abdomen from right to left, passing
inferiorly the greater curvature of stomach
• left colic flexure – near spleen, right angle bend
• descending colon – proceeds inferiorly along left side until it reaches the iliac fossa
(retroperitoneal)
• sigmoid colon – at iliac fossa, is S-shaped segment of large intestine posterior to bladder;
empties into rectum
• rectum – expandable organ for temporary storage of fecal material; is at level of 3rd sacral
vertebra; movement of material into rectum triggers reflex
• anal canal – has small longitudinal folds (anal columns)
• histology – lack villi and has a thin wall
• mucosa – many more goblet cells than in small intestine; produce copious amounts of mucus to
lubricate undigested waste; lymphoid nodules extend in submucosa
• muscularis externa – longitudinal layer is reduced
• taeniae coli – small bands of longitudinal muscle occuring just beneath serosa
• haustrum (pl. haustra) – pocket-like sacs, result in segmentation of large intestine; churning
activity occurs here which converts fecal material into sludgy paste
• functions
• propulsion
• mass movements – powerful peristaltic contractions that occur a few times a day; are caused
by a reflex via the distension of stomach and duodenum; force material into rectum and
produce urge to defecate
• absorption – water is absorbed from indigestible food reserves
• formation of feces – as water is absorbed, contents become semisolid; these contents include
undigested food, mucus, sloughed off epithelial cells, bacteria, and enough water to allow smooth
passage
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Defecation Reflex:
• stimulus – stretching of rectal wall when fecal material is forced into rectum by mass movements
• receptors – stretch receptors in stomach and duodenum cause mass movements; stretch receptors in
rectum cause defecation reflex and relaxation of internal sphincter
• integration center – spinal cord (parasympathetic reflex)
• effectors – muscles of sigmoid colon and anus
• response – walls of sigmoid colon and rectum contract; internal anal sphincter relaxes; fecal material
moves into anorectal canal; external anal sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed before defecation can
occur