Perfect Your Punctuation

A brief guide to the

Comma, Apostrophe,
Colon and Semicolon
Carol Hunter
Student Learning Centre

This guide provides a quick and easy reference for common usage. It's not
intended to be a definitive set of rules.

First, test your expertise with the quiz on page 6, and then check your
answers against those on page 7. If you have any weak spots, you can
refer to the relevant explanation. If you have no weak spots,
congratulations—you are indeed a rare being!

The quirky Comma [,]

The rules for the comma are not as strict as for most other punctuation marks, and the
comma tends to be used less today than it once was. The most important function of
a comma is to ensure that meaning is clear and unambiguous.

If you've heard the advice to put a comma where there's a pause, please disregard it
immediately! While this rule sometimes applies, it more often does not.

Take care not to sprinkle your work with commas because you think they might be
needed. Misplaced commas will confuse your reader, and spoil otherwise good
writing: if in doubt, leave out.

Also, beware computer spell-checks: as far as commas are concerned, they frequently
make suggestions that are quite simply wrong.

The following section outlines normal usage of the comma, with examples. While the
"rules" are not always observed even in good writing, as in any area of life, it's better to
know the rules before deciding whether or not to break them.
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To avoid ambiguity
Whenever I sit down to study, the television distracts me.
Wherever the sea looks green, sharks will be found.

After an introductory word or group of words

However, the first answer was the correct one.
During the summer, several beaches were closed because of pollution.

Before one of the seven coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet)
A crucial step in writing a good essay is to correctly interpret the essay
question, but students frequently do less well than they expected because they
failed to do so.

But a comma is optional before a conjunction that is followed by a relatively

short phrase:
The student had studied hard throughout the year but the tutor was
unsympathetic.

To off-set additional information

The introduction to the essay, although rather long, provided a good overview
of the topic. The conclusion, on the other hand, was weak.

Do not confuse "additional information", as in the above examples, with

information required to identify the subject of the sentence. In the following
examples, commas should not be inserted, as the underlined section is the subject of
the sentence:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The boy in the blue car is my friend.

Between items in a list or series

The session covered the content of the course, the internal assessment
procedures, and the examination process.

Between adjectives
Use a comma between adjectives only if the comma could be replaced with
and:
Susan is a hardworking, high-achieving student.
John always wears a bright yellow cotton jacket.

To separate an additional phrase from the main sentence

Brown's study was weak, not at all conclusive.
Her essay was good, even brilliant.

Before a quotation
Professor Jones said, "Your assignment should be your first priority."
According to the referee, "Otago thrashed the opposition."
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The dreaded Apostrophe [']

Unlike the rules for the comma, which can be somewhat flexible, the rules for the
apostrophe are set in stone. Unfortunately, wrong usage is rife throughout society,
especially, for example, in advertising, shop signage, and even movie titles (e.g., Ten
Weeks Notice instead of Ten Weeks' Notice).

If you are one who finds apostrophes confusing, rest assured it takes very little effort to
learn these few basic rules. The apostrophe has just two main uses: 1) in a noun
expressing ownership of another noun (person, object, or concept [e.g., dog's
dinner]), or 2) in contracted words to replace the missing letter/s (e.g., can't,
wouldn't). Since you wouldn't usually use contracted words in assignments, you really
just have to worry about ownership (referred to by grammarians as possessive case).

1. Apostrophe to show ownership (i.e., nouns in possessive case)

There must be an apostrophe in a noun expressing ownership, and its position
depends on whether the noun relates to one item (singular), or more than one (plural).

Singular noun (the apostrophe is placed before s)

That book's pages have been ripped out.
My room is next to John's.
Professor Smith's air of superiority annoyed some of the students.
He had to give one week's notice.

Plural noun (the apostrophe is placed after s)

The students' cars are blocking the street.
The cabin stewards' training was inadequate.
The research project was of ten years' duration.
Five days' separation was too long.

Nouns that already end in s (for example: actress, princess, glass, spectacles,
Jones, Jeffries)
The apostrophe follows the final s:
The series' strength is its wide-ranging appeal. (One series)
Both series' ratings were poor. (Two series)

If "-es" after the possessive form is not pronounced (series', Jeffries'), another s is
not needed after the apostrophe, but if "-es" after the possessive form is pronounced
(Jones's), another s can be placed after the apostrophe, but no hard and fast rule
applies; follow your personal preference:
The princess's dress was beautiful. OR The princess' dress was beautiful.
(One princess).
[The princesses' dresses were beautiful. (Two or more princesses).]

Plural nouns that do not end in s (e.g., women, crew, firemen, children)
Position the apostrophe after the stem word, before s:
The women's room.
The children's blocks.
The crew's training session was held yesterday.
The firemen's ball was a huge success.
 4

Possessive pronouns
These pronouns are already in possessive case (i.e., they express ownership) and do
not—ever—have an apostrophe:
Ours is the tidiest flat in the block. Hers is always untidy. Theirs is o.k. Whose
place is it anyway? His flat has lost its appeal.

Compounds of two or more nouns

The position of the apostrophe depends on whether the compound relates to separate
or joint ownership:

Smith and John's studies showed that ... (Joint authors of the studies.)
Greg's and Johnson's studies agree that ... (Authors of separate studies.)

2. Apostrophe in a contraction
Apostrophes are also used to indicate that a word or phrase has been shortened, or
contracted. The apostrophe indicates the missing letter or letters:
don't (do not); they're (they are); you're (you are); who's (who is); it's (it is)
The cheque's in the mail. (The cheque is in the mail.)
She's got a good chance of acceptance into the course. (She has got ...)
In the 'eighties, university fees were much lower than at present. (Nineteen
eighties)
It's a great idea as it's cheap. (It is a great idea as it is cheap.)
Surveying's a great course and the career prospects are good. (Surveying is ...)
Getting on the team's a cinch. (the team is ...)

Such contractions are informal and would not usually be appropriate in university
writing.

Where good apostrophes go bad (or, rather, the people using them)
X: Apple's are on special today.
X: Everyone likes to receive book's for Christmas.
Apples and books are standard plurals which don't have an apostrophe unless, as
explained above, they are in possessive case. Possibly, confusion with plurals occurs
because a non-possessive noun that is part of a contracted phrase does have an
apostrophe:
The apple's in the fruit basket. (The apple is in the fruit basket.)
The book's on the shelf. (The book is on the shelf.)

Do not use apostrophes in years (e.g., 1980s not 1980's).

The special case of its/it's

Its/it's—possibly the most confused and misused of the apostrophe group—have
been included in the above examples, but just in case you missed them:
The pronoun its refers to a noun (the dog ate its dinner) and never has an
apostrophe (as explained above in Possessive pronouns), whereas it's is a
contraction of it is.
 5

Clarifying the Colon and Semicolon

The colon (:) and semicolon (;) are not interchangeable as such, although may be on
occasion. Use with care: misplaced colons and semicolons, like misused commas,
spoil otherwise good writing.

Colon [:]

1. To introduce a list or summary

Here is the secret to good time management: know your goals, and be able to
prioritise.

2. To introduce a quotation
Following the recent policy shake-up, Gordon challenged his opponents: "You
must look to your principles and fight for justice."

3. To indicate a particular relationship between two statements, where the

second expands or illustrates the first
a) He believed all New Zealanders would support his position: that,
regardless of the party in power, the issues must be resolved.

b) Morgan consistently undermined the study: the outcome was a disaster.

(This is the only example here where either a colon or semicolon could
be used, although the semicolon would lessen the emphasis.)

4. To indicate ratio
The odds were 20:5 against the team winning.

5. To separate hours from minutes

The train leaves at 8:30 a.m.

Semicolon [;]

1. To join two sentences closely linked in meaning, replacing a full-stop

The subject is hard to learn; however, the course is excellent.

The complexities of the case were immense; great attention was required to
make sense of it all.

Morgan consistently undermined the study; the outcome was a disaster. (This is
one example where a colon could be used instead, see Colon 3 b).)

2. To separate items in a list that already includes commas

Our group consisted of Susan, a waitress; John, a musician; Joe, a doctor; and
Cindy, Joe's wife.

3. To separate items in a complex list

The recipe required three cups of flour; two cups of milk; a cup of sugar; and six
eggs.
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Punctuation Quiz
Try the quiz, then check the answers at the end of the handout, then the rules for any you get
wrong.

Comma
Place commas appropriately in the following sentences

1. In trying to help the students the lecturer offered extra tuition.

2. She passed her assignment with flying colours but was worried that she would not do
very well in the exam.
3. His room which is always untidy is the only place he can study.
4. As a consequence the meeting was cancelled.
5. To Brown Johnson's study missed the main point.
6. The movie in spite of my fears was the best I have seen this year.
7. The play that Carlos directed won several awards at the festival.
8. Since the beginning of the 20th Century family structures have undergone many
changes.
9. The course was complex but interesting.
10. As Brown reported "the results were inconclusive."

Apostrophe
Correct the following sentences

1. The shops are all busy—its terrible when youve got a lot to do.
2. Horatios behaviours got us all puzzled.
3. Tomato's are on sale today, and your all recommended to buy several bags' while
their cheap.
4. The critics panned both director's films.
5. All the lecturers' agreed on the Universitys' policy.
6. Dunedins long winters' help Scott and Ben's allergies to clear up.
7. Payne's and Simpson's (2000) review clearly explains gravitational theory.
8. Shift-workers have been the subject of many study's.
9. My essay has to be ready in five weeks time.
10. School rules' are there to be obeyed.

Colon & Semicolon

Improve the following sentences with a colon or semicolon

1. The field trip took the group into unknown areas, they were lucky to survive.
2. The director had three words of advice for the cast "Learn your lines."
3. The committee consisted of Barbara Jones Christchurch Gordon Smith Auckland and
Roger Ingles Invercargill.
4. Only one paper, the Balclutha Times, now carries the court news, even there, many
of the cases are omitted.
5. The Fielding version was much more convincing especially in one area, population
studies.
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Punctuation Quiz Answers

Comma

1. In trying to help the students, the lecturer offered extra tuition.

2. She passed her assignment with flying colours, but was worried that she would not do
very well in the exam.
3. His room, which is always untidy, is the only place he can study.
4. As a consequence, the meeting was cancelled. (Comma optional)
5. To Brown, Johnson's study missed the main point.
6. The movie, in spite of my fears, was the best I have seen this year.
7. The play that Carlos directed won several awards at the festival.
8. Since the beginning of the 20th Century, family structures have undergone many
changes. (Comma optional but makes meaning clearer)
9. The course was complex but interesting. OR
The course was complex, but interesting. (Comma adds emphasis)
10. As Brown reported, "the results were inconclusive."

Apostrophe

1. The shops are all busy—it's terrible when you've got a lot to do.
2. Horatio's behaviour's [behaviour has] got us all puzzled.
3. Tomatoes are on sale today, and you're all recommended to buy several bags while
they're cheap.
4. The critics panned both directors' films.
5. All the lecturers agreed on the University's policy.
6. Dunedin's long winters help Scott's and Ben's allergies to clear up. (They are
individual "owners" of their allergies, and as such each has an apostrophe.)
7. Payne and Simpson's (2000) review clearly explains gravitational theory. (There is
only one review of which Payne and Simpson are joint "owners", thus only the second
of the pair [or last in a group if more than two] has an apostrophe.)
8. Shift-workers have been the subject of many studies.
9. My essay has to be ready in five weeks' time.
10. School rules are there to be obeyed.

Colon & Semicolon

1. The field trip took the group into unknown areas; they were lucky to survive.
2. The director had three words of advice for the cast: "Learn your lines."
3. The committee consisted of Barbara Jones, Christchurch; Gordon Smith, Auckland;
and Roger Ingles, Invercargill.
4. Only one paper, the Balclutha Times, now carries the court news; even there, many
of the cases are omitted.
5. The Fielding version was much more convincing, especially in one area: population
studies.