Sustaibable notes

The future of biomass energy: A Fermi-calculation perspective

It is argued: (i) that the harvesting of terrestrial solar radiation to perform
useful work is at least an order of magnitude more efficient when carried out
by solar-thermal or solar-photovoltaic processes than when carried out by way
of biomass conversion and (ii) that, therefore, biomass energy is unlikely to
compete successfully with inanimately harvested solar energy—except of
course in restricted niche applications

Performance analysis of US coal-fired power plants by measuring three

DEA efficiencies

Abstract
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) has been widely used for performance
evaluation of many organizations in private and public sectors. This study
proposes a new DEA approach to evaluate the operational, environmental
and both-unified performance of coal-fired power plants that are currently
operating under the US Clean Air Act (CAA). The economic activities of power
plants examined by this study are characterized by four inputs, a desirable
(good) output and three undesirable (bad) outputs. This study uses Range-
Adjusted Measure (RAM) because it can easily incorporate both desirable and
undesirable outputs in the unified analytical structure. The output unification
proposed in this study has been never investigated in the previous DEA
studies even though such a unified measure is essential in guiding policy
makers and corporate leaders. Using the proposed DEA approach, this study
finds three important policy implications. First, the CAA has been increasingly
effective on their environmental protection. The increased environmental
performance leads to the enhancement of the unified efficiency. Second, the
market liberalization/deregulation was an important business trend in the
electric power industry. Such a business trend was legally prepared by US
Energy Policy Act (EPAct). According to the level of the market liberalization,
the United States is classified into regulated and deregulated states. This
study finds that the operational and unified performance of coal-fired power
plants in the regulated states outperforms those of the deregulated states
because the investment on coal-fired power plants in the regulated states can
be utilized as a financial tool under the rate-of-return criterion of regulation.
The power plants in the deregulated states do not have such a regulation
premium. Finally, plant managers need to balance between their
environmental performance and operational efficiency
Abstract
Renewable energy technologies have the potential to help solve two pressing
problems. On one hand, carbon-free energy sources must play a role in
climate change mitigation. On the other hand, renewables might help meet
needs of rural people without access to modern energy services. However, if
renewables are deployed to combat climate change (primarily resulting from
emissions in the developed economies) then providing basic energy services
in the developing world may be compromised. The tendency to conflate the
two drivers by installing renewables in rural areas for carbon mitigation
reasons rather than for development reasons could compromise both goals.
The danger is supporting sub-optimal policies for mitigating carbon and for
rural energy. This is problematic given the limited funds available for energy
development and reducing greenhouse gases. This paper analyzes how these
goals have been balanced by the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Project
documents are used to determine whether incremental costs of installing
renewables were covered by GEF funds and whether the costs are
comparable with other carbon mitigation options. The results raise concerns
about the effectiveness and appropriateness of GEF funding of such projects
and highlight the importance of post-Kyoto framework design to reduce
emissions and promote development

Formulating an optimal long-term energy supply strategy for Syria using MESSAGE
model

Abstract
An optimal long-term energy supply strategy has been formulated based on
minimizing the total system costs for the entire study period 2003–2030. The
national energy chain was modelled covering all energy levels and conversion
technologies. The results indicate that the primary energy will grow at annual
average rate of 4.8% arriving 68 Mtoe in 2030. The total installed electric
capacity will be optimally expanded from 6885 to 19500 MW in 2030.
Furthermore, to ensure supply security the future national energy system will
rely mainly upon oil and natural gas (NG) with limited contribution of
renewables and nuclear to the end of study period. The share of NG will
increase gradually up to 2020 and then retreat. Owing to the continuous
decrease of oil production, oil export is expected to vanish in 2012 and the
country will import about 63% of its primary energy demand in 2030. Thus, the
expected long-term development of national energy sector indicates a hard
challenge for the future national economy.
The employing of sensitivity analysis clarifies the importance of wind turbines
operation time and discount rate. The analysis proves that nuclear option is
insensitive to overnight cost increase up to 85% of the reference case value
Auctioning wind power sites when environmental quality matters
In this work, we propose an index that allows a public authority to order different projects for the
construction of onshore wind energy plants and that explicitly takes into account their
environmental quality. Wind farm projects are defined as vectors of four attributes: the technical
properties of each project, its social impact, its environmental impact, and the share of earnings
that proponents offer to the collectivity in compensation for the negative externalities of the wind
plant. We define an absolute index that allows the ordering of different proposals and evaluation
of the acceptability of each project, providing the monetary value of each point and inducing a
truthful revelation of firms' private information. Moreover, we calibrate the index on the basis of
data referring to wind plants in Southern Italy and derive the corresponding iso-scoring curves.
Policies and regulations
Government policies and regulations may have a strong influence on the viability
and timeline for a bioenergy plant. Policy mechanisms that affect bioenergy
projects may take the form of regulations, targets, mandates, incentives, tax
rules and standards.Each biomass is different, and there are differences in how
complex the policies and regulations are for each. Depending on the location and
bioenergy plant, the policies and regulations relevant to the project may include
areas such as:
environment, clearing vegetation, water, agriculture, forestry
petroleum/gas, electricity
production facilities, waste management or reduction
transport, regional development, sustainable planning
health and safety.
Below you can find links to relevant policies, regulations and legislation for
Australia and for each state/territory:
National
The Climate Council is an independent, crowd-funded organisation providing
quality information on climate change to the Australian public. Their 2014
report, The Australian Renewable Energy Race: Which States are Winning or
Losing?, provides the latest research on which Australian states and territories
are winning the race to renewables, and which ones are not. 4 key findings:
Australia’s states and territories have an important leadership role to play in
tackling climate change and growing Australia’s renewable energy industry.
South Australia is striding forward leading the Australian states on renewable
energy.
Victoria and NSW have moved from leaders to laggards in Australia’s renewable
energy race.
Australia has substantial opportunities for renewable energy. A lack of clear
federal policy has led to a drop in renewable energy investment.
  Policies at federal, state/territory, local and industry levels are described in the
AgriFutures Australia report, Sustainable Production of Bioenergy: A review of
global bioenergy sustainability frameworks and assessment systems , in the
following areas:
direct relevance to biofuel and bioelectricity (page 56)
for different types of biomass (page 61)
transport and production (page 66)
targets and mandates for bioelectricity or biofuels (page 58)
international and domestic markets (page 68).
Understanding the National Electricity Market: The National Electricity
Market facilitates exchange between electricity producers and
consumers through a pooled system, where output from generators is
aggregated and scheduled to meet consumer demand. The equivalent
organisations for other states are:
WA: South West Interconnected System (SWIS), North West Interconnected
System (NWIS)
NT: Darwin-Katherine Electricity Network
Note: Feed-in tariffs are a mechanism for stimulating the uptake of renewables
in markets, including bioenergy. While Australia has several state-based feed-in
tariff schemes, they are all small scale and do not apply to bioenergy.
International experiences in resolving issues around bioenergy policy are
described in case studies on pages 83–97 in a Clean Energy Council report
on Removing barriers facing bioenergy in Australia (2011).

Types of Renewable Energy

Solar shingles are installed on a rooftop. Credit: Stellar Sun Shop
The United States currently relies heavily on coal, oil, and natural gas
for its energy. Fossil fuels are non-renewable, that is, they draw on
finite resources that will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive
or too environmentally damaging to retrieve. In contrast, the many
types of renewable energy resources-such as wind and solar energy-
are constantly replenished and will never run out.
Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the
sun. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used directly for heating and
lighting homes and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for
hot water heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and
industrial uses.
The sun's heat also drives the winds, whose energy, is captured with
wind turbines. Then, the winds and the sun's heat cause water to
evaporate. When this water vapor turns into rain or snow and flows
downhill into rivers or streams, its energy can be captured
using hydroelectric power.
Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The
organic matter that makes up those plants is known as biomass.
Biomass can be used to produce electricity, transportation fuels, or
chemicals. The use of biomass for any of these purposes is
called bioenergy.
Hydrogen also can be found in many organic compounds, as well as
water. It's the most abundant element on the Earth. But it doesn't
occur naturally as a gas. It's always combined with other elements,
such as with oxygen to make water. Once separated from another
element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted into
electricity.
Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal
energy taps the Earth's internal heat for a variety of uses, including
electric power production, and the heating and cooling of buildings.
And the energy of the ocean's tides come from the gravitational pull of
the moon and the sun upon the Earth.
In fact, ocean energy comes from a number of sources. In addition to
tidal energy, there's the energy of the ocean's waves, which are driven
by both the tides and the winds. The sun also warms the surface of the
ocean more than the ocean depths, creating a temperature difference
that can be used as an energy source. All these forms of ocean energy
can be used to produce electricity.
Why is renewable energy important?
Renewable energy technology content for this section provided in part
by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and theDepartment of Energy.

Bioenergy

Switchgrass crops can be harvested to make biofuels. Credit: Warren Gretz

We have used biomass energy or bioenergy - the energy from organic matter - for
thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook food or to keep
warm.
And today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resource. But many other
sources of biomass can now be used, including plants, residues from agriculture or
forestry, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the
fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass energy source.
The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce our greenhouse gas
emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil
fuels, but every time a new plant grows, carbon dioxide is actually removed from
the atmosphere. The net emission of carbon dioxide will be zero as long as plants
continue to be replenished for biomass energy purposes. These energy crops, such
as fast-growing trees and grasses, are called biomass feedstocks. The use of
biomass feedstocks can also help increase profits for the agricultural industry.
Bioenergy

Switchgrass crops can be harvested to make biofuels. Credit: Warren Gretz

We have used biomass energy or bioenergy - the energy from organic matter
- for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to cook
food or to keep warm.
And today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resource. But many other
sources of biomass can now be used, including plants, residues from
agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal and
industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass
energy source.
The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce our
greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount of
carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a new plant grows, carbon
dioxide is actually removed from the atmosphere. The net emission of
carbon dioxide will be zero as long as plants continue to be replenished for
biomass energy purposes. These energy crops, such as fast-growing trees
and grasses, are called biomass feedstocks. The use of biomass feedstocks
can also help increase profits for the agricultural industry.

Photovoltaic (solar cell) Systems

Solar shingles are installed on a rooftop. Credit: Stellar Sun Shop
Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells are
often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of
semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips.
When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks
electrons loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow
through the material to produce electricity. This process of converting
light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV)
effect.
Solar cells are typically combined into modules that hold about 40
cells; a number of these modules are mounted in PV arrays that can
measure up to several meters on a side. These flat-plate PV arrays can
be mounted at a fixed angle facing south, or they can be mounted on a
tracking device that follows the sun, allowing them to capture the
most sunlight over the course of a day. Several connected PV arrays
can provide enough power for a household; for large electric utility or
industrial applications, hundreds of arrays can be interconnected to
form a single, large PV system.
Thin film solar cells use layers of semiconductor materials only a few
micrometers thick. Thin film technology has made it possible for solar
cells to now double as rooftop shingles, roof tiles, building facades, or
the glazing for skylights or atria. The solar cell version of items such
as shingles offer the same protection and durability as ordinary
asphalt shingles.
Some solar cells are designed to operate with concentrated sunlight.
These cells are built into concentrating collectors that use a lens to
focus the sunlight onto the cells. This approach has both advantages
and disadvantages compared with flat-plate PV arrays. The main idea
is to use very little of the expensive semiconducting PV material while
collecting as much sunlight as possible. But because the lenses must
be pointed at the sun, the use of concentrating collectors is limited to
the sunniest parts of the country. Some concentrating collectors are
designed to be mounted on simple tracking devices, but most require
sophisticated tracking devices, which further limit their use to electric
utilities, industries, and large buildings.
The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency
at turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energies
will work efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or
absorbed by the material that make up the cell. Because of this, a
typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15%-about one-sixth
of the sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. Low efficiencies
mean that larger arrays are needed, and that means higher cost.
Improving solar cell efficiencies while holding down the cost per cell is
an important goal of the PV industry, NREL researchers, and other U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) laboratories, and they have made
significant progress. The first solar cells, built in the 1950s, had
efficiencies of less than 4%.

Solar Hot Water

For solar hot water systems, flat-plate solar collectors are typically installed
facing south on a rooftop. Credit: James Jones
The shallow water of a lake is usually warmer than the deep water.
That's because the sunlight can heat the lake bottom in the shallow
areas, which in turn, heats the water. It's nature's way of solar water
heating. The sun can be used in basically the same way to heat water
used in buildings and swimming pools.
Most solar water heating systems for buildings have two main parts: a
solar collector and a storage tank. The most common collector is
called a flat-plate collector. Mounted on the roof, it consists of a thin,
flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the sun. Small
tubes run through the box and carry the fluid – either water or other
fluid, such as an antifreeze solution – to be heated. The tubes are
attached to an absorber plate, which is painted black to absorb the
heat. As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing
through the tubes.
The storage tank then holds the hot liquid. It can be just a modified
water heater, but it is usually larger and very well-insulated. Systems
that use fluids other than water usually heat the water by passing it
through a coil of tubing in the tank, which is full of hot fluid.
Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive, but the
most common are active systems. Active systems rely on pumps to
move the liquid between the collector and the storage tank, while
passive systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally
circulate as it is heated.
Swimming pool systems are simpler. The pool's filter pump is used to
pump the water through a solar collector, which is usually made of
black plastic or rubber. And of course, the pool stores the hot water
Solar Electricity
A 25-kilowatt Dish Stirling System catches its last rays of light at the end of
the day. Credit: Stirling Energy Systems
Many power plants today use fossil fuels as a heat source to boil
water. The steam from the boiling water rotates a large turbine, which
activates a generator that produces electricity. However, a new
generation of power plants, with concentrating solar power systems,
uses the sun as a heat source. There are three main types of
concentrating solar power systems: parabolic-trough,dish/engine,
and power tower.
Parabolic-trough systems concentrate the sun's energy through long
rectangular, curved (U-shaped) mirrors. The mirrors are tilted toward
the sun, focusing sunlight on a pipe that runs down the center of the
trough. This heats the oil flowing through the pipe. The hot oil then is
used to boil water in a conventional steam generator to produce
electricity.
A dish/engine system uses a mirrored dish (similar to a very large
satellite dish). The dish-shaped surface collects and concentrates the
sun's heat onto a receiver, which absorbs the heat and transfers it to
fluid within the engine. The heat causes the fluid to expand against a
piston or turbine to produce mechanical power. The mechanical power
is then used to run a generator or alternator to produce electricity.
A power tower system uses a large field of mirrors to concentrate
sunlight onto the top of a tower, where a receiver sits. This heats
molten salt flowing through the receiver. Then, the salt's heat is used
to generate electricity through a conventional steam generator. Molten
salt retains heat efficiently, so it can be stored for days before being
converted into electricity. That means electricity can be produced on
cloudy days or even several hours after sunset.
Passive Solar Heating and Daylighting Solar Electricity

Thousands of years ago, the Anasazi Indians in Colorado incorporated

passive solar design in their cliff dwellings. Credit: John Thornton
Step outside on a hot and sunny summer day, and you'll feel the power
of solar heat and light. Today, many buildings are designed to take
advantage of this natural resource through the use of passive solar
heating and daylighting.
The south side of a building always receives the most sunlight.
Therefore, buildings designed for passive solar heating usually have
large, south-facing windows. Materials that absorb and store the sun's
heat can be built into the sunlit floors and walls. The floors and walls
will then heat up during the day and slowly release heat at night, when
the heat is needed most. This passive solar design feature is
called direct gain.
Other passive solar heating design features
include sunspaces and trombe walls. A sunspace (which is much like
a greenhouse) is built on the south side of a building. As sunlight
passes through glass or other glazing, it warms the sunspace. Proper
ventilation allows the heat to circulate into the building. On the other
hand, a trombe wall is a very thick, south-facing wall, which is painted
black and made of a material that absorbs a lot of heat. A pane of
glass or plastic glazing, installed a few inches in front of the wall,
helps hold in the heat. The wall heats up slowly during the day. Then
as it cools gradually during the night, it gives off its heat inside the
building.
Many of the passive solar heating design features also provide
daylighting. Daylighting is simply the use of natural sunlight to
brighten up a building's interior. To lighten up north-facing rooms and
upper levels, a clerestory - a row of windows near the peak of the
roof - is often used along with an open floor plan inside that allows the
light to bounce throughout the building.
Of course, too much solar heating and daylighting can be a problem
during the hot summer months. Fortunately, there are many design
features that help keep passive solar buildings cool in the summer. For
instance, overhangs can be designed to shade windows when the sun
is high in the summer. Sunspaces can be closed off from the rest of
the building. And a building can be designed to use fresh-air ventilation
in the summer.

Solar Process Space Heating and Cooling

A transpired collector is installed at a FedEx facility in Denver. Credit: Warren

Gretz
Commercial and industrial buildings may use the same solar
technologies - photovoltaics, passive heating, daylighting, and water
heating - that are used for residential buildings. These nonresidential
buildings can also use solar energy technologies that would be
impractical for a home. These technologies include ventilation air
preheating, solar process heating, and solar cooling.
Many large buildings need ventilated air to maintain indoor air quality.
In cold climates, heating this air can use large amounts of energy. A
solar ventilation system can preheat the air, saving both energy and
money. This type of system typically uses atranspired collector ,
which consists of a thin, black metal panel mounted on a south-facing
wall to absorb the sun's heat. Air passes through the many small holes
in the panel. A space behind the perforated wall allows the air streams
from the holes to mix together. The heated air is then sucked out from
the top of the space into the ventilation system.
Solar process heating systems are designed to provide large quantities
of hot water or space heating for nonresidential buildings. A typical
system includes solar collectors that work along with a pump, a heat
exchanger, and/or one or more large storage tanks. The two main
types of solar collectors used - an evacuated-tube collector and
a parabolic-trough collector - can operate at high temperatures with
high efficiency. An evacuated-tube collector is a shallow box full of
many glass, double-walled tubes and reflectors to heat the fluid inside
the tubes. A vacuum between the two walls insulates the inner tube,
holding in the heat. Parabolic troughs are long, rectangular, curved (U-
shaped) mirrors tilted to focus sunlight on a tube, which runs down the
center of the trough. This heats the fluid within the tube.
The heat from a solar collector can also be used to cool a building. It
may seem impossible to use heat to cool a building, but it makes more
sense if you just think of the solar heat as an energy source. Your
familiar home air conditioner uses an energy source, electricity, to
create cool air. Solar absorption coolers use a similar approach,
combined with some very complex chemistry tricks, to create cool air
from solar energy. Solar energy can also be used with evaporative
coolers (also called "swamp coolers") to extend their usefulness to
more humid climates, using another chemistry trick called desiccant
cooling.

Wind Energy

Modern wind turbines tower above one of their ancestors-an old windmill
used for pumping water. Credit: Warren Gretz
We have been harnessing the wind's energy for hundreds of years.
From old Holland to farms in the United States, windmills have been
used for pumping water or grinding grain. Today, the windmill's modern
equivalent - a wind turbine - can use the wind's energy to generate
electricity.
Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the
most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more aboveground, they can
take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines catch
the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three
blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.
A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a
pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade.
The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the
rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much
stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade,
which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor
to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to
make electricity.
Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be
connected to a utility power grid or even combined with a photovoltaic
(solar cell) system. For utility-scale sources of wind energy, a large
number of wind turbines are usually built close together to form awind
plant. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to supply
power to their customers.
Stand-alone wind turbines are typically used for water pumping or
communications. However, homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in
windy areas can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their electric
bills.
Small wind systems also have potential as distributed energy
resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small,
modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to
improve the operation of the electricity delivery system.

Geothermal Energy
 

The Earth's heat-called geothermal energy-escapes as steam at a hot springs

in Nevada. Credit: Sierra Pacific
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and
sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow
ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the
Earth's surface, and down even deeper to the extremely high
temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's
surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50° and
60°F (10° and 16°C). Geothermal heat pumps can tap into this resource
to heat and cool buildings. A geothermal heat pump system consists of
a heat pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a heat exchanger-
a system of pipes buried in the shallow ground near the building. In the
winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and
pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the
process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air
into the heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during
the summer can also be used to provide a free source of hot water.
In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs of hot water are
located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. Wells can be drilled
into underground reservoirs for the generation of electricity. Some
geothermal power plants use the steam from a reservoir to power a
turbine/generator, while others use the hot water to boil a working
fluid that vaporizes and then turns a turbine. Hot water near the
surface of Earth can be used directly for heat. Direct-use applications
include heating buildings, growing plants in greenhouses, drying crops,
heating water at fish farms, and several industrial processes such as
pasteurizing milk.
Hot dry rock resources occur at depths of 3 to 5 miles everywhere
beneath the Earth's surface and at lesser depths in certain areas.
Access to these resources involves injecting cold water down one
well, circulating it through hot fractured rock, and drawing off the
heated water from another well. Currently, there are no commercial
applications of this technology. Existing technology also does not yet
allow recovery of heat directly from magma, the very deep and most
powerful resource of geothermal energy.
Many technologies have been developed to take advantage of
geothermal energy - the heat from the earth. NREL performs research
to develop and advance technologies for the following geothermal
applications:
Geothermal Power and Electricity Production

This geothermal power plant generates electricity for the Imperial Valley in
California. Credit: Warren Gretz
Most power plants need steam to generate electricity. The steam
rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces
electricity. Many power plants still use fossil fuels to boil water for
steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from
reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the
Earth's surface. There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry
steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.
Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam.
The steam is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant,
where it is directed into a turbine/generator unit. There are only two
known underground resources of steam in the United States: The
Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming, where there's a well-known geyser called Old Faithful. Since
Yellowstone is protected from development, the only dry steam plants
in the country are at The Geysers.
Flash steam power plants are the most common. They use geothermal
reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C). This
very hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own
pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the
hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the
water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and
condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a
sustainable resource.
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of
about 225°-360°F (107°-182°C). These plants use the heat from the hot
water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low
boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and
used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground
to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated
during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.
Small-scale geothermal power plants (under 5 megawatts) have the
potential for widespread application in rural areas, possibly even as
distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a
variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be
combined to improve the operation of the electricity delivery system.
In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs are located in the
western states, Alaska, and Hawaii
Geothermal Direct Use

Geothermally heated waters allow alligators to thrive on a farm in Colorado,

where temperatures can drop below freezing. Credit: Warren Gretz
When a person takes a hot bath, the heat from the water will usually
warm up the entire bathroom. Geothermal reservoirs of hot water,
which are found a couple of miles or more beneath the Earth's surface,
can also be used to provide heat directly. This is called the direct use
of geothermal energy.
Geothermal direct use dates back thousands of years, when people
began using hot springs for bathing, cooking food, and loosening
feathers and skin from game. Today, hot springs are still used as spas.
But there are now more sophisticated ways of using this geothermal
resource.
In modern direct-use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal
reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water. The water is brought
up through the well, and a mechanical system - piping, a heat
exchanger, and controls - delivers the heat directly for its intended
use. A disposal system then either injects the cooled water
underground or disposes of it on the surface.
Geothermal hot water can be used for many applications that require
heat. Its current uses include heating buildings (either individually or
whole towns), raising plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating
water at fish farms, and several industrial processes, such as
pasteurizing milk. With some applications, researchers are exploring
ways to effectively use the geothermal fluid for generating electricity
as well.
In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs are located in the
western states, Alaska, and Hawaii.
Geothermal Heating from Heat Pumps

The West Philadelphia Enterprise Center uses a geothermal heat pump

system for more than 31,000 square feet of space. Credit: Geothermal Heat
Pump Consortium
The shallow ground, the upper 10 feet of the Earth, maintains a nearly
constant temperature between 50° and 60°F (10°-16°C). Like a cave,
this ground temperature is warmer than the air above it in the winter
and cooler than the air in the summer. Geothermal heat pumps take
advantage of this resource to heat and cool buildings.
Geothermal heat pump systems consist of basically three parts: the
ground heat exchanger, the heat pump unit, and the air delivery
system (ductwork). The heat exchanger is basically a system of pipes
called a loop, which is buried in the shallow ground near the building.
A fluid (usually water or a mixture of water and antifreeze) circulates
through the pipes to absorb or relinquish heat within the ground.
In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger
and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the
process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air
into the heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during
the summer can also be used to heat water, providing a free source of
hot water.
Geothermal heat pumps use much less energy than conventional
heating systems, since they draw heat from the ground. They are also
more efficient when cooling your home. Not only does this save energy
and money, it reduces air pollution.
All areas of the United States have nearly constant shallow-ground
temperatures, which are suitable for geothermal heat pumps.
Bioenergy

Switchgrass crops can be harvested to make biofuels. Credit: Warren Gretz

We have used biomass energy or bioenergy - the energy from organic
matter - for thousands of years, ever since people started burning
wood to cook food or to keep warm.
And today, wood is still our largest biomass energy resource. But many
other sources of biomass can now be used, including plants, residues
from agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal
and industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a
biomass energy source.
The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce our
greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount
of carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a new plant grows,
carbon dioxide is actually removed from the atmosphere. The net
emission of carbon dioxide will be zero as long as plants continue to
be replenished for biomass energy purposes. These energy crops, such
as fast-growing trees and grasses, are called biomass
feedstocks. The use of biomass feedstocks can also help increase
profits for the agricultural industry.
Biofuels
Corn can be harvested to produce ethanol. Credit: Warren Gretz
Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly
into liquid fuels - biofuels - for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses,
airplanes, and trains). The two most common types of biofuels
are ethanol and biodiesel.
Ethanol is an alcohol, the same found in beer and wine. It is made by
fermenting any biomass high in carbohydrates (starches, sugars, or
celluloses) through a process similar to brewing beer. Ethanol is mostly used
as a fuel additive to cut down a vehicle's carbon monoxide and other smog-
causing emissions. But flexible-fuel vehicles, which run on mixtures of
gasoline and up to 85% ethanol, are now available.
Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol (usually methanol) with vegetable
oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking greases. It can be used as an additive to
reduce vehicle emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines.
Other biofuels include methanol and reformulated gasoline components.
Methanol, commonly called wood alcohol, is currently produced from natural
gas, but could also be produced from biomass. There are a number of ways
to convert biomass to methanol, but the most likely approach is gasification.
Gasification involves vaporizing the biomass at high temperatures, then
removing impurities from the hot gas and passing it through a catalyst,
which converts it into methanol.
Most reformulated gasoline components produced from biomass are
pollution-reducing fuel additives, such as methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
and ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE).
Biopower

Wood waste produced by nearby companies fuels this 50-megawatt biomass

power plant in California. Credit: Warren Gretz
Biopower, or biomass power, is the use of biomass to generate electricity.
There are six major types of biopower systems: direct-
fired, cofiring, gasification, anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis, and small,
modular.
Most of the biopower plants in the world use direct-fired systems. They burn
bioenergy feedstocks directly to produce steam. This steam is usually
captured by a turbine, and a generator then converts it into electricity. In
some industries, the steam from the power plant is also used for
manufacturing processes or to heat buildings. These are known as combined
heat and power facilities. For instance, wood waste is often used to produce
both electricity and steam at paper mills.
Many coal-fired power plants can use cofiring systems to significantly reduce
emissions, especially sulfur dioxide emissions. Cofiring involves using
bioenergy feedstocks as a supplementary energy source in high efficiency
boilers.
Gasification systems use high temperatures and an oxygen-starved
environment to convert biomass into a gas (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and methane). The gas fuels what's called a gas turbine, which is
very much like a jet engine, only it turns an electric generator instead of
propelling a jet.
The decay of biomass produces a gas - methane - that can be used as an
energy source. In landfills, wells can be drilled to release the methane from
the decaying organic matter. Then pipes from each well carry the gas to a
central point where it is filtered and cleaned before burning. Methane also
can be produced from biomass through a process called anaerobic digestion.
Anaerobic digestion involves using bacteria to decompose organic matter in
the absence of oxygen.
Methane can be used as an energy source in many ways. Most facilities burn
it in a boiler to produce steam for electricity generation or for industrial
processes. Two new ways include the use of microturbines and fuel cells.
Microturbines have outputs of 25 to 500 kilowatts. About the size of a
refrigerator, they can be used where there are space limitations for power
production. Methane can also be used as the "fuel" in a fuel cell. Fuel cells
work much like batteries but never need recharging, producing electricity as
long as there's fuel.
In addition to gas, liquid fuels can be produced from biomass through a
process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the
absence of oxygen. The biomass then turns into a liquid called pyrolysis oil,
which can be burned like petroleum to generate electricity. A biopower
system that uses pyrolysis oil is being commercialized.
Several biopower technologies can be used in small, modular systems. A
small, modular system generates electricity at a capacity of 5 megawatts or
less. This system is designed for use at the small town level or even at the
consumer level. For example, some farmers use the waste from their
livestock to provide their farms with electricity. Not only do these systems
provide renewable energy, they also help farmers and ranchers meet
environmental regulations.
Small, modular systems also have potential as distributed energy resources.
Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular power-
generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of
the electricity delivery system.
Bioproducts
Biomass can be used to produce a variety of biodegradable plastic products.
Credit: Warren Gretz
Whatever products we can make from fossil fuels, we can make using
biomass. These bioproducts, or biobased products, are not only made from
renewable sources, they also often require less energy to produce than
petroleum-based products.
Researchers have discovered that the process for making biofuels - releasing
the sugars that make up starch and cellulose in plants - also can be used to
make antifreeze, plastics, glues, artificial sweeteners, and gel for toothpaste.
Other important building blocks for bioproducts include carbon monoxide
and hydrogen. When biomass is heated with a small amount of oxygen
present, these two gases are produced in abundance. Scientists call this
mixture biosynthesis gas. Biosynthesis gas can be used to make plastics and
acids, which can be used in making photographic films, textiles, and
synthetic fabrics.
When biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen, it forms pyrolysis oil. A
chemical called phenol can be extracted from pyrolysis oil. Phenol is used to
make wood adhesives, molded plastic, and foam insulation.
Hydropower Technology and Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric power generates about 10% of the nation's energy. Credit: US

Army Corps of Engineers
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into
electricity. This is called hydroelectric power or hydropower.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to
store water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a
turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce
electricity. But hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily require a large dam.
Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to channel the river
water through a turbine.
Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped storage plant -
can even store power. The power is sent from a power grid into the electric
generators. The generators then spin the turbines backward, which causes
the turbines to pump water from a river or lower reservoir to an upper
reservoir, where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is released
from the upper reservoir back down into the river or lower reservoir. This
spins the turbines forward, activating the generators to produce electricity.
A small or micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity
for a home, farm, or ranch.
Ocean Energy

Workers install equipment for an ocean thermal energy conversion

experiment in 1994 at Hawaii's Natural Energy Laboratory. Credit: A.
Resnick, Makai Ocean Engineering, Inc.
The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's
heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's
largest solar collectors. The sun's heat warms the surface water a lot more
than the deep ocean water, and this temperature difference creates thermal
energy. Just a small portion of the heat trapped in the ocean could power the
world.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity
generation. There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-
cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid. Closed-cycle systems use the ocean's
warm surface water to vaporize aworking fluid, which has a low-boiling
point, such as ammonia. The vapor expands and turns a turbine. The turbine
then activates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle systems
actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces
steam that passes through a turbine/generator. And hybrid systems combine
both closed-cycle and open-cycle systems.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even
though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the
gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds.
As a result, tides and waves are intermittent sources of energy, while ocean
thermal energy is fairly constant. Also, unlike thermal energy, the electricity
conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical
devices.
A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by
forcing the water through turbines, activating a generator. For wave energy
conversion, there are three basic systems: channel systems that funnel the
waves into reservoirs; float systemsthat drive hydraulic pumps;
and oscillating water column systems that use the waves to compress
air within a container. The mechanical power created from these systems
either directly activates a generator or transfers to a working fluid, water, or
air, which then drives a turbine/generator.
Hydrogen Energy

NASA uses hydrogen fuel to launch the space shuttles. Credit: NASA
Hydrogen is the simplest element. An atom of hydrogen consists of only one
proton and one electron. It's also the most plentiful element in the universe.
Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesn't occur naturally as a
gas on the Earth - it's always combined with other elements. Water, for
example, is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O).
Hydrogen is also found in many organic compounds, notably
the hydrocarbons that make up many of our fuels, such as gasoline, natural
gas, methanol, and propane. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons
through the application of heat - a process known as reforming. Currently,
most hydrogen is made this way from natural gas. An electrical current can
also be used to separate water into its components of oxygen and hydrogen.
This process is known as electrolysis. Some algae and bacteria, using
sunlight as their energy source, even give off hydrogen under certain
conditions.
Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen
produces almost no pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the
1970s to propel the space shuttle and other rockets into orbit. Hydrogen fuel
cells power the shuttle's electrical systems, producing a clean byproduct -
pure water, which the crew drinks.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and
water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the energy
produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric power. However, the
fuel cell will produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied, never
losing its charge.
Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a source of heat and
electricity for buildings, and as an electrical power source for electric motors
propelling vehicles. Fuel cells operate best on pure hydrogen. But fuels like
natural gas, methanol, or even gasoline can be reformed to produce the
hydrogen required for fuel cells. Some fuel cells even can be fueled directly
with methanol, without using a reformer.
In the future, hydrogen could also join electricity as an important energy
carrier. An energy carrier moves and delivers energy in a usable form to
consumers. Renewable energy sources, like the sun and wind, can't produce
energy all the time. But they could, for example, produce electric energy and
hydrogen, which can be stored until it's needed. Hydrogen can also be
transported (like electricity) to locations where it is needed.
Green Power

The Earth's heat-called geothermal energy-escapes as steam at a hot springs in

Nevada. Credit: Sierra Pacific
Green power is electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind,
geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro facilities. Conventional electricity
generation, based on the combustion of fossil fuels, is the nation's single largest
industrial source of air pollution. The increasing availability of green power enables
electricity customers to accelerate installation of renewable energy technologies. As
more green power sources are developed - displacing conventional generation - the
overall environmental impacts associated with electricity generation will be
significantly reduced.
Benefits of Green Power
Choosing green power offers a number of benefits to businesses and institutions,
including:
Environmental stewardship - Many innovative organizations are establishing
environmental commitments to make their operations and practices sustainable.
Choosing green power is a simple step towards creating a more sustainable
organization.
Public image - Green power can help improve an organization's public image by
demonstrating environmental stewardship.
Customer loyalty - Demonstrating environmental stewardship through green
power may help increase an organization's customer and investor loyalty.
Employee pride - Employees prefer to work for companies that give back to their
communities and to the environment.
Power portfolio management - Because some green power sources have no fuel
costs, green power can help protect your power portfolio from volatile prices of
fossil-fuel-generated electricity.
Power reliability - On-site renewable generation can be a more reliable source of
power than power distributed through the electric grid.
Green Power Options
Green power is available in four basic forms, the availability of which partially
depends upon the status of electric utility restructuring in the state where the
purchase is being made.
Blended Products
Also known as "percentage products," blended products allow customers, primarily
in states with competitive electricity markets, to switch to electricity that contains a
percentage of renewable energy. The renewable energy content of blended
products can vary from 2 percent to 100 percent according to the renewable
resources available to utilities or marketers.
Block Products
Block products allow customers served by monopoly utilities to choose green power
from the electric grid in standard units of energy at a fixed price, which is converted
to a premium and added to their regular electric bill. Customers decide how many
blocks they want to purchase each month.
Green Tags or Renewable Energy Certificates
Green tags allow customers to purchase the renewable attributes of a specific
quantity of renewable energy. Green tags are sold separately from electricity and
can be purchased for a location anywhere in the U.S. In this way, a customer can
choose green power even if the local utility or marketer does not offer a green
power product. One green tag typically represents the renewable attributes
associated with one megawatt hour of green power.
On-Site Renewable Generation
Customers can install their own renewable energy generating equipment at their
facility. On-site renewable generation can increase power reliability, provide stable
electricity costs, and help manage waste streams. Furthermore, in many states,
excess green power generated on-site can be returned to the electric grid, in effect
allowing customers to obtain credit from their utility. (This is also known as "net-
metering.")
Certification and Accreditation
Green power certification and accreditation programs help ensure that customers
get what they pay for when they choose green power.
Green-e is a voluntary certification and verification program for green power
products developed by the non-profit Center for Resource Solutions.
The Green Pricing Accreditation Initiative, developed by the Center for Resource
Solutions, accredits green pricing programs operated by regulated electric utilities.

National energy policy[edit]

Measures used to produce an energy policy[edit]
A national energy policy comprises a set of measures involving that country's laws, treaties and
agency directives. The energy policy of a sovereign nation may include one or more of the following
measures:
statement of national policy regarding energy planning, energy generation, transmission and usage
legislation on commercial energy activities (trading, transport, storage, etc.)
legislation affecting energy use, such as efficiency standards, emission standards
instructions for state-owned energy sector assets and organizations
active participation in, co-ordination of and incentives for mineral fuels exploration (see geological
survey) and other energy-related research and development policy command
fiscal policies related to energy products and services (taxes, exemptions, subsidies ...
energy security and international policy measures such as:
international energy sector treaties and alliances,
general international trade agreements,
special relations with energy-rich countries, including military presence and/or domination.
Frequently the dominant issue of energy policy is the risk of supply-demand mismatch (see: energy
crisis). Current energy policies also address environmental issues (see:climate change), particularly
challenging because of the need to reconcile global objectives and international rules with domestic
needs and laws.[2] Some governments state explicit energy policy, but, declared or not, each
government practices some type of energy policy. Economic and energy modelling can be used by
governmental or inter-governmental bodies as an advisory and analysis tool (see: economic
model, POLES).
Factors within an energy policy[edit]
There are a number of elements that are naturally contained in a national energy policy, regardless
of which of the above measures was used to arrive at the resultant policy. The chief elements
intrinsic to an energy policy are:
What is the extent of energy self-sufficiency for this nation
Where future energy sources will derive
How future energy will be consumed (e.g. among sectors)
What fraction of the population will be acceptable to endure energy poverty
What are the goals for future energy intensity, ratio of energy consumed to GDP
What is the reliability standard for distribution reliability
What environmental externalities are acceptable and are forecast
What form of "portable energy" is forecast (e.g. sources of fuel for motor vehicles)
How will energy efficient hardware (e.g. hybrid vehicles, household appliances) be encouraged
How can the national policy drive province, state and municipal functions
What specific mechanisms (e.g. taxes, incentives, manufacturing standards) are in place to
implement the total policy
What future consequences there will be for national security and foreign policy [3]
State, province or municipal energy policy[edit]
Even within a state it is proper to talk about energy policies in plural. Influential entities, such
as municipal or regional governments and energy industries, will each exercise policy. Policy
measures available to these entities are lesser in sovereignty, but may be equally important to
national measures. In fact, there are certain activities vital to energy policy which realistically cannot
be administered at the national level, such as monitoring energy conservation practices in the
process of building construction, which is normally controlled by state-regional and
municipal building codes (although can appear basic federal legislation).

Energy policy of India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country's expanding energy deficit and
increased focus on developing alternative sources of energy,[1]
[2]
 particularly nuclear,solar and wind energy. India ranks 81 position in overall energy self-sufficiency
at 66% in 2014.[3][4]
The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.5% global
share in 2016.[5][6] The total primary energy consumption from crude oil (212.7 Mtoe; 29.38%), natural
gas (45.1 Mtoe; 6.23%), coal (411.9 Mtoe; 56.90%), nuclear energy (8.6 Mtoe; 1.19%), hydro
electricity (29.1 Mtoe; 4.01%) and renewable power (16.5 Mtoe; 2.28%) is 723.9 Mtoe (excluding
traditional biomass use) in the calendar year 2016. [5] In 2013, India's net imports are nearly 144.3
million tons of crude oil, 16 Mtoe of LNG and 95 Mtoe coal totalling to 255.3 Mtoe of primary energy
which is equal to 42.9% of total primary energy consumption. About 70% of India's electricity
generation capacity is fromfossil fuels. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its
energy demands – by 2030, India's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53% of
the country's total energy consumption. [1] In 2009-10, the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of
crude oil which amounts to 80% of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31% of the country's total
imports are oil imports.[1][7] By the end of calendar year 2015, India has become a power surplus
country with huge power generation capacity idling for want of electricity demand. [8] India ranks
second after China in renewables production with 208.7 Mtoe in 2014. [3]
In 2015-16, the per-capita energy consumption is 22.042 Giga Joules (0.527 Mtoe ) excluding
traditional biomass use and the energy intensity of the Indian economy is 0.271 Mega Joules per
INR (65 kcal/INR).[9] Due to rapid economic expansion, India has one of the world's fastest growing
energy markets and is expected to be the second-largest contributor to the increase in global energy
demand by 2035, accounting for 18% of the rise in global energy consumption. [10] Given India's
growing energy demands and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves, the country has ambitious plans
to expand its renewable and most worked out nuclear power programme. [11] India has the world's fifth
largest wind power market and also plans to add about 100,000 MW of solar power capacity by
2020.[12][13] India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity
generation capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. [14] The country has five nuclear reactors under
construction (third highest in the world) and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors (second
highest in the world) by 2025.[15]
Indian solar power PV tariff has fallen to ₹2.44 (3.8¢ US) per kWh in May 2017 which is lower than
any other type of power generation in India. [16] In the year 2016, the levelized tariff in US$ for solar
PV electricity has fallen below 2.42 cents/kWh. [17][18] Also the international tariff of solar thermal
storage power plants has fallen to US$6.3 cents/kWh which is cheaper than fossil fuel plants. [19][20]
[21]
 The cheaper hybrid solar power (mix of solar PV and solar thermal storage power) need not
depend on costly and polluting coal/gas fired power generation for ensuring stable grid operation.
[22]
 Solar electricity price is going to become the benchmark price for deciding the other fuel prices
(Petroleum products, LNG, CNG, LPG, coal, lignite, biomass, etc.) based on their ultimate use and
advantages.[23]

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity

Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals including: the
conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components; and the
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.
The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992
and entered into force on 29 December 1993. At the 2010 10th Conference of Parties (COP) to the
Convention on Biological Diversity in October in Nagoya, Japan, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted
Origin and scope of the Convention[edit]
The notion of an international convention on biological diversity was conceived at a United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in
November 1988. The subsequent year, the Ad Hoc Working Group of Technical and Legal Experts
was established for the drafting of a legal text which addressed the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity, as well as the sharing of benefits arising from their utilization with
sovereign states and local communities. In 1991, an intergovernmental negotiating committee was
established, tasked with finalizing the convention's text. [2]
A Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was held
in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1992, and its conclusions were distilled in the Nairobi Final Act.[3] The
Convention's text was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit"). By its closing date, 4 June 1993, the
convention had received 168 signatures. It entered into force on 29 December 1993. [2]
The convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of biological
conservation of biodiversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the
development process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It
links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. It
sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic
resources, notably those destined for commercial use [4]. It also covers the rapidly expanding field of
biotechnology through its Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, addressing technology development and
transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. Importantly, the Convention is legally binding;
countries that join it ('Parties') are obliged to implement its provisions.
The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a
philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular
species and habitats, the Convention recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used
for the benefit of humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to
the long-term decline of biological diversity.
The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle which
demands that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full
scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize
such a threat. The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to
conserve biological diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant
environmental, economic and social benefits in return.
The Convention on Biological Diversity of 2010 banned some forms of geoengineering.
Some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include:
Measures the incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
Regulated access to genetic resources and traditional knowledge, including Prior Informed Consent
of the party providing resources.
Sharing, in a fair and equitable way, the results of research and development and the benefits
arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the Contracting Party
providing such resources (governments and/or local communities that provided the traditional
knowledge or biodiversity resources utilized).
Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology, to the governments and/or local
communities that provided traditional knowledge and/or biodiversity resources.
Technical and scientific cooperation.
Coordination of a global directory of taxonomic expertise (Global Taxonomy Initiative).
Impact assessment.
Education and public awareness.
Provision of financial resources.
National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Convention, also known as the Biosafety Protocol,
was adopted in January 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the
potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on
the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic
benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of a genetically modified organism if they feel
there is not enough scientific evidence the product is safe and requires exporters to label shipments
containing genetically modified commodities such as corn or cotton.
The required number of 50 instruments of ratification/accession/approval/acceptance by countries
was reached in May 2003. In accordance with the provisions of its Article 37, the Protocol entered
into force on 11 September 2003.
Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
n April 2002, the parties of the UN CBD adopted the recommendations of the Gran Canaria
Declaration Calling for a Global Plant Conservation Strategy, and adopted a 16-point plan aiming to
slow the rate of plant extinctions around the world by 2010
National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP)[edit]
"National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) are the principal instruments for
implementing the Convention at the national level (Article 6). The Convention requires countries to
prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) and to ensure that this strategy is
mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can have an
impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. To date [2012-02-01], 173 Parties have developed
NBSAPs in line with Article 6."[7]
For example, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Tanzania have carried out elaborate responses
to conserve individual species and specific habitats. The United States of America, a signatory who
has not yet ratified the treaty,[8] has produced one of the most thorough implementation programs
through species Recovery Programs and other mechanisms long in place in the USA for species
conservation.
Singapore has also established a detailed National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.
[9]
 The National Biodiversity Centre of Singapore represents Singapore in the Convention for
Biological Diversity.[10]
National Reports

Nagoya Protocol[edit]
Main article: Nagoya Protocol
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity [13] is a supplementary
agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It provides a transparent legal framework for
the effective implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing
of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol was adopted on 29
October 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, and entered into force on 12 October 2014. Its
objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources,
thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. [