1.

1 The three states of matter

STATES OF MATTER
There are different substances
around us. All these substances are
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
called matter.
 Define matter Matter is any substance Matter exists in different forms.
1.1 The three  State the basic unit of matter that occupies space and These forms are called states of
states of matter  Discuss the three states of matter has weight matter.
 Describe diffusion
There are 3 states of matter: solid,
 Describe the changes of state occurring when substances
1.2 Changes of liquid and gas.
are heated or cooled
state
 Determine the temperature at which these changes occur
[Examples of each state]

Solid – salt, wood and glass

Liquid – water, paraffin and oil Air is a mixture of gases

Gas – hydrogen, oxygen and water vapour (steam)

The table below shows the characteristics of these 3 states of matter

Table: Characteristics of the 3 states of matter

Solids Liquids Gases
NO definite shape. No definite shape.
Shape Definite shape Takes the shape of Takes the shape of the
the containing vessel containing vessel
No fixed volume. Takes
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume the volume of the
containing vessel
Very slightly
Compressibility Incompressible compressible Very compressible
negligible

1
KINETIC THEORY Direction of diffusion
[Experiment]
Kinetic Theory is the idea that matter is made up of extremely small
particles which are in constant motion. These particles can be atoms, ions or A crystal of copper sulphate(II) is put in a
molecules. beaker filled with water. Leave the beaker
undisturbed and observe carefully.
Table: Kinetic theory of matter
STATE SOLID LIQUID GAS As the crystal dissolves the colour slowly
spreads through the liquid, first covering the
bottom.
Diagram
of particles
Eventually the colour distributes itself evenly
throughout the liquid.

Arrangement
Packed closely Packed loosely Spaced widely It is the copper sulphate(II) particles which
of particles
slowly move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. This is diffusion in liquid.
As well as
Move at very high
Movement Vibrate about a vibrating, can
speeds in the Three factors which can affect the rate of diffusion
of particles fixed position move rapidly over
space available 1. The higher the temperature is, the faster the diffusion is.
short distances
2. The smaller the size of particle is, the faster the diffusion is.
Attractive forces 3. The larger the concentration gradient is, the faster the diffusion is.
Forces Attractive and are not strong Forces between
between repulsive forces enough to hold particles are
particles counterbalance particles in a negligible 1.2 Changes of state
regular pattern

High A change of state is a change where one state changes to another

DIFFUSION Low
concentration
concentration
There are some types like Melting, Evaporation/Boiling, Freezing/Solidification,
. Condensation and Sublimation.
Diffusion is the movement of
particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration
2
 Physical change can easily reverse and produce NO new substance Tepterature
E.g. Melting,
MELTINGEvaporation, Condensation EVAPORATION
SOLID Chemical change can not easily reverse and produce new substances
LIQUID GAS
E.g. Combustion, Decomposition Boiling point 100 oC
FREEZING CONDENSATION

SUBLIMATION Melting point 0 oC

Time

SUBLIMATION
Boiling point is the ice ice and water water and steam
Sublimation is the direct change of state from a solid to a gas on heating or
temperature at which all of (solid) water (liquid) steam (gas)
from a gas to a solid on cooling. a liquid changes into a gas. (solid and liquid) (liquid and gas)
Substances which sublime are Melting point is the
・ Iodine (I2), ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), temperature at which a solid
・ ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4) completely changes into a
A pure substance has an exact boiling and
・ carbon dioxide (CO2, called dry ice) liquid.
melting point. Impurities raise boiling
points and cause lower melting points.
HEATING CURVE
A heating curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a As a substance is heated, it absorbs energy and its temperature rises. Then it
substance being heated changes from a solid to a liquid and finally to a gas.
The graph below is a heating curve for a substance of water As you can see in the graph above, there are 2 types of sections; Slope and Flat

The flat sections on the graph indicate the melting and boiling points. Here the
temperature remains the same over a period of time, as the heat energy is being
used to change the state of the substance.

Heat energy can be used either to raise the temperature

of a substance or to change the state of it

BOILING AND EVAPORATION

Boiling and evaporation are both physical process that change a liquid into a gas.
The liquid absorbs heat energy during these changes in state.

3
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
 Name and use appropriate apparatus for the measurement
of time, temperature, mass and volume, including burettes,
Measurement pipettes and measuring cylinders
 Design arrangements of apparatus, given information about
the substances involved
Most of materials we meet in our environment are mixtures. Often, only one
 Describe and use methods of purification by the use of
substance from a mixture is needed, so it has to be separated from the mixture by
suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation, distillation.
physical means.
 Suggest suitable purification techniques, given information
There are many industries in Zambia which produce a variety of products. During
about the substances involved.
Method of the production of any of these products the industry begins with impure raw
 Describe and use paper chromatography and interpret
purification materials that are often mixtures. The final product has to be extracted from the
chromatograms.
raw materials by using some of the techniques we are going to learn in this topic.
 Identify substances and test their purity by melting point
and boiling point determination and by paper
chromatography.
These must be differentiated with each other. The table below shows the
differences between these 2 processes.

Table: Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at boiling point Occurs at any temperature below
boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the
liquid
Bubbles observed No bubbles observed
Occurs rapidly Occurs slowly

Both boiling and evaporation are the change in state from a liquid to a gas.

4
2.1Measurement HEATING
In experiment, a Bunsen burner is usually
VOLUMES OF LIQUID AND GASES used for heating. You can identify the
temperature of the flame from its colour
There are some types of apparatus to measure the volumes of liquids.
They have differences in accuracy. Yellow flame (luminous flame)  Air hole is closed. It produces pollutant gas
Least accurate Most accurate like carbon monoxide.
Blue flame (non-luminous flame)  Air hole is half open. It is most generally used.
Blue-green flame  Air hole is completely open. It is used for strong heating.

COLLECTION OF GASES
There are two factors to determine the method used to collect a gas:
1. the density of the gas
2. the solubility of the gas in water.
Method of collection
Displacement of water Type of Gases to be collected
For gases that are insoluble in water,
e.g. hydrogen (H2), oxygen.(O2)
flask

Measuring
cylinder

Method of collection pipetteMethod of collection

Displacement of air –upward delivery Displacement of air -downward delivery
burette Carbon dioxide can slightly dissolve in water to form carboric acid, so
Gas jar carbondioxide gas is sometimes collected by displacement of water.
Gas
Delivery tube
A Burette is a long vertical graduated glass tube with a tap tube
at one end which is
Delivery 2.2 Method of purification (Separation techniques)
used to add controlled volumes of liquids with accuracy up to 0.1cm3.
Gas
A Pipette is a graduated Gasused
tube which is filled by suction and jar for
3 3
transferring exact volumes (10cm , 25cm ) of liquids. A Solution is a mixture in which the particles of
Type of Gases to be collected Type of Gases There are some techniques to
A Measuring cylinder is used to measure the approximate volumetoofbe collected
liquids. solute and solvent are evenly spread out.
separate mixture. How to determine
A flask/beaker is used only for estimating volumes of liquids.
For gases that are denser than air and A Solute is the substance which dissolves in the
solvent to form a solution.
soluble in water. 5 A Solvent is a liquid that dissolves substances.
e.g. hydrogen chloride (HCl), carbon
dioxide. (CO2)
[e.g.] Salt water = Salt + Water
(Solution) (Solute) (Solvent)
the method to separate it depends on CRYSTALLISATION
some physical properties such as
solubility, density and so on.  used to separate a pure solid in the form of crystals from the impure
solution, e.g. Sodium chloride crystals from impure sodium chloride solution.
The impurities will remain dissolved in solution.

A mixture is a material formed by two or more different 1: Dissolving 2: Evaporation

substances which are physically combined together Stir to
dissolve Evaporating
FILTRATION solvent
solid basin

Filtration is a method of separating solid particle (insoluble solid) from a

liquid by passing filter paper. Impure
solid

Mixture of solid
and lliquid The impure solid is dissolved in a solvent. The solution is heated to evaporate most
Residue is the solid trapped in the of the solvent.
filter during filtration. 4: Drying 3: Cooling
Filter funnel Filtrate is the clear liquid that
passes through the filter during
Filter paper residue filtration.

Filter paper crystals

filtrate
Very fine pores in the filter paper allow small particles
to flow through, but large particles are trapped by it.
The cold solution is filtered to obtain The hot solution is allowed to cool. The
the crystals. The crystals may be dried crystal will be formed from solution
by pressing them between sheets of while impurities are still dissolved in the
filter paper. solution.
Figure: crystallisation

Crystallisation is different from evapaoration. In evaporation, all solvent is

removed, so the crystals formed maybe contain impurities. In
crystallisation, the solvent is partially evaporated, leaving small amount of
solution in which the crystals form. Impurities are abandon in the solution
when the crystals are filtered off.

6
DISTILLATION

Distillation is conducted using EVAPOTATION and CONDENSATION for FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

separation.  used to separate a pure liquid from miscible liquids.
e.g. ethanol from a mixture of ethanol and water.
SIMPLE DISTILLATION

 used to obtain a pure liquid (solvent) from a solution containing dissolved

Miscible describes two or more liquids which will
solids (solute), e.g. separating pure water from copper(II) sulphate solution.
diffuse together and form a single phase.
e.g.) alcohol and water
Immiscible describes two or more liquids that will
not mix together.

thermometer
Distillate is pure and the e.g.) oil and water
condensed liquid obtained by
distillation.
Fractionating
flask column

copper(II)
sulphate solution
flask

Ethanol
Boiling stones for (distillate)
smooth boiling Mixture of
ethanol Boiling stones
Pure water and water for smooth
(distillate)
boiling

The bulb of the thermometer shold be placed at the mouth of Fractional distillation separates according to boiling points.
the condenser to measure the temperature of the gas which goes The liquid with the lowest boiling point will be distilled first, followed by the liquid
into the condenser. with the next lowest boiling point. These two liquids must have different boiling
This temperature is the boiling point of the distillate. points at least 20 oC apart to be separated

7
 Temperature

100 oC
Water distils
78 oC
Paper chromatography is a method of separating dissolved
The graph shows the change in temperature as the mixture of ethanol and substance, such as dyes and pigments by spreading them on Ethanol distils
absorbed
water is being heated in the flask. The temperature will remain at 78 oC when paper with a suitable solvent.
the first ethanol is being collected. When all the ethanol has evaporated over, Time
the temperature will rise again until it reaches 100 oC. At this temperature,
water will be collected as the second distillate.
It is used to :
1. Identify substances
2. Determine the purity of substance
3. Separate two or more substances with different solubility in the same solvent.

-The more soluble component in

the mixture will tend to remain
How to separate “Insoluble and Soluble solid”. in the solvent and travel further
up the chromatogram, while the solvent
[EXAPMPLE] Separate a mixture of sand and salt. less soluble component will flow
-The common procedure is … separate out onto the
1. Dissolve paper.
U A B C D
Place the mixture of sand and salt in a beaker, add water and stir. cover
 Salt will dissolve while sand will not dissolve because of their solubilities. Unknown Dye U = Mixture of Dyes A + C

2. Filtration
Pour the liquid of the mixture along a glass rod in to the funnel with a filter paper.
 Salt water will pass through the filter paper as a filtrate while Sand will be
trapped on the paper as a residue
3. Evaporating
U A B C D U A B C D
Put a little amount of the filtrate into the evaporating dish. Heat the filtrate until
all the water is driven off. Drops of dye on the pencil line solvent
 Salt(solute) will remain in the dish while water(solvent) will go away as steam.
PROCEDURE
Now, Steps to Separate Insoluble and Soluble Solids:
1 Use a pencil to draw the start line.
Salt and sand have been separated 1. Dissolve 2. Filtration 3. Evaporating
2 make a spot of dye U (unknown) on the start line, together with
some other known dyes to use as reference.
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 3 Dip the paper into a container containing the solvent, ensuring that
the start line is above the solvent level. Cover the container while
the chromatogram develops.
8 4 Remove the absorbed paper from the beaker just before the solvent
front reaches the top of the paper..
 Charcoal dust and
Floatation  Less dense solid and liquid
water
Magnetic Iron filings and
 Magnetic materials
 If the start line is drawn in ink, the components in the ink will also separate Separation sulphur powder
out together with the sample dots when the chromatogram is run. Paper Dyes and pigment
 Dissolved substances
 If the start line is below the solvent level, the sample dots will dissolve into Chromatography of ink
the solvent in the beaker instead of travelling up the chromatogram paper.
 The beaker must be covered when the chromatogram is run to reduce
evaporation of the solvent from the beaker and to prevent the solvent from
evaporating off the paper as it moves up.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
1. From unknown dye, follow direction of solvent flow until you find a spot
2. Move across the chromatogram until you find a corresponding spot
3. Move in the other direction to identify the known dye

It is possible for different substance to travel the same distance in the same
solvent in paper chromatography, i.e. have the same solubility in the same solvent.
To confirm the identity of a substance, another round of chromatography is
carried out using a different solvent. If the spot still travel the same distance,
then the spot must contain the same substance.

SUMMARY of SEPARATION TECHNIQUE

SEPARATION SUBSTANCES TO BE
EXAMPLE
TECHNIQUE SEPARATED
Filtration  Insoluble solid and liquid Muddy water
Crystallisation /  Solute (soluble solid) from its
Salt solution
Evaporation solution
Distillation  Solvent from its solution Salt solution
Ethanol and water
Fractional  Miscible liquids with different
Crude oil
Distillation boiling points
Liquid air
Decantation /  Insoluble suspension settles to Mealie-meal and
Sedimentation form sediment water
Separating Funnel  Immiscible liquids Oil and water

9
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
Atoms  State the relative charges and approximate relative masses
of protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Define proton number (atomic number) and nucleon number
(mass number).
 Use and interpret such symbols as 6 C
12

 Use proton (atomic) number and the simple structure of

atoms to explain the periodic table, with special reference
to the elements of proton (atomic) number 1 to 20.
 Define isotopes
 Describe the build-up the electrons in ‘shells’ and explain
the significance of valency electrons and the noble gas
electronic structures.
Chemical Bonding  Describe the formation of ionic bonding between metallic
and non-metallic elements, e.g. NaCl, CaCl2
 Describe the formation of covalent bonds as the sharing of
pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration.
 Deduce the electron arrangement in other covalent
molecules.
 Construct ‘dots and cross’ diagrams to show the valency
electrons in covalent molecules.
 Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and
electrical conductivity between ionic and covalent
compounds.
Structures and  Describe the differences between elements, compounds and
Properties of mixtures and between metals and non-metals.
materials
In kinetic theory we saw that matter consisted of particles. We looked at how
these particles account for the differences in the physical properties of solids,
liquids and gases.
Now we shall consider all substances as chemical substances

10
3.1 ATOMS
Are you sure the meaning of terms like atoms, molecules, elements, compounds and
mixtures. Can you distinguish them clearly? Here are definitions for them.
- These molecules are called diatomic molecule.
[e.g.] oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine
3. It consists of atoms of different elements combined together.
Here the atoms form molecules of compounds.
[e.g.] carbon dioxide, water and sugar

Now we shall see more about an atom!

An ATOM is the smallest particle of an element which can take
part in a chemical reaction and remain unchanged. STURECTURE OF AN ATOM

A MOLECULE is the smallest particle of an elements or a Atoms are made up of three fundamental particles. These are the proton, the
compound which exists independently neutron and the electron

An ELEMENT is a substance that cannot be broken down into two Charge Mass Position in Atom
or more simpler substances by chemical means. PROTON + 1
nucleus
NEUTRON 0 1
A COMPOUND is a substance that consists of two or more ELECTRON - 1/2000 electron shells
elements which are chemically combined in fixed proportions. Properties of particles found in an atom

A MIXTURE is a substance that consists of two or more - Most of an atom is empty space. The protons and neutrons cluster
substances which are not chemically combined - An atom is electrically neutral. together in the centre, forming the
nucleus; this is the heavy part of
As you have seen they are considered in terms of substances while they are
the atom and positive charged.
considered in terms of particles.

ATOMS and MOLECULES

In kinetic theory, we saw that matter consists of particles. What are these
particles? It is very useful to know about them.

Molecules can be thought of to be 3 types.

1. It consists of those elements in which a single atom forms the molecule.
- These molecules are called monatomic molecule.
[e.g.] helium, neon and argon which are known as the noble gases
2. It consists of atoms of the same element combined together.
11
 －
 Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
 Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number
＋ (So that Atoms should be electrically neutral)
－ ＋ ＋ －
＋
The electrons circle very fast around [Example] What are the mass number, proton number and number of neutron in
the nucleus, at different levels from it Sodium, hydrogen and Tin?
－ along electron shells.
Aluminium Hydrogen Lead
23 119
Form periodic table 11Na 50Sn
These particles are extremely small. If a golf Mass number 23 1 119
ball were magnified to the size of the Earth, Proton number 11 1 50
then an atom would be the size of a marble! No. of neutrons 23 – 11 = 12 1-1=0 119 – 50 =69
They have a radius of around 10-10 m and a mass
of about 10-22g

NUCLIDE NOTATION
One convenient method of writing the names of elements is by applying a
shorthand system in which each element is assigned a specific symbol.

Mass Number (or Nucleon Number) is the total number

A of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom.

X Atomic Number (or Proton Number) is the number of

Z protons an element has in the nucleus of its atom.

A chemical symbol of an element is a letter or letters derived

from the name of the element.

Information about the number of particle in an atom can be found from the
periodic table.

From Nuclide Notation many information of an atom can be obtained.

12
ISOTOPES Potassium 2:8:8:1
Many elements contain atoms that are slightly different from each other. Table: Electronic Configuration of some atoms

DRAWING of ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

ISOTOPES are different atoms of the same element
which have the same number of protons but different
The number of electrons in each shell can also be shown by drawing as the
number of neutrons.
followings
Rules to draw electronic structure: [e.g.]
24
Mg
12
It is known that 3 isotopes of hydrogen exist, also isotopes of oxygen are known.
12e- = 2, 8, 2
 Use the symbol of the element to represent the
X X
Element Isotopes No. of Protons No. of No. of nucleus
X X
Neutrons Electrons  Represent each e- with a cross
X
Hydrogen 1
H 1 0 1  Each new circle represents another electron shell X X
1
X Mg X
2
H 1 1 1  Start filling up the shells from the first shell X
1

3
H 1 2 1 before going on to the next shell X X
1
 Group the electrons in pairs for easy counting
Carbon 16 8 8 8
8O
17
8 9 8  Nearly full shells want to get extra e- - gain or share (NON-METALS)
8O
18  Nearly empty shells want to lose extra e- (METALS)
8O 8 10 8  Valency = No. of e- an atom wants to lose, gain or share
Table: Isotopes of some elements
Electrons found in the outer shell are called Valence electrons (v.e.)

ELECTRONIC SHELLS
Electrons are arranged in electronic shells around nucleus
The number of electrons in each shell is finite as shown below [Example 1] Lithium, Li [Example 2] Potassium, K

Shell(from a nucleus) 1st 2nd 3rd 4th ….. The lithium atom contains 3 electrons The potassium atom contains 19 electrons
Maximum number 2 8 8 ....... arranged in 2 shells. arranged in 4 shells
Table : Maximum No. of electrons that can occupy the shell
X X
The number of electons in each shell is shown by the elctronic configuration X X
X X
ATOM Electronic Configuration X X X XX
Li X K X
Lithium 2:1 XX X
X
X
X X
13 X X
 3.2 CHEMICAL BONDING

When atoms combine together in a chemical reaction, we say that a bond is

formed between the atoms during the reaction. A reactive atom will combine or
form bonds with other atoms easily, while an unreactive atom will not.

WHY DO ATOMS FORM BONDS?

 Atoms of noble gases possess the maximum number of electrons in their

outermost shell as shown in the diagram below.

X X
XX
× X
XX
He
X
Ne
X
XX X XX
X
X
X X X Ar X X
× X X X
XX
XX
4 20 40
Helium, 2He Neon, Ne
10 Argon, Ar
18

All the outermost shells (or valence shells) are completely filled. This type of
arrangement is very stable and highly unreactive.

 Atoms of other elements have incompletely filled outermost shells, as a

result, these atoms are unstable and therefore, reactive.
Most of them tend to become stable like noble gases.

In order to achieve stable electronic structure, they share, gain

or lose electrons in their outer electronic shells.

This is why atoms form bonds.

There are 2types of chemical bonds that can be formed between 2 atoms:
1. Ionic bonds – valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another
2. Covalent bonds – valence electrons are shared

14
 [Example 2] Magnesium 12
24
Mg
IONIC BONDING (ELECTROVALENT)
FORMATION OF IONS 2+
Lose 2 Valence
Atoms can obtain a full outer shell and become stable when they lose or gain electron
valence electrons. Charged particles called ions are formed. Mg Mg

1. FORMATION of POSITIVE IONS

Note that 1+ is written simply
23
[Example 1] Lithium 11 Na as +. The 1 is not written. Magnesium atom, Mg Magnesium ion, Mg+
12 protons 12 protons
+
Lose 1 Valence 12 electrons 12-2=10 electrons
electron 24-12=12 neutrons 12 neutrons
Na Na Overall zero charge, ie. neutral Overall 2+ charge

In general, when an atom loses n valence electrons to form a stable ion,

Lithium atom, Li Lithium ion, Li+ the ion formed will carry n+ charge.
3 protons 3 protons We do not draw 2. FORMATION of NEGATIVE IONS
3 electrons 3-1=2 electrons empty shells
either. [Example 1] Chlorine 17
35
Cl
7-3=4 neutrons 4 neutrons
-
Overall zero charge, ie. neutral Overall 1+ charge
Gain 1 Valence
The lithium ion now carries a 1+ charge because it has an extra proton. electron
This is represented by enclosing the ion in brackets and writing its charge Cl Cl
on the top right hand corner.

Chlorine atom, Cl Chlorine ion, Cl-

17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 17+1=18 electrons
35-17=18 neutrons 18 neutrons
Overall zero charge, ie. neutral Overall 1- charge

The chlorine ion now carries a 1- charge because it has 1 extra electron.

Note: Non-metal compounds name changes to end “-ide”

[e.g.] chlorine  chloride oxygen  oxide,
sulphur  sulphide Phosphorus  phosphide etc.

15
 [Example 2] Oxygen 16
8O +
2- Na+
Gain 2 Valence Na = Na Na =
electron
O O
electron attract
transfered - each other
Oxygen atom, O Oxygen ion, O+
8 protons 8 protons Cl
= Cl Cl
=
8 electrons 8+2=10 electrons Cl-
16-8=8 neutrons 8 neutrons
Overall zero charge, ie. neutral Overall 2- charge

In general, when an atom gains m electrons to form a stable ion, the ion will
carry m- charge. Ionic bonding!!
+ -
FORMATION OF IONIC BONDING
Na+ Cl- = Na Cl
1. Valence electrons are transferred from metallic atom to non-metallic atom
2. Metallic atom changes into positive ion and non-metallic atom change into
negative ion. Oppositely changed ions are formed they attract each other
with strong electrostatic forces. Rules for ‘Dot and Cross’ Diagrams for Ionic Bonding:
3. Finally ionic bonding is formed.
 Calculate how many e- metal atom wants to lose
 Calculate how many e- non-metal atom wants to gain
 To find out how many metal and non-metal atoms combine, use:
Total No. of e- lost = Total No. of e- gained

 No. of Metal Atoms No. of Non Metal Atoms

x No. of e- lost x No. of e- gained

 Draw each atom’s e- shells BEFORE losing or gaining

 Metal e- with a ‘cross’ x
 Non-metal e- with a ‘dot’ o
 Re-draw each atoms’ shells AFTER losing or gaining

16
  REMEMBER that the metal e-‘s GAINED by non-metal are still a ‘x’ ・Covalent bonding usually takes place between non-metallic atoms.
 Check: Every ion should now have FULL OUTER e- shells ・Valence electrons are shared between these atoms.
 INDICATE the CHARGE on each ion ・The molecules of the compound are held together by weak intermolecular
[EXAMPLE] forces that are easily broken by heating.
Magnesium fluoride contains magnesium and fluorine atoms. Draw the dot and
cross diagram to represent magnesium fluoride. Rules for ‘Dot and Cross’ Diagrams for Molecular Bonding:
ANSWER: Mg: 12 e- = 2, 8, 2 F: 9 e- = 2, 7 { Periodic Table }  For a molecule of an element: Represent the e- of each atom with a ‘dot’ or
BEFORE: X X O O a ‘cross’
X X O  For a molecule of a compound: Represent the e- of each element with a ‘dot’
X O O
X X O F or a ‘cross’
X Mg X O  (Usually) Only draw the OUTER e- shell
X O O
 Draw the SHARED e- FIRST
X X
 gain 1 e-  need 2 F atoms  Then ADD the REMAINING e- to the non-shared section for EACH ATOM
 lose 2 e  Mg ion
- 2+
(to gain 2e-)  2F- (fluoride) ions  Check: Each atom should have the correct number of e- for their shell
AFTER:  Double-check: Every atom should now have FULL OUTER e- shells
O O
- X X
2+ O O
- [EXAMPLE]
O X O Water is a molecular compound containing hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Draw the
O O X X O O dot and cross diagram to represent a molecule of water. Show all the electron
O F X X Mg X X F O
O X O shells.
O O X X O O
Answer: H: 1e- O: 8e- = 2,6
Before:
・ The formula of the compound formed is written as MgF2. O shares 2 e-
H shares 1 e-
・ Ionic compounds are electrically neutral, i.e. once the positive and negative ions
combine, these charges ‘cancel’ each other out to give a neutral compound.
need 2 x H atoms to share with 1 x O atom

It is not necessary to draw and show the movement of valence electrons from After:
one atom to another unless the question requires it. Most exam question will ask
Reaction : H2 + O2 H 2O
for the final structure of the compound only. O H
H Structure formula : H – O - H

When drawing covalent structures, always draw the

Waret molecule, H2O atom that needs to form the most number of bonds in
COVALENT BONDING (MOLECULAR)
the centre, then add on the rest of the atoms
FORMATION OF COVALENT BONDING

17
DIFFERENCES in PROPERTIES of IONIC and COVALENT BONDING 3.3 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

IONIC (Electrovalent) COVALENT (Molecular) ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

 Ionic compounds can conduct electricity
when molten or aqueous because the ions
are free to move
 Ionic compounds have high MP and BP
due to the strong electrostatic forces
between charged ions
 Soluble in water, insoluble in organic
solvents
Table below summarises properties
Type of Bonding
Property
IONIC (Electrovalent)
 Molecular compounds do not
conduct electricity in any form ELEMENTS
 Molecular compounds have low Elements are made up of only one kind of atoms. There are three types of
MP and BP due to weak inter- elements existing as atoms.
molecular forces
(a) There is a monatomic gaseous element made up of
 Soluble in organic solvents (E.g.
atoms. There are a one kind of atoms e.g. Argon
ethanol, petrol)
Insoluble in water
(b) There is an gaseous element made up of diatomic
molecules. There are made up of two atoms.
e.g. nitrogen, chlorine, oxygen,etc.
COVALENT (Molecular)

Conduct YES (c) There is a solid element. There are made up of one
NO
Electricity (when AQUEOUS or MOLTEN) kind of atoms, e.g. iron, copper, etc.
e.g. nitrogen, chlorine, oxygen,etc.
MP and BP HIGH LOW

Volatility NON-VOLATILE VOLATILE

COMPOUNDS
Usual State
SOLID GASES OR LIQUIDS A compound is made up of two or more types of atoms chemically combined
(at room temp)
together. It can not be separated using physical means. Chemical means such as
Composition IONIC LATTICE MOLECULES electrolysis are needed
e.g. Hydrochloric acid, carbon dioxide, water etc.

+ - + - + - + -
Diagram
- + - + - + - +

+ - + - + - + -

+ + + + MIXTURES
Examples NaCl, CaO, MgF2 H2O, CO2, O2

18
 A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that have not reacted
chemically and can be separated using physical process such as filtration, a
magnet, distillation, etc.

Summary:

ELEMENTS MIXTURES COMPOUNDS

Diagram

Melting Fixed melting Melts and boils Fixed melting and

and Boling and boiling over a range of boiling point
Points point temperature
Easily separated Chemical means
Separation ----- using physical means such as electrolysis
such as distillation are needed
 Copper  Air  Carbon dioxide
 Iron  Sea water  Water
Examples  Oxygen  Metal alloys  Common salt
 Nitrogen  Rock salt  Ethanol
 Carbon
Table: the differences of Elements, Mixtures and Compounds

19
 4.1 FORMULAE and EQUATIONS

It is useful to know the names of elements and compounds, how these names can
be represented and how chemical changes involving elements and compounds
maybe described.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
One convenient method of writing the names of compounds is by using chemical
 State the symbols of the elements and formulae of
formulae.
compounds.
There are some types of chemical formulae. Here we talk about Molecular
 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative
formulae. Later we will see Empirical formulae and Structural formulae
numbers of atoms and vice versa.
 Determine the formula of an ionic compound from the
Formulae and A chemical formula is a way of showing the proportions of elements present in a
charge on the ions present and vice versa.
Equations chemical compound using symbols for the atoms present.
 Construct equations with sate symbols, including ionic
equations.
Rules for Chemical Formulae: It shows the number of atoms
 Deduce, from experimental results of the identity of the
reactants and products, the balanced chemical equation for
 A SMALL number multiplies ONLY the elements or radicals to the LEFT
a chemical reaction.
 Define relative atomic mass, Ar.
Stoichiometric  Define relative molecular mass, Mr.  A BIG number at the FRONT multiplies ALL the elements in the
calculations  Perform calculations concerning reading masses reacting formulae
It shows the number of molecules
masses using simple proportions.
[EXAMPLE]

・ H2O represents 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen in 1 molecule of

water
・ 2CO2 represents 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen in 2 molecules of
carbon dioxide
・ 4Na2SO4 represents 2 atoms of sodium, 1atom of sulphur and 4 atoms of
oxygen in 4molecules of sodium sulphate.

[EXAMPLE 2]
How many atoms are represented by 2Al2(SO4)3 ?
ANS: 2 x (2 x Al + 3 x (S + 4 x O) ) = 2 x ( 2 + 3 x (1 + 4) ) = 34 atoms

20
CHEMICAL FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTS

1 Metallic elements are made up of one kind of atoms. The chemical formula for a VALENCY
metal is its symbol. If the Valencies of the elements which take part in the compound are known,
[EXAMPLE] Lithium  Li Calcium  Ca Iron  Fe writing the chemical formula is simple.

2 Non-metallic elements exist as molecules. Its chemical formula shows both the
Valency is the combining power of an atom or radical.
symbols and the number of atoms that make up the molecule.
In ionic compounds it is the same as the charge on the ion.
[EXAMPLE] Hydrogen  H2, In covalent compounds it is equal to the number of bonds formed.
The subscript ‘2’ shows that two hydrogen atoms
joined together

+ METALS + - NON-METALS -
Noble gases exist as atoms. The chemical formula for a noble gas is thus its symbol.
Element Symbol of ion Element Symbol of ion VALENCY
[EXAMPLE] Helium  He Neon  Ne.
Hydrogen H- (H+)
+
Lithium Li Fluorine F-
1
Table; Chemical formulae for some common elements
Sodium Na+ Chlorine Cl-
Metallic Element Chemical Formula Non-Metallic Element Chemical Formula
Potassium K+ Bromine Br-
Calcium Ca Fluorine F2
Iodine I-
Iron Fe Chlorine Cl2
Copper Cu Oxygen O2
Lead BP Carbon C Magnesium Mg2+
2
Oxygen O2-
Calcium Ba2+
Sodium Na Phosphorus P Sulphur S2-
Barium Ca2+
Argon Ar Neon Ne

3
Nitrogen N3-
Aluminium Al3+
Phosphorous P3-
CHEMICAL FORMULA for COMPOUNDS
List of Valency for common ions
IONIC COMPOUNDS
The formulae of both the positive ion and the negative ion must be determined
before the chemical formula of the ionic compound can be written. for metal = the number of electron in the outermost shell
for non-metal = 8 – the number of electron in the outermost shell
Hydrogen can be positive (H+) and negative (H-) ion. It is special
element
21
List of valency for common metal ions with variable charges
Element Symbol Valency Element Symbol of Valency Chlorate ClO3-
of ion ion Phosphate PO43- 3
Copper(I) Cu+ 1 Mercury(I) Hg+ 1
Copper(II) Cu2+ 2 Mercury(II) Hg2+ 2
Iron(II) Fe2+ 2 Lead(II) Pb2+ 2 When writing chemical formulae involving
Iron(III) Fe3+ 3 Cobalt(II) Co2+ 2 radicals,or
never
How to Deduce Chemical Formulae from Valencies Ions:take apart with each
Tin(II) Sn2+ 2 Cobalt(III) Co3+ 3 element – take it as a whole group
Tin(IV) Sn4+ 4 Nickel(II) Ni2+ 2
1. Write the symbols for the combining elements and radicals
Manganese(II) Mn2+ 2 Nickel(IV) Ni4+ 4
Manganese(IV) Mn4+ 4 Silver(I) Ag+ 1
Magnesium oxide  Mg (magnesium), O (oxygen)
Zinc(II) Zn2+ 2
2. Write the valency of each on the top right-hand side (leave off the charges
Some metals can form positive ions with different charges, depending on the for ions)
compound that they are found in. Mg2 O2
3. Re-write the symbols, but swap the valencies and write at the bottom right-
Valency is the same as the number in bracket. hand side
Sometimes the number in bracket on Ag and Zn ion are omitted, so assume that the Mg2 O2
valency of Ag is 1 and Zn is 2.
Mg2 O2
RADICALS 4. Find the lowest ratio of the two numbers
Some negative ions exist in groups with an overall charge. 2:2  1:1
the chemical formula is MgO
A radical is a group of atoms within a compound that maintains its identity
throughout a chemical reaction. [EXAMPLE]
It can not exist by itself Ignore writing subscript 1
List of valency for common ions with variable charges Aluminium sulphate
Radical Symbol Valency Element Symbol Valency Al3 (SO4)2
of ion of ion (SWAP)
Manganate(VII)
1
Hydroxide OH - MnO4- Al2 (SO4)3
Nitrate NO3- Ethan ate CH3COO - 2:3 lowest ratio Make sure;
Nitrite NO2- Ammonium NH4+ ANS: Al2(SO4)3 Put BRACKETS around any
Hydrogen
carbonate
HCO3-
1 Carbonate
Sulphate
CO32-
SO42- 2 Calcium Carbonate
RADICALS before swapping!!!
Remove the brackets from the
Hydrogen HSO4- Sulphite SO32- Ca2 (CO3)2
(SWAP) radical with subscript 1
sulphate Dichromate(VI) Cr2 O72
Ca2 (CO3)2
22
 2:2  1:1 lowest ratio Carbon dioxide CO2 Sulphuric acid H2SO４
ANS: CaCO３ Sulphur dioxide SO2 Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphur trioxide SO３ Methane CH４
VERY VERY IMPORTANT: Ammonia NH３ Ethnic acid CH３COOH
You must LEARN the VALENCIES of the Hydrogen chloride HCl Ethanol C2H５OH
COMMON ELEMENTS, RADICALS and IONS List of common covalent compounds
How to Deduce
if youthe Valency
wish or Ionany
to progress from the Chemical
further Formulae:
with your Chemistry!!!!
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is gas, that gas is dissolved in water that solution is called
(WORKING BACKWARDS)
hydrochloric acid (HCl).
 Write the chemical formula of the compound CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 Include all subscripts even 1 A Chemical equation is a way of summarizing a chemical reaction. Although it can
 Re-write the symbols for each element / radical, but swap the subscript be written in words, an equation is often written using chemical symbols and a
numbers and write at the top right-hand side chemical formula. When you write chemical equations, to start with, it is advisable
 MULTIPLY BOTH NUMBERS by the same number to get the CORRECT to follow these steps:
VALENCY for any known element / radical
 Include the CHARGE of the ION if required Steps for making chemical equations
 1st ion is + ve and 2nd ion is - ve 1. Identify reactants and products in reaction
[EXAMPLE]
and write down the equations in words
What is the charge of the iron ion in Fe2(SO4)3 ? using either the information given Reactants are the chemical elements
Fe2 (SO4)3 or compounds that a chemical
The charge on the ion is or your own chemical knowledge.
(SWAP) reaction starts with.
3 2 the same as the valency Products are the chemical elements
Fe (SO4)
[EXAMPLE] or compounds that are produced
ANS: The charge on the iron ion is +3
during a chemical reaction.
Reactants: sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide
COVALENT COMPOUNDS Products : sodium sulphate, water
There are many exception existed to the rules for writing the chemical formulae
or covalent compound. Some general rules: sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide  sodium sulphate + water
 Some gases are made up of diatomic molecules, i.e. H2, O2, N2 etc
 Group VII elements exist as diatomic molecules, i.e. Cl2, Br2, F2, etc.
2. Put every substance into the correct chemical formula.
=

You can use the rule for some covalent compounds like
water, carbon dioxide, etc..Try to remember chemical H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2O
formulae!! 3. Balance the equation. (Changing the proportions of reactants and products, in
such a way that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides.)
Compound Formula Compound Formula
Carbon monoxide CO Nitric acid HNO３
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O

23
4. Finally, put state symbols in the equation for every reactant and product.

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l) 3. See if this works, it may create another in-balance but pencil in another
number (IN-FRONT) and see if this works
state symbols
(s) solid / precipitate 2Na + O2  2Na2O
(l) liquid / molten
(g) gas / vapour Left-side Right-side
(aq) aqueous Most pupils get injured at the balancing Na 2x1=2 2x2=4 NO
/dissolved in water solution stage! Let’s look at it in details!! O 1x2=2 2 x1=2 OK!
STEPS FOR BALANCING THE EQUATION:
/ dilute
 There must be the same number of atoms on both sides, so that all atoms Balance just ONE type of atom at a time!!!
are accounted for and none are lost or gained. 4. Continue chasing unbalanced elements and the equation will balance eventually
 Only balance by putting a number IN-FRONT of the formulae where Remember, if the numbers are not working, rub them out and try again
needed i.e. you can not change the chemical formulae of a given substance 2↓
4Na + O2  2Na2O

1. Find the total number of atoms on each side of the equation Left-side Right-side
[EXAMPLE] Na 4x1=4 4x2=4 OK!
Na + O2  Na2O O 1x2=2 2 x1=2 OK!
Congratulation!!
Left-side Right-side
Na 1x1=1 1x2=2  Always double-check your answer that every element is balanced
O 1x2=2 1x1=1
[EXAMPLE] 3H2 + N2  2NH3
2. Find an element that doesn’t balance and pencil in a number
(IN-FRONT!!!) to try and correct it H: 2x3=6 3 x 2 = 6 (try swap)
 For odd and even in-balances, try swapping the numbers N: 2 1 x 2 = 2 OK!

2Na + O2  Na2O
It is difficult for beginners to balance chemical
Left-side Right-side equations. But never give up. Practice makes perfect!!
Na 2x1=2 1x2=2 OK! Caution:
O 1x2=2 1x1=1 NO Don’t change the chemical formulae of elements or compounds when balance
equation. You can add the number in front of the chemical formulae.
e.g. Na2O can NOT change into 2NaO. You can add the number in front of
2Na2O.
24
Na2O 2NaO NG!

Na2O 2Na2O OK!!

Remember: PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE!!!

 GOING FROM A WORD EQUATION TO A BALANCED EQUATION
change into… IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:

change into….
The Second dangerous point is putting
chemical formulae!!! Let’s look at it!
 Most non-metals form molecules, e.g. H2, O2, Cl2, F2, N2 (not C, S or Si)
 Metals do not form molecules!!! e.g. Al, Cu, Mg, Fe
 Better to memorize Formulae of common compounds [e.g.] H2O, CO2,
ammonia NH3, methane CH4, hydrochloric acid HCl, sulphuric acid
H2SO4, nitric acid HNO3
 Use the valency to find the formulae of (unknown) compounds
[EXAMPLE]
magnesium + hydrochloric acid  magnesium chloride + hydrogen

1.Write the FORMULAE for each compound

Mg + HCl  MgCl2 + H2

2.BALANCE the equation

Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
Left-side Right-side
Mg 1x1=1 1x1=1 OK!
H 2x1=2 2 x1=2 OK!
Cl 2x1=2 1x2=2 OK!
It’s completed!

GOING FROM A “WORDY” QUESTION TO A BALANCED EQUATION:

 Identify ALL the REACTANTS and PRODUCTS from the question

(underline each compound referred to in question)
 Write the word equation: REACTANTS  PRODUCTS
 Write the symbol equation (remember molecules, metals, common formulae
and to use the valency)
 Balance the equation
 Put state symbols
[EXAMPLE]

25
 Sodium chloride solution is formed by titrating aqueous sodium hydroxide with
dilute hydrochloric acid. Water is also formed.
Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction including state symbols.
WORKING OUT:
REACTANTS: sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid ANS: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Every reactant on the left-hand side
PRODUCTS: sodium chloride, water Every product on the right-hand side
No score is given if you cannot give a balanced equation, even though the
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water formulae of the compounds in your equation are correct. State symbols are not
necessary in your balanced chemical equation unless the question requires it.
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Left-side Right-side
IONIC EQUATIONS
1 Make sure you have a BALANCED chemical equation Ionic equations are used when a chemical reaction involves the coming together of
[EXAMPLE] ions in solution.
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid  Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas IONIC EQUATIONS show only the changes taking place in a chemical reaction
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
2 Split only soluble ionic compounds [(aq) compounds] into its ions. Formation of Ions from a chemical formula
 Insoluble ionic compounds, elements and covalent compounds remain unchanged.  Usually, only (aq) compounds split to form ions ve: a Valence Electron is an
electron found in the outermost
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl-(aq)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + H2 (g)  First ion is + ve (metal, H+ or NH4+)
electron shell of an atom.
3 Cancel out spectator ions Second ion is – ve (non-metals and radicals)
Spectator ions are the ions that appear in both  Charge on Ion = Valency
the left and right side of the equation. electron  Radicals are unchanged i.e. stay together
2+ found in -the outermost electron shell of an atom.
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq)  Zn (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + H2 (g)
+ -
 SMALLnumber denoting number present moves to a BIG number in-front
4 Rewrite the equation without spectator ions.  No. of + ve charges = No. of - ve charges
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq)  Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
This is IONIC EQUATION!!! STEPS:
Na 1x1=1 1x1=1 OK! [EXAMPLE]
O 1x1= 1x1=1 OK! Copper metal is displaced from its solution when an iron nail is placed into a
H 1 x1 + 1 x 1 =2 1x2=2 OK! solution of blue copper (II) sulphate. The clear solution which remains after the
Cl 1x1=1 1x1=1 OK! reaction is complete is iron (II) sulphate.
Derive the ionic equation for this reaction.
already balanced!
WORKING OUT:
Note that the ‘liquid’ state and the ‘aqueous’ state is not the REACTANTS: Copper (II) sulphate, iron
same. The ‘liquid’ state of a substance is pure. For a solid PRODUCTS : copper, iron (II) sulphate
substance, the liquid state is obtained by heating the substance
until it melts, while the ‘aqueous’ state of a substance is obtained 26
by dissolving it in water.

Copper (II) sulphate + iron  copper + iron (II) sulphate
CuSO4 (aq) + Fe(s)  Cu (s) + FeSO4 (aq)
Cu + SO4 (aq) + Fe(s)  Cu (s) + Fe + SO4 (aq) SPLIT / CANCEL
2+ 2- 2+ 2-
IONIC EQUATION: Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s)  Cu (s) + Fe2+(aq)
Compounds that are sparingly soluble or very
sparingly soluble can be considered as insoluble
when writing ionic equations involving them.
All naturally occurring elements are mixture of isotopes and therefore the
relative atomic mass of an element takes into account the percentage of various
isotopes that may be present.
BALANCED
Ar is simply the average of the mass numbers for each of the isotopes
present in the element.
Ar = Sum for each Isotope { % Present x Mass Number }
[EXAMPLE]
Chlorine gas is 75% chlorine-35 atoms and 25% chlorine -37 atoms.

When you construct ionic equations, the number of each particle and the total Ar = (75% X35) + (25% X 37) = 35.5 You can find Ar for each
element in Periodic Table.
charge must be the same on both sides of the equation.
[EXAMPLE] The relative atomic mass is a ratio and therefore has no unit.
Cl2 + 2Br-  Cl- + Br2
is not a balanced ionic equation since the total charge on the LHS is 2- while
the total charge on the RHS is only 1-. Check : The difference between the mass number of an atom
The balanced ionic equation will be and the relative atomic mass…..
Cl2 + 2Br- - 2Cl- + Br2 The mass number of atom is the total number of protons and
where the total charge on both sides of the equation is 2- neutrons formed in the nucleus of an atom. So it is always a
whole number. The relative atomic mass is the average of mass
4.2 Stoichiometric calculations numbers.

RELATIVE MASSES RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS Relative Molecular Mass is the

Sum of the Ar for all atoms The symbol for relative
present in the molecule molecular mass is Mr.
Relative atomic mass is the average
mass of a large number of atoms of a The symbol for relative
[EXAMPLE]
particular element. atomic mass is Ar.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of chloroform H2SO4

Mr (H2SO4) = 2 x Ar (H) + Ar (S) + 4 x Ar (O) = 2 x 1 + 32 + 4×16 = 98

27
 [EXAMPLE 2] Formula
Calculate the relative molecular mass of copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4 5H2O
Massof elementin sample % of elementin compound samplemass
Mr(CuSO4 5H2O) = Ar (Cu) + Ar (S) + 9×Ar (O) +10×Ar (H) Massof elementin compound
  samplemass
= 64 + 32 + 9×16 + 10×1 Mr of comound
=250

The relative molecular mass is a ratio and therefore has no unit. [EXAMPLE]
Calculate the mass of copper in 10g of calcium carbonate.
PERCENTAGE MASS OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND
. mass of Ca in CaCO3 40
Mass of Cu = x 10 = x 10 = 4.0g
This percentage can be calculated using the formula Mr of CaCO3 40  12  3x16

Formula
mass of elementin compound
% Mass of elementin compound  100
Mr of compound
No. of atoms  Ar of element
  100
Mr of comound

[Example] Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen in calcium oxide, CoO

16
%O in CaO = x 100% = 28.6 %
40  16

[EXAMPLE 2]
Calculate the percentage by mass of water in magnesium chloride crystals, MgCl2 6H2O

6x(2x1  16)
%H2O in MgCl2 6H2O = x 100% = 53.2 %
24  2x35.5  6x(2x1  16)
The percentage by mass can also be used to calculate the mass of an element
in a given sample.

28
 There are 103 elements discovered at present.
Periodic Table can help you classify them and easy to know properties of each
element.
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
 Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying
elements and its use to predict properties of elements
5.1 Periodic trends
 Describe change form metallic to non-metallic character
Periodic Trends
across a period In Periodic Table, Elements are arranged in order of
 Describe the relationship between Group number, number increasing proton number (atomic number)
of valence electrons and metallic or non-metallic character.
 Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I as a
collection of relatively soft metals showing a trend in －A horizontal row in the Periodic Table is known as a Period.
melting point and in reaction with water
 Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given －A vertical column in the Periodic Table is known as a Group
data, where appropriate. The periodic table is made up of 7 periods and 8 groups
 Describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII as a
collection of diatomic non-metals showing a trend in colour, The Periodic table are divided into sections as shown below
Group properties GROUP I II III IV V VI VII VIII
state, and in their displacement reactions with group I
halide. PERIOD /O
 Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII,
1 H
given data, where appropriate.
 Describe the noble gases as being inert.
2
 Describe the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert
atmosphere
3 NON - METALS
4

5 METALS
In the last page of this text book
PERIODIC TABLE is put as an appendix 6

Semi - Metals
Transition
Reactive Metals Metals
29
  Form more than one positively charged ions.
METALS AND NON-METALS Examples: Copper can form Cu+ or Cu2+
A ‘zig- zag’ diagonal line (staircase line) in the Periodic table is the boundary Iron can form Fe2+ or Fe3+
between metallic elements and non-metallic elements.
Some uses of transition metals
NON-METALS Many important catalysts are based on the transition metals.
Non-metals are elements which do not have the properties of metal and always [Examples] The hydrogenation of oil to make margarine uses a nickel catalyst.
form the negative ions when they react to form ionic compounds. The manufacture of ammonia uses an iron catalyst
The Haber process uses an iron catalyst. (See chapter 9)
- Their states are often gases at room conditions (N, O, F, Cl, noble gases and
etc) or low melting point solids (P, S, I and etc). Many transition metals are used to make alloys
- They are Poor electrical and thermal conductors. [Example] Steel is made by mixing iron with a small amount of carbon
- an alloy is a mixture of two or more elements
METALS Mild steel is mixture of Iron and carbon
Metals are a class of chemical elements which always form positive ions when Bronze steel is mixture of Copper and Tin (See chapter 8)
they react to form compounds.
Many transition metals are often useful engineering materials as strong and
- They are often shiny solid hard metals
- They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
- They also form solid oxides that act as bases. SEMI-METALS
Elements near the line (such as Boron and silicon) are called ‘semi-metals’.
TRANSITION METALS Semi–metals have the characteristics of both metals and non-metals.
Transition metals are found in the centre block of Periodic Table. They are often electrical semiconductors
-They have high densities, high strength and high melting points.. whose physical properties resemble metals
but whose chemical properties resemble
They have partly filled inner electron shells PERIOD non-metals.
which give them distinctive properties. A period is a horizontal row or elements
- The first 3 rows are called ‘short periods’.
- The next 4 rows, which include the transition metals, are called ‘long periods’.
They also have the following properties:
 Form IONS in aqueous SOLUTION which are COLOURED Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.
Examples: Copper(II)  Blue
Iron (II)  pale green Going across a period from left to right, the number of outermost electrons
Iron (III)  reddish brown (when solid) increases by one every successive element
yellow ( when in solution)
30
 => Elements change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period. => Elements become more metallic in character, i.e. they lose valence
electrons more easily.

METALS Semi NON-METALS

METALS NON-METALS
Reactive  Less reactive Metals Less reactive  Reactive

As you go down a group As you go up a group

GROUP
A group is a vertical column of elements Not the same total number of electrons More reactive More reactive

Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
(valence electrons). This means that elements in the same group will have similar
chemical properties since they will form ions with the same charge.
SHEILDING
They will also form compounds with similar formulae.
When we talk about the reactivity of elements, sometimes we use this idea.

The group number is the same as the number of outer shell electrons
Reactivity changes as you move down the Groups due to shielding.
 Valency of metals = Group number
This is because each new e- shell is further out from the nucleus and the inner
Valency of non-metals = 8 – Group number
e- shells shield the outer e-‘s from the positive nucleus.

When you go down a group from top to bottom, the number of outer shell electrons
As METAL atoms get bigger, the outer e- is more easily lost. This makes
don’t change but the number of electron shells increase one by one.
METALS MORE REACTIVE as you go DOWN Groups I and II.
i.e. atom get bigger and bigger.

As NON-METAL atoms get bigger, the extra e- are harder to gain. This
makes NON-METALS LESS REACTIVE as you go DOWN Groups VI and VII.
(Non-metal become more reactive as you go up group)

31
 Small Non-Metal atom  relatively LOW MELTING  BURN in AIR with COLOURED FLAMES to
Big Metal atom
POINTS form OXIDES
weak  Good conductors of heat  Alkali metals REACT with HALOGENS to
- and electricity PRODUCE a NEUTRAL SALT which
attraction
easy to  All have 1 e- in outer shell dissolves to form a colourless solution
+ - enter
+ -
easy to When group I metals form ion, they always form ions
lose strong with 1+ charge in their compounds.
attraction
- become ion Group I: Alkali Metals – BEHAVIOUR TRENDS

become ion ATOMIC ALKALI Density Melting TRENDS:

NUMBER METALS (g/cm3) point( Cº)
easy to be ion = more reactive !! 3 Li Lithium 0.53 180 -Reactivity
11 Na Sodium 0.97 98 increase
19 K Potassium 0.86 64 -Densities
The element hydrogen is unique because a H atom can form
37 Rb Rubidium 1.5 39 increase
either H, by losing its one valence electron, or H, by gaining one
55 Cs Caesium 1.9 29 -M.P. and B.P
valence electron to complete its outer shell. Forming ions with
1+ charge is characteristic of Group I elements, while forming
87 Fr Francium - - decrease.
ions with 1- charge is typical of Group VII elements. This Some physical properties of G I elements -Softer to cut
explains why hydrogen is placed by itself in the Periodic Table. Francium is the most reactive
metal in the Periodic Table.
5.2 Group properties They all react with water to
form alkalis, hence their name.
Group I: ALKALI METALS
Elements in Group I are also known as alkali metals that are the elements in the REACTION OF GROUP I ELEMENTS WITH WATER
first group in the periodic table, which all have a single valence electron. Group I elements become more reactive down the group.

They are the most reactive metals group in the Periodic Table. =How to store “Alkali Metal”-
These metals are stored under oil or in vacuum to prevent them
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
from reacting with water and/ or oxygen in the air.
 Silvery / white in colour  All are VERY REACTIVE
 SOFT and EASY TO CUT  REACT vigorously with COLD WATER to [Example] Reaction of Group I elements with water
with a knife
 LOW DENSITIES FORM H2 GAS (Hydrogen gas)
Li reacts speedily

32
 Na reacts violently  Poor conductors of heat and
K reacts explosively (catch fire) electricity
 All have one less e- in outer shell
More reactive
 form 1- ions
- Group I elements react with cold water to form metal hydroxides and
hydrogen gas.
Group I metal + water  metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas Group VII: Halogens – BEHAVIOUR TRENDS Fluorine and chlorine are gases;
2Na(s) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
bromine is a liquid while iodine is
a solid.

Melting Boiling State TRENDS:

The compounds of Group I elements HALOGENS Colour
point(Cº) point(Cº) (at r.t.p)
are usually colourless unless the
F2 Fluorine -220 -188 Gas Pale -Reactivity
compound contain a transition element The metal hydroxide solutions formed yellow decreases
are all strong alkalis with pH values Cl2 Chlorine -101 -35 Gas Yellow -M.P. and B.P
more than 7. green increase.
Group VII: HALOGENS Br2 Bromine -7 59 Liquid Reddish - State
brown Gas to Solid
Elements in Group VII are also known as halogens that are the elements which I2 Iodine 114 184 Solid black - Colour
have seven valence electrons in their outermost shell. At2 Astatine - - Solid - darker
Their ions and compounds are called halides
Physical properties of G VII elements

They are very reactive non-metals. The name is derived form Greek Astatine is the least reactive Iodine has some colours, depending on
and means “salt-markers.” element in Group VII. their physical state:
solid: Black,
Each molecule is made up of 2 atoms
R.T.P stands for Room temperature liquid: Reddish brown
joined together by a single covalent bond. gas: purple.
and pressure (room conditions)
DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Non-metals which form Group VII elements become less reactive down the group.
DIATOMIC MOLECULES with Elements can either be ionic or covalent.
COLOURED VAPOURS More reactive halogens will DISPLACE more reactive
 POISONOUS  REACT with METALS to form less reactive F Group VII elements become:
(use fume cupboard) IONIC compounds (neutral SALTS) halogens from their aqueous salt Cl More reactive as you go up
 REACT with another NON- solutions Less reactive as you go down
Br
METALS to form MOLECULAR 33
compounds I less reactive
 USES OF HALOGENS
 Small amounts of fluorine is added to tap water and toothpaste to prevent
tooth decay
[Example 1]  Chlorine is used to treat tap water and swimming pools to kill harmful
Cl2 + 2KBr  2KCl + Br2 germs and bacteria
 Iodine is used as an antiseptic; Small amounts of iodine are needed in our
Chlorine is more reactive than bromine, so chlorine displace bromine from aqueous bodies to prevent goitre (swelling of thyroid gland)
bromine. The reddish brown solution (Br2) formed contain potassium chloride and  Silver halides are used on black and white photographic film
bromine. 2AgBr + LIGHT  Br2 + 2Ag (silver metal deposit)

[Example 2]
Br2 + 2KI  2KBr + I2 Group VIII/O: NOBLE GASES
Group VIII elements are called the noble gases or inert gases that are
Bromine, being more reactive than iodine, will displace it form aqueous potassium extremely inert.
iodide. The reddish brown solution formed contains potassium bromide and iodine.
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF GROUP VIII ELEMENTS
[Example 3] Noble gases are extremely inert (the least reactive) because there atoms have
I2 + 2KBr  X full outermost electron shells.

There is no reaction between iodine (I) and Potassium bromide (KBr). Iodine is X X
XX
less reactive than bromine, so iodine does not displace bromine. × X
XX
He
X
Ne
X
XX X XX
X
X
X X X Ar X X
× X X X
Displacement reactions are redox reactions. XX
XX
4 20 40
Helium, 2He Neon, Ne
10 Argon, Ar
18

The full electronic structure of the first 3 noble gases

NOBLE GASES all have the following PROPERTIES:

All are colourless

All are gases that consist of single atoms.
All are monatomic gases with Low Melting and Boiling points.
All are stable, hardly combine with other atoms (INERT)

34
Group O: Noble Gases – BEHAVIOUR TRENDS

ATOMIC Density Boiling TRENDS:

NOBLE GASES COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
NUMBER (g/cm3) point( Cº)
2 He Helium 0.14 -269 -Reactivity  Describe the effect of concentration, pressure, particle
10 Ne Neon 0.67 -246 inert size and temperature on the speeds of reactions and explain
these effects in terms of collisions between reacting
18 Ar Argon 1.38 -186 -Densities Rate of reactions
particles.
36 Kr Krypton 2.89 -157 increase
 Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with
54 Xe Xenon 4.56 -108 - B.P
speed of reaction.
86 Rn Radon 7.70 -62 increase.
 Define oxidation and reduction (redox) in terms of oxygen
Some physical properties of G VIII elements Redox reaction
gain/loss
Noble gases occupy 1% of the  Define exothermic and endothermic reactions
atmosphere. Of all the noble gases, Energy changes  Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond
Group O: Noble Gases – USES
Argon is the most abundant in air. forming as an exothermic process

 Helium is used in balloons and airships because it is less dense than air (the
second lightest gas and not flammable like hydrogen)
 Neon is used in advertising signs because it glows red when electricity is
discharged through it.
 Argon is used to fill filament lamps (light bulbs). It prevents the filament
inside the bulb from burning out.
 Krypton and Xenon are used in lamps in lighthouses, stroboscopic lamps, and
photographic flash units.

 All these uses are because noble gases are CHEMICALLY INERT!!

35
6.1 Rate of Reaction ANALYSING GRAPHS FOR RATE OF REACTION

Amount of Product Made  Graph is steepest at START

Rate of reaction is the speed of a chemical reaction, calculated by measuring how
quickly reactants change into products.  REACTION is FASTEST at start
A  Graph then starts to level out
- Chemical reaction take place at a variety of speeds.  REACTIONS SLOWS as more
B REACTANTS get USED UP
EXAMPLES
・ Reaction of magnesium metal with acid -> fast  When graph is flat (level)
・ Rusting of an iron nail in the presence of air and water -> slow, takes a few days.  REACTION has FINISHED
・ Gold reacting with oxygen in the air -> no reaction, speed of reaction is zero.  Reaction A is faster than Reaction B
Time
The greater the gradient is,
MEASURING THE RATE OF REACTION the faster the reaction is.
The speed of a reaction is defined as STEPS: How to Plot Graphs
 Use the data range to choose a suitable SCALE for each axis.
change in amount of reactantor product  Note that the scale markings should be evenly spaced!
speedof reaction   PLOT each data point carefully
time
 Draw a LINE OF BEST FIT
Measure the speed of reaction can be done directly by observing either how  LABEL each axis (include units)
quickly the reactants are used up or how quickly the products are forming.  Give the graph a TITLE e.g. Graph of Loss of Mass with Time
Common methods are shown below.
[EXAMPLE]
1. Change in mass (usually gas given off) Calcium carbonate when heated undergoes thermal decomposition to form
 Any reaction that produces a gas can be carried out on a MASS BALANCE calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The loss of mass during the reaction was
and the mass disappearing is easily measured measured for two different reactions.
2. Volume of gas produced Time (sec) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
 Uses a GAS SYRINGE to measure the volume of gas produced A Loss in Mass (g) 50 40 30 22 17 14 12 11 11
3. Precipitation B Loss in Mass (g) 50 35 20 15 13 12 11 11 11
 Observe a MARKER through a solution which becomes CLOUDY as the
product precipitates and measures the time taken for the marker to (a) Plot the results on the graph below. Label each reaction A or B (3 marks)
DISAPPEAR

36
 (e) Reaction A and Reaction B started with the same amount of calcium carbonate
(b) Which of the two reactions was the fastest? Suggest the reason for this because they both ended up with exactly the same amount of mass lost during the
difference. (2 marks) reaction.
(c)(i) What was the mass lost for Reaction B after 30 seconds? (2 mark)
(ii) After what time did Reaction A lose 25 g of mass? (1 mark)
(d) At what time was the reaction B over? FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF A REACTION
(e). Did Reaction A start with less calcium carbonate, more calcium carbonate or A reaction is caused by the collision of particles of substances.
the same amount of calcium carbonate as Reaction B? (1 mark) The factors below affect the collision and therefore affect speed of reaction.

1. Concentration of reactant – more concentrated reactants, faster reactions

ANSWER: 2. Pressure of reactant (gaseous reactions only) – higher pressure, faster reactions
(a) 3. Temperature – higher temperature, faster reactions
Loss of Mass During Thermal Reaction A
4. Particle size of reactant – smaller particle reactants, faster reactions
Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate Reaction B 5. Use of a Catalyst
I.e. INCREASE in SURFACE AREA

50 CATALYSTS
Loss of Mass (g)

40
A at  Catalysts work best with a big surface area
A CATALYST is a substance
30 25 g [e.g.] powder, pellets or gauze
which INCREASES the speed
 Catalysts are specific to certain reactions
20 of reaction without being
 Enzymes are biological catalysts
changed or used up in the
10  Catalysts are used to REDUCE COSTS in
reaction
Industrial Reactions
0
 Catalysts LOWER the ACTIVATION ENERGY
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
B at 30 s Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to start a
Time (sec) chemical reaction. This energy is used in the breaking of chemical bonds
EXAMPLES
(b) Reaction B was faster (as it has the steeper curve). The reason for this is that ・IRON CATALYST is used to produce AMMONIA in the HABER PROCESS.
Reaction B was heated more strongly than Reaction A. ・A PLATINUM CATALYST is used in the production of nitric acid and in the
(c) (i) Mass Lost = Original Mass – Mass at 30 s CATALYTIC CONVERTER in a car engine.
= 50 g – 42 g = 8 g { 2 marks!! use graph & calculation} ・The catalytic converter is used in the engine of the car to promote combustion
(ii) 150 sec { use graph } of the fuel to reduce pollution from unburnt exhaust gases.
(d) 360 sec, because graph of reaction B become flat from 360 sec.

37
6.2 Redox Reactions
Redox reactions are reactions that involve both oxidation and reduction
Oxidation is a chemical reaction involving the gain of oxygen.
Reduction is a chemical reaction involving the loss of oxygen.
Oxidation and reduction reactions occur simultaneously.
If one reactant is oxidised, then the other reactant must be reduced.
LOSS or GAIN OF OXYGEN
When a substance gains oxygen during a chemical reaction, it is oxidised. If it loses
oxygen the substance is reduced.
6.3 Energy changes
EXAMPLES
2Cu (s) + O2 (g)  2CuO (s)
Cu is oxidised to CuO because it has gained oxygen.
DEFINING OXIDISING and REDUCING AGENTS
Oxidising agents are substances which helps oxidation to occur. It provides
oxygen. Oxidising agents will be reduced. Reducing agents are substances which
helps reduction to occur. It removes oxygen. Reducing agents will be oxidised.
EXAMPLE Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2
Zn is oxidised to ZnSO4 as it has gained oxygen, and H2SO4 is reduced
to H2 because it has lost oxygen.
Since H2SO4 causes Zn to become oxidised (by losing oxygen to it), so
it is the oxidising agent. On the other hand, Zn is the reducing agent
since it causes H2SO4 to become reduced (by removing oxygen from it)
All chemical reactions involve energy change. In chemical reaction, heat is
produced, those reaction are called exothermic reaction. While heat is absorbed,
those reactions are called endothermic reaction.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
CO2 (g) + 2Mg(s)  C(s) + 2MgO(s)
Mg is oxidised to MgO because it has gained oxygen. EXAMPLES
CO2 is reduced to C because it has lost oxygen.  Water is added to calcium oxide, the
An exothermic reaction is temperature will rise.
a chemical reaction during  When ethanol is burnt, heat and light are
which heat is given out, evolved and the temperature of the
The definition using oxygen is the easiest to use. However, the causing a temperature rise surroundings rises.
use is limited to reactions involving oxygen atoms. in the surroundings.  The reaction of magnesium with dilute
Actually there are other definitions for redox reactions which hydrochloric acid. The reaction tube becomes
use gain or loss of hydrogen/electron, or oxidation number. warm.
The most versatile definition by far is the one using oxidation
numbers although we do not talk about those definitions here. After all the bonds in the reactants are broken, the atoms
will form new bonds to give the products of the reaction; Heat
energy will be released when these new bonds are formed.
Hence, bond forming is exothermic.

38
  Classify oxides as either acidic, basic, or amphoteric
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS related to metallic or non-metallic character.
EXAMPLES  Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in
 Dissolve ammonium nitrate in water, the soil
An endothermic reaction is tube become cold.  Describe the preparation, separation and purification of
a chemical reaction during  All evaporation and melting processes are Preparation of salts.
which heat is taken in, endothermic. Salt  Suggest a methods of preparing a given salt from suitable
causing a temperature drop starting materials, given appropriate information
in the surroundings.  Describe the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous
ammonia to identify the aqueous cations.
 Describe tests to identify the anions.
In a chemical reaction, bonds between reactants must be broken so  Describe tests to identify the gases.
Identification
that the atoms can rearrange themselves to form products. Heat  Describe the identification of hydrogen using a lighted
test
energy must be taken in by the reactants for bond breaking. splint ( water being formed)
Hence, bond breaking must be endothermic.  Describe the identification of oxygen using a glowing splint.
 Describe the identification of carbon dioxide using lime
water.
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

 HEAT is GIVEN OUT  HEAT is TAKEN IN

 Temperature RISES  Temperature DECREASES

COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to) (or reaction requires heating)
 Describe the meaning of the terms acid and alkali in terms  Energy released when forming
of the ions they contain or produce in aqueous solution. bonds is GREATER than the energy  Energy absorbed when breaking
 Describe the characteristic properties of acids as in their absorbed when breaking bonds bonds is GREATER than the energy
reactions released when forming bonds
 Describe the characteristic properties of bases as in their [e.g.] Combustion, Freezing and
Acid, Base and condensing, Neutralisation reactions, [e.g.] Decomposition of limestone,
reactions with acids and with ammonium salts and their
Alkali Haber process, Reduction of iron (III) Decomposition of halide crystals by
effects on indicator paper.
 Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in the blast furnace, Adding light, Melting and boiling,
 Describe the formation of hydrogen and product of the concentrated H2SO4 to water, Adding Photosynthesis, Dissolving certain
reaction between; reactive metals and water/metals and water to anhydrous CuSO4 salts (KCl or NH4NO3)
acids Summary of exothermic and endothermic
39
For human beings air and water are two of the commonest, indeed, the most
important chemical substances in the world. There are however, other classes of
chemical materials which are not only common but are also very important in our
everyday lives. These classes are the acids, bases and salts which are the subject
matter of this chapter.
Acids are chemical compounds which produce hydrated hydrogen
ions H+ (aq) when in aqueous solution.
NEUTRAL
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
 Any pH value below 7 represents an acidic solution.
 Any pH value above 7 represents an alkaline solution.
 A pH value of 7 indicates that the solution is neutral.
It is neither acidic nor alkaline.
e.g. Pure water, saltwater, and various organic liquids are neutral solution

Bases are chemical compounds that react with acids to form a salt INDICATOR
and water We can check whether a solution is acidic or alkaline by indicators.
An acid-base indicator changes colour, reversibly. Some indicators with change in
Alkalis are water-soluble bases which produce hydrated hydroxide colour are shown below.
ions OH- (aq) when in aqueous solution.
Colour in:
INDICATOR
Salts are chemical compounds formed when the hydrogen of an ACID ALKALI
acid is partially or wholly replaced by a metal or other positive ion Litmus paper Red Blue
(E.g. ammonium ion). Phenol phthalein Colourless Pink or red
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue

7.1 Acid, Base and Alkali

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
PH SCALE Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators and turns a range of
The pH scale shows the strength of an acid or alkali in an aqueous solution. colours corresponding to different pH values.
It is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions present in the solution.

pH is an abbreviation for “potential of hydrogen” ← Acidic Neutral Alkaline 

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Green-
strong weak weak strong red orange yellow Green blue violet
blue
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Colour change in Universal indicator with pH

ACIDIC ALKALINE

40
ACIDS  Acids turn litmus paper red
Acids are chemical compounds which produce hydrogen ions, H+ (aq) when in  Acids have pH values less than 7
aqueous solution. The table below shows some common acids found in the
laboratory and ions they formed. REACTION OF ACIDS
There are 3 common reactions of acid
Name of acid Ions present Salt formed
Simple bases
Hydrochloric acid, HCl H+ , Cl- - chloride, -Cl 1. Acid + base  salt + H2O
are oxide and
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 H+, SO42- -sulphate, -SO4 2. Acid + metal  salt + H2
hydroxide of
Nitric acid, HNO3 H+, NO3- - nitrate, -NO3 3. Acid + carbonate  salt + H2O + CO2
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH H+, CH3 COO - - ethanoate, -CH3 COO metals
Common Acids REACTION OF ACID WITH BASE
This reaction is called
Acids react with bases to form salts and water only
Acids have acidic properties only HCl have two names neutralisation
when they are dissolved in water.
 In gaseous form, [EXAMPLE 1] Acid with Metal oxide (Metal oxide is one of base)
It is called Hydrogen chloride
HCl
Sulphuric acid + zinc oxide  zinc sulphate + water
 Hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water,
H2SO4 (aq) + ZnO (s)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (aq)
that solution called Hydrochloric acid

[EXAMPLE 2] Acid with Metal Hydroxide (Metal hydroxide is one of base)

BASICITY of an acid = NUMBER OF H+ IONS produced
when aqueous
Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide  sodium chloride + water
[e.g.] Basicity of H2SO4 = 2 H + ions = 2 HCl (aq) + KOH (aq)  KCl (aq) + H2O (aq)
TYPES OF ACIDS
1. MINERAL acids REACTION OF ACID WITH METAL
-These are STRONG acids and they IONISE COMPLETELY Acid react with metals like zinc, magnesium and iron to form salts and
[e.g.] hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acids hydrogen gas.

2. ORGANIC acids [EXAMPLE]

-These are WEAK acids and they only PARTIALLY IONISE Hydrochloric acid + Zinc  Zinc chloride + hydrogen gas.
[e.g.] carbonic, acetic (vinegar) and citric acids 2HCl (aq) + Zn (s)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
When a lighted splint is held Lighted
 Acids taste sour.
wooden splint
[e.g.] vinegar and lemon (They contain ethanoic acid and citric acid respectively) at the mouth of a test tube
containing hydrogen gas, the
41 gas burns explosively with a
“Pop” sound.
 Acidic solution

 Bases are usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides.

REACTION OF ACIDS WITH CARBONATES

All carbonates react with acid to form salts, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Table below lists some common bases and alkalis.
Insoluble bases Soluble bases
[EXAMPLE]
sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water Name Formula Name Formula
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) Zinc oxide ZnO Potassium oxide K2 O
Copper(II) oxide CuO Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
Test for carbon dioxide: Common bases and alkalis
carbon dioxide turns limewater milky Delivery tube
white.
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION ON BASES

Bases
Sodium carbonate Lime water
+ dilute hydrochloric acid
Oxides Hydroxides

BASES AND ALKALIS Soluble Insoluble Soluble Insoluble

A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to give a salt and water only.  Alkalis Basic oxides Alkalis Basic hydroxide
This reaction is called neutralisation.
It can be seen from this that all alkalis are bases,
not all bases are alkalis. Solubility depends on
Neutralisation is the chemical reaction between a base and an the combination of ions
acid to form a salt and water involved. We will see that
later.
Acid + Base  Salt + Water  Water soluble bases dissolve in water to form alkalise.
HCl (s) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
[EXAMPLE] Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
NaOH (aq)  Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
SOLUBLE BASES AND INSOLUBLE BASES
Hydroxide ions have ability to neutralise acidic solution.
.  Many bases are insoluble in water.
Bases that can dissolve in water form solutions called alkalis
42
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS Plants grow well in which types of soil. Some plants grow well in acidic soil (pH
6.5), while other grow well in alkaline soils (pH 7.5)
 Alkalis feel slippery If the ground is too acid (because of acid rain), slaked lime (solid calcium
 Edible alkalis have a bitter taste. hydroxide) can help to neutralize excess acidity. This process is called liming soil
 Alkalis turn litmus paper blue .
 Alkalis have pH values greater than 7
REACTION OF BASES Slaked lime is a cheap alkali. It dissolves sparingly in water, so once the acid is
There are 2 common reactions of bases neutralised, the excess base will remain as solid and it won’t make soil too
alkaline.
OXIDES
1. Base + acid  salt + H2O
Reaction that occurs between elements and oxygen in the air take place, so most
2. Base (alkali) + ammonium salt  salt + ammonium gas + H2O
elements combine with oxygen and oxides are formed.
Type of Oxide Examples
REACTION OF BASES WITH AMMONIUM SALTS ACIDIC Carbon dioxide CO2, Sulphur dioxide SO2,
1.
Alkalis react with ammonium salts to form salts, ammonia gas and water. (Non-metallic) Nitrogen dioxide NO2
BASIC Magnesium oxide MgO, Calcium oxide CaO,
[EXAMPLE]
2.
(Metallic) Sodium oxide Na2O
sodium hydroxide + ammonium nitrate  sodium nitrate + ammonia + water Zinc oxide ZnO, Aluminium oxide Al2O3,
NaOH (aq) + NH4NO3 (aq)  Na NO3 (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l) 3. AMPHOTERIC
Lead(II) oxide PbO.
Water H2O, Carbon monoxide CO,
4. NEUTRAL
Nitrogen monoxide NO
Ammonia is a colourless, pungent gas. Red litmus paper
Moist red litmus paper immediately
PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF OXIDES
turns blue. Alkaline solution
ACIDIC OXIDES
HEATED UP Ammonium salt Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals which react with water to form
acids (H+ ions).
- They form acids (H + ions) when dissolved in water
SIGNIFICANCE OF pH MESUREMENTS
Apart form enabling us to determine whether substances are acidic or alkaline, pH [EXAMPLE] Carbon dioxide + water  carbonic acid
values have very important significance and implications in industry, agriculture, CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
pharmacy and medicine.
Natural rain become a .weakly acidic solution because carbon dioxide in
CONTROL OF pH IN AGRICULTURE the air dissolve in natural rain.

43
 7.2 Salt Preparation
BASIC OXIDES Salts are chemical
Basic oxides are oxides of metallic elements that will react with acids to compounds formed
As you have seen, the reaction of an acid results
form salt and water only. when the hydrogen of
in the products of a salt.
an acid is partially or
Now we shall see how to prepare the salt required.
[EXAMPLE] wholly replaced by a
Magnesium oxide + sulphuric acid  Magnesium sulphate + water Compounds in which the H+ions in an acid metal or other positive
MgO + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2O have been replaced by ammonium ions, ion (E.g. ammonium ion).
NH4+are called ammonium salts.
Here, neutralisation takes place.
Basic oxides that dissolve in water to form alkalis
AMPHOTERIC OXIDES SELECTION OF METHOD
Amphoteric oxides can act as acid in one reaction but as a base in another..
- When they react with acids, they behave as basic oxides; SOLUBILITY RULES
- When they react with alkalis, they behave as acidic oxides. The method chosen to prepare a salt depends on its solubility.
 The solubility depends on the combination of positive and negative ions.
[EXAMPLE] Zinc oxide reacts with an acid and a base for neutralisation.

1. Sulphuric acid + zinc oxide  zinc sulphate + water

H2SO4 + ZnO  ZnSO4 + H2O
[acid] [base]
- In this case, zinc oxide is acting as a base

2. Zinc oxide + sodium hydroxide  sodium zincate + water

ZnO + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 + H2O
[acid] [base]
- In this case zinc oxide is acting as an acid.

NEUTRAL OXIDES
Neutral oxides do not dissolve in water to form acids nor do they react with
bases to form salts. NEITHER acidic nor basic properties

[EXAMPLES] Water, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen monoxide, Sulphur monoxide, etc

44
 SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE
 ALL nitrates  ALL carbonates
SELECTING THE CORRECT PREPARATION METHOD
 ALL chlorides EXCEPT FOR: sodium carbonate,
EXCEPT FOR: silver chloride and lead potassium carbonate and ammonium SALT
(II) chloride carbonate
 ALL sulphates  ALL sulphides
EXCEPT FOR: calcium sulphate, barium EXCEPT FOR: sodium sulphide,
Insoluble Salt Soluble Salt If sodium, potassium
sulphate and lead (II) sulphate potassium sulphide and ammonium
and ammonium salt
sulphide
 ALL oxides
EXCEPT FOR: sodium oxide, potassium Starting with Starting with
Note that oxide (Group I) and ammonium oxide an Insoluble base an Soluble base
All sodium, potassium (even oALL hydroxides Precipitation
other Group I elements) EXCEPT FOR: sodium hydroxide,
Ammonium and Nitrate [E.g.] Filter and
potassium hydroxide (Group I), Titration
compounds are soluble. PbCl2, PbSO4 Crystallisation Method
ammonium hydroxide and calcium
hydroxide CaSO4, AgCl
[E.g.] [E.g.]
CuSO4, MgCl2, Ca(NO3) 2 NaCl, K2SO4,
Table: Solubility of compounds NH4Cl

The selection of salt preparation method is summarised in next page.

[EXAMPLES] Name the correct method to prepare
o Precipitation is carried out if on insoluble salt is required.
(a) potassium chloride
o If a soluble salt is needed, it is prepared by Filter and crystallisation method
KCl  soluble salt the base can contain K  soluble base
or by Titration.
 use TITRATION

(b) zinc sulphate

ZnSO4 soluble salt the base can not contain Na, K or NH4 insoluble base
 use FILTER AND CRYSTALLISATION METHOD

(c) silver chloride

AgCl  insoluble salt  use PRECIPITATION

45
 Ag+ NO3- NaNO3 (soluble)
Na + Cl- AgCl
PREPARETION OF INSOLUBLE SALT We can use silver nitrate and sodium chloride
PROCUDURE OF PRECIPITATION
Insoluble salts are prepared by mixing solutions containing their positive and
negative ions using the method of PRECIPITATION.  Dissolve each reactant separately in water
 Mix chemically equivalent quantities of the reactant solutions
-The reactant solutions are chosen so that on exchanging ions the unwanted  Filter the solution and wash the precipitate in warm distilled water
product is still soluble but the given insoluble salt will form as a precipitate.  Dry the solid salt that was produced in an oven (105ºC)
Refer to the topic of
[E.g.] To prepare Barium sulphate, BaSO4 ‘separation technique’
SOLUBLE SALT + SOLUBLE SALT  SOLUBLE SALT + INSOLUBLE SALT
(precipitate)
Ba(NO3) 2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)  BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
Precipitate is an insoluble solid formed
when a chemical reaction occurs between The ionic equation is
To find the Reactant Solutions: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  PbI2
two dissolved ionic substances.
Choose 2 starting solutions. (s)
 One must contain the positive ion of the insoluble salt required
 The other must contain h the negative ion of the insoluble salt required.

[EXAMPLE] To make barium sulphate (BaSO4 ),

REACTANT IONS: AFTER MIXING:

Ba2+ NO3- NaNO3 (soluble)
Na +
SO42- BaSO4
We can use barium nitrate and sodium sulphate.

The easiest salt solution containing the positive ions is

the METAL NITRATE (as all nitrates are soluble).

For a solution containing the negative ions, can use the

SODIUM SALT (as all sodium salts are soluble)

[EXAMPLE 2] To make silver chloride (AgCl),

REACTANT IONS: AFTER MIXING:

46
 1: Dissolve 2: Mix SOLUBLE SALTS are prepared using two methods:
Na+ and NO3- are still
dissolving (They are 1. Filter and crystallisation method
spectator ions) Neutralising an ACID with EXCESS INSOLUBLE REACTANT
Ba2+ + Na+ 2. Titration
NO3- SO42- MIX!! Neutralising an ACID with the EXACT AMOUNT of ALKALI
Na+
Na + NO3-
NO3-
NO3- Na+
Barium nitrate Sodium sulphate FILTER AND CRYSTALLIDATION METHOD
solution solution 2+ 2- This method is used for preparation of soluble salts when a suitable insoluble
Ba SO4
starting material can be found.
The acid reacts with an EXCESS of insoluble reactant that can be:
Precipitate of barium 1. METAL
sulphate 2. BASE (INSOLUBLE)
Ba2+ SO42- 3. CARBONATE
4: Dry
Ba2+ SO42- Ba2+ SO42- Therefore to prepare a given salt, we need to choose the correct acid and a
3: Filter and suitable insoluble reactant (METAL, OXIDE, HYDROXIDE or CARBONATE).

Wash BaSO4
Na+ STEPS
NO3-
１ Neutralise the acid with and excess of the insoluble reactant
NO3- ２ Filter off any unreacted reagent
Na+
３ Evaporate the solution to the crystallisation point
PREPARETION OF SOLUBLE SALT ４ Cool to produce crystals of the salt
As you have seen, we have two methods to prepare soluble salts depending on the ５ Filter, wash and dry the crystals before collection.
solubility of the base that would be a starting material.
[EXAMPLE] The preparation of zinc sulphate

Starting materials; zinc oxide and dilute sulphuric acid.

ZnO(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

This reaction is used below to illustrate the procedure.

Step1
An excess reactant ensures that
Zinc sulphate excess all the acid has been used up
47 and water zinc oxide
 Titration is a technique which can be used for neutralization of an acid and
an alkali.

Don’t boil, but warmed to speed

The soluble salts of ammonium and Group I metals (sodium, potassium and
up the reaction
lithium) are prepared using the TITRATION METHOD.

Step2 This is because all their compounds are soluble (including the metals
themselves) and very reactive. The Group I metals are so reactive resulting
Residue: excess in too violent reaction that we CAN NOT USE EXCESS reactant.
Mixture: zinc oxide
Zinc sulphate solution and
 TITRATION means using the EXACT quantities of reactants for the reaction.
excess zinc oxide
Filtrate: zinc sulphate INDICATOR
and water
In a titration, an indicator is a must
Acidic END POINT Alkaline
Step3 and 4 evaporation make sure the endpoint of reaction. A
Zinc sulphate solution (neutral) solution
common indicator to make sure the
and water Yellow GREEN Blue
crystallisation neutral is Bromothymol blue. Colour change in Brmothymol blue

Don’t evaporate all the

water. The filtrate is
heated until a thin crust STEPS OF TITRATION
of crystals form on the Zinc sulphate To prepare a given salt, the most common procedure is to react the alkali
surface of the liquid. crystals solution with the dilute acid using a burette. Indicator is used to determine
when the exact amount of reactant has been added.
Preparing a soluble salt by filter and crystallisation method.
[EXAMPLE]
The preparation of sodium sulphate is used to illustrate the procedure.
If a metal carbonate is used to prepare a salt using this method,
there will be bubbles of carbon dioxide gas as the metal carbonate is Starting materials: aqueous sodium hydroxide and dilute sulphuric acid
added to the acid in step1. When there is no more bubble, all the acid
has been used up and we may proceed to next step. NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

TITRATION

48
Step 1
 Place the soluble dilute acid in a conical flask indicator
 Add a few drops of indicator
(e.g. methyl orange) sodium
hydroxide 7.3 Identification Tests
solution
IDENTIFICATION OF GASES
Using pipette, measure
25.0cm of sodium
 Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and chlorine are all acidic gases and will turn
hydroxide into conical flask
moist blue litmus paper red. Hence, the blue litmus paper test is not a
Step 2 conclusive test; it only indicates the presence of an acidic gas. It is necessary
burette
 From a burette, slowly add the alkali solution. to conduct confirmatory tests in order to conclude the presence of a
Ensure that the solution is mixed well. particular gas.
V1
 When the indicator begins to change colour,  Ammonia, chlorine and sulphur dioxide have characteristic smell and are thus
the reaction should be slowed to a drip. easily identified.
dilute sulphuric When testing for
acid hydrogen gas, hold
At this point, just enough acid is added to Table below summarises the test for gases. the lighted splint at
sodium neutralise the alkali, all the alkali has reacted. GAS FORMULA TEST and RESULT the mouth of the
hydroxide Hydrogen H2  Burns with a ‘POP’ sound test tube.
Oxygen O2  Relights a glowing splint
Step 3 The resulting mixture
contains only sodium Carbon Dioxide CO2  Turns limewater milky
 Once the colour change is complete, When testing for
sulphate and water  Turns damp blue litmus red
the reaction is complete (END POINT). oxygen gas, insert
then bleaches litmus paper the glowing splint
The burette should be turned off. Chlorine Cl2
 Yellowish-green colour into the test tube
From the titration result, we can V２  Choking smell
know the exact volume of nitric  Turns damp red litmus BLUE
acid needed to react with 25.0cm sodium nitrate Ammonia NH3
 Pungent smell
of sodium hydroxide. Volume of and water
Hydrogen  Turns damp blue litmus RED
nitric acid, Va= V２- V1 HCl
Chloride  Choking smell
 Turns damp blue litmus RED
Step 4 Sulphur Dioxide SO2
 Choking smell
 Evaporate the solution to crystallisation.
Table: Test for gases
 Cool to produce crystals of the salt
 Filter, wash and dry the crystals
FLAME TESTS
-In a strict titration, second titration should be carried out. The salt solution obtained
in the first titration is thrown away because it is affected by the indicator. Second one 49
is done without it. The exact volume of acid to be added is obtained from the first.
  React a small quantity of compound with a couple of drops of concentrated
hydrochloric acid
 Dip a clean piece of platinum wire into the mixture and put into the flame
of a Bunsen burner
 The flame colour in each reaction is shown below.

METAL PRESENT CATION FLAME COLOUR

Sodium Na+ Orange-yellow
Potassium K+ Lilac-pink
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
Calcium Ca2+
Brick red
 Describe the general physical properties of metals
Barium Ba2+ Pale green
Properties of  Explain why metals are often used in the form of alloys.
Copper (II) Cu2+ Green
metals  Identify representations of metals and alloys from
Lead (II) Pb2+ Blue
diagrams of structures
Table: Test for flames
 Place in order of reactivity calcium, copper, hydrogen , iron,
magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc by reference to the
reactions if any of the metals with water(or steam)
REACTION SCHEMES
 Account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms
Reactivity series
of the presence of an oxide layer which adheres to the
When solving Reaction Schemes it is essential that you know all the reactions
metal.
typical for acids and alkalis and ammonium salts.
 Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of
1. acid + metal  salt + H2
experimental results.
2. acid + alkali / base  salt + H2O
 Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by
3. acid + carbonate  salt + H2O + CO2 Extraction of
relation the elements of the reactivity series.
4. ammonium solution + acid  ammonium salt + H2O metals
 Describe the effect of aluminium on human beings.
5. alkali + ammonium salt  salt + NH3 + H2O
 Describe the essential reactions in the extraction of iron
You may also need to know the identification tests for the various cations, anions
from haematite
and gases.
Describe methods of rust prevention
Iron
 Describe the idea of changing the properties of iron by the
There are very important controlled use of additives to form alloys called steels
reactions. Keep in your mind!!  State the uses of mild steel and stainless steel.
 Describe the extraction and purification of copper from its
Copper ore.
 State the uses of copper related to its properties
 State the uses of aluminium in air craft and food containers
Aluminium
 State the uses of zinc for galvanising and for making brass
50
(with copper) In Periodic table we saw the most of the elements are metals. The non-metals
confined to the top right-hand corner of the periodic table. Of over 100 elements
which we know, only 21 are non-metals.
Now we shall investigate metals.

8.1 Properties of metal

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES and USE

In terms of appearance, Non-metals are different with each other while metals are
all alike. Only copper and gold are coloured; all are shiny.
Let’s see physical properties of typical metals comparing with those of non-metals.

METALS are… NON-METALS are…

 Conduct electricity and heat  Do not conduct electricity and heat
 Shiny  Dull
 Malleable and ductile  Brittle
 High MP and BP  usually solid  Low MP and BP  usually liquid or gas
 High densities  Low densities
 Magnetic materials  Non-magnetic materials
 Strong and Tough

Except for Cu and Al Except for Mercury that is liquid at r.t.p.

and Gallium that melts below 30℃

Malleable means ‘be easily made into sheet without breaking.

Ductile means ‘be easily made into wire without breaking.

 Due to the properties above, metals are used in many ways

METAL USES USEFUL PROPERTY
Copper  Electric cables  Excellent conductor of electricity
Aluminium  Soft drink cans  Does not corrode
 Coat ‘tin’ cans used
Tin  Non-poisonous
for food e.g. jam
51
Gold / Silver  Jewellery  Malleable and very unreactive Solder Lead and Tin  welding metals  low MP
Pewter Tin and Lead  ornament  good appearance
ALLOYS
Pure metals are usually too soft and weak for most uses. To improve the strength and
hardness of pure metal, we do the following treatment. 8.2 Reactivity Series

The reactivity series is a list of metals placed

Metals have high densities because the atoms are packed closely together and in order of their reactivity, as determined by
arranged orderly in layers. When force is applied to a metal, the layers of atoms their reaction with water and dilute acid.
can slip over each other.
The presence of another atoms in
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
the metal prevent the layers of
PUSH Some metals react with cold water while others react only with steam.
atoms from sliding over one
- Table 1 lists the reaction of some metals with water
another and therefore strengthen
Metal structure After being pushed
its structure..
Table1; reaction of metals with water
One metal Metal Observation/Equation
An alloy is a mixture of two or
E.g. Alminium Very violent reaction and metal catch fire.
more elements that are usually Potassium (K)
another metal 2K (s) + 2H2O(l)  2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
metals except for carbon in steel.
E.g. Copper Violent reaction with water.
Sodium (Na)
2Na (s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Steady reaction in water.
Calcium (Ca)
Ca (s) + 2H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
ADVANTAGES OF ALLOYING Reacts very slowly with cold water.
1. Stronger and harder than the pure metals. Magnesium (Mg)
Mg (s) + 2H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
2. Improved metal appearance Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe),
3. Increased resistance to corrosion Lead(Pb), Copper(Cu), Do not react with cold water
- Some examples of alloys are below Silver(Ag)
ALLOY MIXTURE OF USES USEFUL PROPERTY
Mild steel Iron and Carbon  car bodies  hard and strong Table 2; reaction of metals with steam
Stainless Iron, Chromium  cutlery Metal Observation/Equation
 corrosion resistant
steel and Nickel  surgical instrument Vigorous reaction with steam.
Brass Copper and Zinc  Screw  corrosion resistant Magnesium (K)
Mg (s) + H2O(l)  MgO(s) + H2(g)
Bronze Copper and Tin  ornament  good appearance Quite slow reaction with steam
Aluminium and  aircraft and Zinc (Zn)
Duralumin  strong and lightweight Zn (s) + H2O(l)  ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Magnesium bicycle frames Iron (Fe) Very slow reaction with steam

52
 3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 React explosively to give hydrogen It is dangerous.
Potassium(K),
Lead(Pb), Copper(Cu), 2K (s) + 2HCl (aq)  2KCl (aq) + H2 (g)
Do not react with steam Sodium(Na)
Silver(Ag) 2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
Very violet reaction.
Calcium (Ca)
Ca (s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 FROM THE OBSERVATIONS of the reactions of metals with water Violent reaction.
Magnesium (Mg)
Mg (s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
1. Metals react with water or steam to produce metal hydroxides or metal Moderate reaction.
Zinc (Zn)
oxide and hydrogen gas. Zn (s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Slow reaction.
Iron (Fe)
Metal + water  Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas Fe (s) + 2HCl(aq)  FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Metal + steam  Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas Copper(Cu),
Do not react with dilute hydrochloric acid
Silver(Ag)

Check:
Magnesium react with both cold water and steam, but product is not same..
FROM THE OBSERVATIONS of the reactions of metals with water
Mg + cold water  Mg(OH)2 + H2 produce Magneseum hydroxide The reaction produces a salt (chloride) and hydrogen gas
Mg + steam  MgO + H2 produce Magnesium oxide
Metal + hydrochloric acid  salt (metal chloride) + Hydrogen gas

2. The more vigorous the reaction, the more reactive the metal.
We can draw the reactivity series of metals from the reactions of metals with
water and dilute acid as shown below.
Potassium, sodium, calcium are reactive metals.
Magnesium, zinc and iron are fairly reactive metals.
Lead, copper and silver are unreactive metals.

REACTION OF METALS WITH DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID

The reaction of metals with dilute acid is also taken into account for the reactivity
series (The dilute acid is hydrochloric acid here).

Table 3; reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid

Metal Observation/Equation
53
 aluminium oxide
THE METAL REACTIVITY SERIES Important Note: HCl
(Al2O3) layer protect
The more reactive metal has the Aluminium is placed higher in the
aluminium
higher tendency to lose valence reactivity series although it shows
Potassium K
VERY electrons and form positive ions. no observable reaction with dilute
Sodium Na HCl
REACTIVE hydrochloric acid. It appears less
Calcium Ca Aluminium
reactive due to the protective layer
Magnesium Mg
FAIRLY of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) that
Aluminium Al The element hydrogen is placed in
REACTIVE keeps the metal inside.
the series for comparison.
2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2 (faster reaction)
Zinc Zn
NOT VERY Iron Fe  Metals above hydrogen will react Al2O3 + 6HCl →3H2O + 2AlCl3 (very slow reaction)
REACTIVE Tin Sn with dilute acids to give hydrogen
gas.
Lead Pb Generally
 Metals below hydrogen will not
HYDROGEN H2 Group I metals will be located at the top of the series, since
react with dilute acids.
Copper Cu they are the most reactive metals in the Periodic Table.
NOT AT ALL Silver Ag Group II metals, Group III metals and finally, the transition
REACTIVE Platinum Pt metals will follow them.
Gold Au

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
Displacement reactions from solutions can be predicted using the reactivity series.

More reactive metals will displace a less reactive metal from its compound
or solution (a colour change of the solution is often observed)

A metal higher in the series will displace a metal lower in the series.

[EXAMPLE 1] Iron + copper (II) sulphate solution

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq)  FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

A brown metallic deposit of coper metal will form as the solution turns from blue to
pale green due to the formation of iron (II) ions.

54
 8.3 Extraction of metals
[EXAMPLE 2] Copper + magnesium sulphate solution
Most metals occur as compounds; oxides, carbonates, sulphides and chlorides.
Cu (s) + MgSO4 (aq)  X These compounds are found in an impure state in rocks. After mining the rocks are
processed in various ways to separate the valuable ore.
Copper is lower than magnesium in the reactivity series. Since it is less reactive than
magnesium, no displacement reaction will take place. -There are 2 methods for extracting metals from their ores:
1. Reduction of the molten metal compound by carbon
[EXAMPLE 3] Zinc + lead(II) nitrate solution
2. Electrolysis of the molten metal compound

Zn (s) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq)  Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + Pb(s)

Since zinc is above lead in the reactivity series, zinc will displace lead from lead Extraction of metals and the reactivity series
nitrate solution.
Crystal of lead will grow out from the surface of the zinc. Most reactive Potassium K Metals more reactive are
Sodium Na extracted by electrolysis of their
molten salts or molten ores
Calcium Ca
Displacement reactions also take place for Group Magnesium Mg
VII elements. The more reactive halogen will Aluminium Al
displace the less reactive halogen from a solution
containing its ions. (See chapter 5) Reactivity Zinc Zn
decreases Iron Fe
Tin Sn Metals less reactive are
Lead Pb extracted by reducing the ore
Copper Cu with carbon or carbon monoxide
Silver Ag
Platinum Pt
The least reactive metals
Gold Au
Least reactive e.g. silver or gold even occur
native i.e. unreactive

Electrolysis method use large amount of electricity and more

expensive than reduction method. So it is only use to extract
very reactive metals (e.g. Possium, Sodium etc.), because their
compounds are so stable that they can’t be reduced using
55 carbon.
 When carbon is used to extract a metal from its metal oxide, a redox reaction takes
place. Metal oxide is reduced to metal and carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide. Carbon
is said to be the reducing agent as it reduces the metal oxide to the metal by removing
oxygen from it

CuO is reduced to Cu

EXAMPLE: Copper (II) oxide and carbon 2CuO + C  CO 2 + 2Cu

Black reddish brown
C is oxidiseded to CO2

SCRAP METALS AND RECYCLING

Metal ores are finite and limited and expensive to mine. It is essential that we
recycle those scrap metals that are still useful. Iron, steel, copper and aluminium
are the most easily recycled metals.

ADVANTAGES of RECYCLING
 Saves energy and reduces greenhouse gas emissions (CO2)
 Preserves non-renewable material
 Reduces land degradation, air and water pollution through mining
 Reduces the amount of land fill required for disposal of scrap metal

Recycling is sometimes not feasible because of the costs

involved. Transportation, sorting through waste and cleaning
the scrap metal, etc. may cost more than extracting the metal
from its ores. This is true for some cheaper metals.

56
8.4 Iron

EXTRACTION OF IRON PROCESS

Iron is extracted from its ore haematite, Fe2O3, by reduction using carbon Let us see the process in terms of the reactions that take place in the furnace.
in a BLAST FURNACE
COKE (carbon)
LIMESTONE (CaCO3)
RAW MATERIALS Carbon burns in air to form carbon
 Haematite (Fe2O3 containing iron(III)) Limestone decomposes to form
dioxide:
 Coke (carbon) calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g)
 Limestone (CaCO3)
CaCO3(s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
BLAST FURNACE Carbon dioxide combines with more
-The diagram below shows the blast furnace coke to form carbon monoxide:
CO2 (g) + C (s)  2CO (g)
Equal amount of
Iron ore and Coke
with Lime stone
The waste hot gases are used to
IRON ORE (HAEMATITE)
heat the incoming hot air.
Waste gases Waste gases (The toxic gas carbon monoxide
out -Iron ore (Haematite) contains IRON (III) OXIDE (Fe2O3)
out recombines with oxygen to form
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.) and IMPURITIES (e.g. sand SiO2)

800 °C
REDUCING IRON ORE TO IRON
Preheated 1500 °C Preheated The molten slag is less dense Carbon monoxide gas reacts with iron (III)
air air oxide to form molten iron:
than the molten iron, so that it
2000 °C 3CO (g) + Fe2O3(s)  3CO2 (g) + 2Fe(l)
can floats on iron and be gained
from the top tap.
tap Carbon monoxide acts as the reducing agent in
SLAG the reaction. The liquid iron formed flows to
tap The molten slag can be used for the base of the blast furnace.
IRON Molten road building or to make fertiliser
Molten slag REMOVING IMPURITIES
iron
The basic calcium oxide is used to remove acidic
This molten iron is not pure iron but still impure iron called pig iron or impurities (e.g. sand, SiO2):
cast iron. It can be purified further by basic oxygen process. Oxygen gas CaO(s) + SiO2 (s)  CaSiO3 (l)
goes through molten pig iron to burn any impurities. The purified iron is
them to used to make alloys such as steel 57 The liquid slag flows to the base of the blast
furnace and floats on top of the molten iron
 Mild steel:
It is softer and more easily
shapted. It is used to make
STEEL carbodies.
The iron that is formed in a blast furnace is not hard enough to be used industrially as Carbon steels contain
the metal is too soft, so that the iron is alloyed into steel. mainly iron and carbon
High carbon steel:
There are many types of steel depending on the It is strong but brittle. It is
Steel is an alloy made
type and amount of additives to it. used to make drills, saws and
by mixing iron with
There are 2 kinds of steel; carbon steels and STEEL other cutting and boring tools.
carbon or other metals.
alloy steels. The chart below shows that.

Alloy steels contain iron and

carbon and a transition
element such as manganese,
nickel, chromium or
tungsten..
Stainless steel is a example of
an alloy steel.
It does not rust. It is used
to make cutlery.

58
RUSTING
Rusting is the corrosion of iron or steel to form hydrated iron (III) oxide Fe2O3 . nH2O

FORMATION OF RUST Rusting is a redox reaction  Unlike aluminium which reacts with oxygen in the air to form a
protective layer on the metal surface, rust is brittle and flaky.
The irons underneath will eventually rust and flake away
For rusting to occur, both AIR (oxygen) and WATER must be present.

The overall reaction that takes place in rusting is given by

[EXPERIMENT] the equation
Iron nails are put in various test tubes. Let’s see formation of rusting in each of them. 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2nH2O(l)  2Fe2O3 . nH2O(s)

QUICKEST SLOW NO RUSTING

RUSTING RUSTING PREVENTING THE FORMATION OF RUST
There are 2 main ways of preventing rusting of iron or steel.
nail nail nail nail BARRIER PROTECTION
tap tap boiled 1. Coat the iron/steel object with a layer of substance present air and/or
water water water drying water from reaching the metal.
is filled agent [EXAMPLES] painting, oil or greasing
e.g. CaCl2 2. coat the iron/steel object with a less reactive metal or with plastic
[EXAMPLE] steel food cans coated with tin (tin-plating)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
RUST FORMS NO RUST FORMS SACRIFICIAL PROTECTION
Coat the iron/steel object with a more
Galvanizing is a method of
reactive metal. The more reactive metal
protecting a metal (e.g. iron or
will corrode in place of iron.
From the conditions for rusting (THE PRESENCE OF AIR AND WATER), steel) from corrosion by covering
you can tell the results above. it with a thin layer of ZINC
[EXAMPLE] galvanizing
through dipping or electroplating. Starts as
 In the test tube (1), enough amounts of air and water are there. pure coppe
 In the test tube (2), it looks like that only water is there. But small amount and more p
of air can exist in water, so that rusting can occur. copper add
 In the test tube (3), unlike the tube (2), there is no air although water is
filled. It is because air that used to exist in water has been removed by
boiling. Copper (II) s
 In the test tube (4), there is no water with drying agent. solution conta
Cu2+ ions (elec
 In the test tubes that satisfy the condition for rusting, rusting occur. 59
Pure
th
Cu2
 Zinc layer Only zinc corrode
corrode by
Zn water, but… Zn Zn

Fe Iron does
Fe
NOT corrode
Iron plate

STEPS:
8.5 Copper  The ANODE (positive electrode) is made from impure copper
At this electrode, the copper atoms give up e- to form Cu2+ ions which
EXTRACTION OF COPPER dissolve in the solution
Copper is an unreactive metal so it can be extracted from its ore, by heating  These Cu2+ ions are then ATTRACTED to the negative electrode
with carbon  The CATHODE (negative electrode) starts as a thin piece of very pure
copper
COPPER ORES At this electrode, Cu2+ ions gain e- to form Cu atoms which deposit on the
cathode which increases in size
 CUPRITE, Cu2O (by heating with carbon)  The impurities in the anode fall to the bottom as a sludge as the anode
 MALACHITE, CuCO3-Cu(OH)2 (by decomposing on heating) dissolves away

PROCESSING COPPER ORES INDUSTRIALLY USES OF PURE COPPER

The two main ways to process copper ores industrially are:
 FLOTATION, roasting and SMELTING
 LEACHING with dilute sulphuric acid (more commonly used in Zambia)
then using ELECTROLYSIS or adding SCRAP IRON
PURIFYING EXTRACTED COPPER INDUSTRIALLY
 Very pure copper is needed for electrical conductors
 ELECTROLYSIS is used to produce VERY PURE COPPER
Copper is used to make electrical wiring and heat exchangers because it is an
excellent conductor of electricity and heat
COPPER ALLOYS
 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is used to make musical instruments
and bimetallic strips
 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and is used to make trophies
 Both of these alloys are non-corroding

ELECTROLYSIS to PURIFY COPPER

8.6 Aluminium

Aluminium and its alloys have the following properties. Electrolysis is

expensive as it uses
60 lots of electricity
  It has good electrical and heat conductivity.  Overhead electrical cables are made of aluminium as it is lightweight and a
 It is resistant to corrosion. good conductor of electricity
 It is light and fairly strong  Cooking utensils and food containers are made of aluminium as it does not
corrode (due to its protective oxide layer) and is a good conductor of heat
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM  Aircraft and bicycle frames are made from aluminium alloy(duralumin) as they
Aluminium is a reactive metal so must be extracted from its ore by electrolysis are strong and lightweight

ALUMINIUM ORE
 bauxite, Al2O3
SUMMARY Reactivity Series and Reactions of Metals
 A molten state is needed for electrolysis. This can be very expensive. Al2O3
has a very high melting point over 2000°C. Instead the Al2O3 is dissolved in REACTION ACTION OF

METAL
REACTION WITH REACTION
molten cryolite (a less common ore of aluminium). This only requires a WITH HEAT ON
DILUTE ACID WITH AIR
temperature of about 900°C, which is much cheaper. WATER CARBONATE

K Burns very
React with Violent reaction with dilute
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to) Na easily with No reaction
cold water acids
 Explain the effects of water pollution Ca a bright
Mg flame
 Suggest ways of reducing water pollution
React with
Water  Describe in outline the purification of water supply in terms Al Burn slowly to
steam
of filtration and chlorination. Zn React fairly well with dilute form oxide
 State uses of water in industry and the home. Reacts acids with decreasing ease
Decompose to
 Describe the volume composition of clean air Fe reversibly form oxide
Air  Name common pollutants with steam React slowly and CO2
 State the sources of each of the following pollutants Pb May react slowly if warmed with air when
No reaction with dilute heated
 Explain the use of hydrogen in a manufacture of ammonia
Cu No reaction acids, may react with
and of margarine and as fuel in rockets
with water or concentrated acids
 Name the uses, oxygen tents in hospitals, and with
acetylene (a hydrocarbon) in welding. steam Decomposes
 Describe the need for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium Ag No reaction No reaction to form Ag,
Common O2 and CO2
compounds in plant life.
Non-metals  Describe the essential conditions for the manufacture of
ammonia by the Haber process
 Name the uses of ammonia in the manufacture of fertilisers
such as ammonium sulphate and nitrate.
 Discuss the effect of chemical fertilizers on the soil.
USES OF ALUMINIUM AND ALLOYS
61
 9.1 WATER
WATER WORKS Water tower Water is the most abundant liquid on earth – it covers 70% of the earth’s surface.
Water is used at home for drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing. Now let us see
Raw
this important liquid.
Water

WATER PURIFICATION

WATER TREATMENT
Screening Treatment of drinking water is carried out at the waterworks.
Gravel
Tank Chlorination - Three main stages Sedimentation, Filtration and Chlorination are involved
Filter
Sedimentation plant
Tank Water 3 STAGES IN WATER TREATMENT
Supply
RAW WATER
Raw water is first screened to remove large solid impurities.

- Alum (a coagulating agent) is used to make solid

particles stick together.
1. SEDIMENTATION - The solid clumps sink to the bottom in the
sedimentation tank and are removed.

Lime (calcium oxide) is added to reduce acidity.

Activated carbon is added to remove foul odour and taste

2. FILTRATION - The water is filtered to remove any remaining

solid particles

- Chlorine is added to kill germs and bacteria

3. CHLORINATION present in the water.

The water supplied to our homes does not have to be

pure but safe to drink. It is called potable (drinkable).
CLEAR WATER
62
 Source of energy  Hydroelectricity
Important Note: Chlorine is a highly poisonous substance. It is important to use Raw material in manufacturing process  Paper manufacture
the right quantity even when using ‘Chlorine’ for chlorinating water at home. Polar solvent  Dissolving ionic compounds

WATER POLLUTANTS
Water from rivers and lakes contains dissolved mineral salts, organic matter as
9.2 AIR
well as some pollutants.
SOURCE OF
POLLUTANT HARMFUL EFFECTS We human beings can not survive without air. Earth is surrounded by the
POLLUTANT
atmosphere that contains air. Let’s see this important gas.
Aquatic life cannot survive in low pH
ACIDS water. Low pH water also causes Acid rain
COMPOSITION OF AIR
poor growth of vegetation.
Clean, dry air is a mixture of gases.
Causes eutrophication – excessive Air also contains water vapour in
NITRATES growth of vegetation which uses up variable amounts, depending on the
Excess fertilisers
AND dissolved O2. This causes the fish to % COMPOSITION OF AIR humidity of the surroundings
washed off from crops
PHOSPHATES die. After the vegetation decays,
the water becomes stagnant
Waste from industries
HEAVY NOBLE
Poisonous to mankind involved in mining and OXYGEN GAS
METALS
processing metals 21% mainly
Untreated household ARGON
Health problems such as infections.
SEWAGE waste and excretion NITROGEN
Can also cause eutrophication. 0.94%
from animals 78%
Kills aquatic life as oxygen can non
OIL longer pass through and dissolve in Ships with oil spills
CARBON
water
DIOXIDE 0.04%
INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER
Water is used in many different ways by industries. AIR POLLUTION
Air is said to be polluted when it contains chemicals in high enough concentrations
INDUSTRIAL USES EXAMPLES to harm living things or damage non-living things.
 Beer making
As an essential ingredient for a product
 Whisky production COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS
 Producing electricity in a coal Common air pollutants include
Coolant
or oil fired power station o Sulphur dioxide SO2

63
 o Nitrogen oxides NO and NO2
o Carbon monoxide CO EFFECTS:
o Methane CH4  It is also a green house gas that can cause global warming.
o Lead compounds

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS Global warming is the gradual change in world climate
Now let’s look at these sources of air pollutants respectively. caused by the greenhouse effect.
It is thought that it may cause changes in weather
SULPHUR DIOXIDE SO2 patterns, causing droughts and storms, and even melting
SOURCE: the polar ice caps to bring about severe flooding
 Burning of fossil fuels containing sulphur and sulphur compounds
e.g. coal, natural gas or petroleum CARBON MONOXIDE CO
- power stations SOURCE:
- car exhaust  Carbon monoxide is produced during the INCOMPLETE combustion of
carbon containing compounds i.e. insufficient O2
EFFECTS: - areas with high concentration of vehicles due to car exhaust
 Sulphur dioxide irritates the eyes and causes breathing difficulties - faulty gas appliances
 Produces acid rain - areas where combustion takes place with poor ventilation
e.g. using a brazier inside
MINIMISING MEASURES: MINIMISING MEASURES:
 treat exhaust gases with wet calcium hydroxide to remove SO2 EFFECTS:  Use more air during combustion
 Carbon monoxide poisoning  Cars use a catalytic converter
NITROGEN OXIDES NO and NO2 causes suffocation
SOURCE: because the haemoglobin in our blood reacts more readily with CO than O 2
 At high temperatures, the N2 and O2 in air combine to form nitrogen oxides
- exhaust from car engines LEAD COMPOUNDS
- power stations and factories SOURCE:
- naturally occur from bush fires and lightning  Lead compounds are added to some fuels to make the car engines run properly
EFFECTS: EFFECTS:
 Produces acid rain MINIMISING MEASURES:  Lead can cause brain damage and is especially harmful to young children
 Cars use a catalytic converter
MINIMISING MEASURES:
METHANE CH4
 Use lead-free petrol
SOURCE:
 Burp of cattle, Bacterial decay of vegetable matter, animal dung and rubbish
buried in landfills ACID RAIN
64
.It is a long time since the effect of acid rain was known commonly. The acid rain 9.3 Common non-metallic elements
causes serious damages to the environment over wide areas in the world. It is
about time for us to face this global problem earnestly.
HYDROGEN
SOURCE: Hydrogen is the first and lightest element in the periodic table. It is the most
 Sulphur dioxide in the air reacts with oxygen and water to form sulphuric abundant element in the universe (it is present in water and in all organic
acid which dissolves in rain clouds to form acid rain with a pH of 4 even down to 2 compounds) and is the main constituent of stars.
 Nitrogen oxides also form nitric acid with air to form acid rain
PREPARATION
EFFECTS:  In industry: Steam reforming method which is the reaction of methane and
 Corrodes metal structures e.g. bridges and cars steam is applied.
 Corrodes limestone buildings as cement contains carbonate that readily CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
react with the acids
 In a laboratory: There are 3 simple ways Check the topic of
 Endangers aquatic life as fish and plants can not survive in acidic water
 Causes the soil to become acidic, causing plants to die more readily  Reaction of reactive metal and water ‘acid, base and salt’
 Reaction of metal with acids
MINIMISING MEASURES:  Electrolysis acidified water
 Remove the acidic gases, NO2 and SO2, at the source (see above points) 2H+ + 2e-  H2 (collects at anode)
 Reduce water and soil acidity using slaked lime, Ca(OH)2
IDENTIFICATION
When a lighted splint is held at the mouth of a test tube containing hydrogen
gas, the gas burns explosively, making a “pop” sound.
You know, there are many global problems. Apart form acid rain, another
common problem on the Earth is global warming caused by the green house USES
effect  Hydrogen is used in the Haber Process to produce ammonia
 Hydrogenation is used to change vegetable oils into margarine.
 The green house effect is the trapping
-Vegetable oil is unsaturated and the hydrogen breaks the double carbon
of heat energy in the atmosphere
bonds to form saturated margarine.
because of the effects of greenhouse
 Rockets burn liquid hydrogen as a fuel with liquid oxygen to form water. This
gases. The infrared radiation (heat
is a very lightweight fuel.
energy) is given off from the earth’s
surface as it is warmed up by the Sun

Hydrogen is so flammable that there would be a

risk of explosion and it would be hard to liquefy for
storage in modern fuel. But it may have a use as a
Green houses gases are gases in the atmosphere which absorb infra-red radiation, common non-polluting fuel for road vehicles in the
causing an increase in air temperature.
65
near future.
The most important is carbon dioxide, which is increased by burning fossil fuels and by
deforestation, which reduces the amount of carbon dioxide removed by photosynthesis.
Another is methane, a by-product of rice farming and cattle-rearing.
OXYGEN
Oxygen is the most important gas in the air. It is a colourless, odourless gas.
3. RUSTING occurs when iron comes into contact with water and
oxygen to form rust. Rust is hydrated iron (iii) oxide, Fe2O3.nH2O.
PREPARATION
 In industry: Fractional distillation of liquid air is applied
Combustion, respiration and rusting are all processes using up oxygen.

 In a laboratory: Thermal decomposition with catalyst of manganese dioxide.

 Combustion of fuels and respiration produce carbon dioxide. However
 Heating Hydrogen peroxide onto manganese dioxide powder
the approximate composition of gases in air remain unchanged overall
2H2O2  2H2O + O2 (MnO2 as catalyst)
because PHOTOSYTHESIS by green plants converts carbon dioxide
 Heating Potassium chlorate with manganese dioxide
back into oxygen and sugar using sunlight.
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2 (MnO2 as catalyst)
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2
IDENTIFICATION NITROGEN
When a glowing splint is held at the mouth of a test tube containing oxygen Nitrogen is the first element in Group V of the periodic table. It is a colourless,
gas, the splint relights. odourless gas which makes up 78% of the air. It is an unreactive gas but does have
some uses.
USES
 Oxygen cylinders in hospitals help people with breathing problems PREPARATION
 To burn acetylene gas in an oxyacetylene torch when welding steel  In industry: Fractional distillation of liquid air is applied
 Rockets burn liquid oxygen as a fuel with liquid hydrogen to form water.
This is a very lightweight fuel. IDENTIFICATION
 Oxygen masks are used in an aircraft if there is an air leak / low pressure It does not support burning of other substances.
 To kill bacteria in the treatment of sewerage
 Used in the production of steel to oxidise any impurities in iron before AMMONIA
producing the type of steel required
Ammonia is a colourless, pungent gas, NH3, that is less dense than air.
It is the most soluble of all gases and dissolves in water to form an
THREE CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVING OXYGEN:
alkali called aqueous ammonia NH3 (aq).
1. COMBUSTION takes place when any substance reacts with oxygen It is only common alkaline gas and makes most red litmus paper blue.
to produce heat. If flames are produced it is called burning.
e.g. C + O2  CO2 2H2 + O2  2H2O 4Na + O2  2Na2O Commercially ammonia is very important and prepared by HABER PROCESS
S + O2  SO2 2Mg + O2  2MgO 2Fe + 3O2  Fe2O3
In a laboratory, ammonia is prepared by heating an
2. RESPIRATION is the oxidation of sugars in our body to produce energy. ammonium salt with a base.
[e.g] ammonium nitrate + sodium hydroxide
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
66 NH4NO3 + NaOH  NaNO3 +H2O + NH3
(This is the reverse of photosynthesis).

3. RUSTING occurs when iron comes into contact with water and
oxygen to form rust. Rust is hydrated iron (iii) oxide, Fe2O3.nH2O.
 FERTILISERS
Plants need three essential elements: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
HABER PROCESS Because of a growing demand for food to feed an increasing population, farmers need
to rely on fertilisers to provide essential elements needed for crops.
This is the process for the manufacture of ammonia gas from direct
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, is an especially good fertiliser as is contain nitrogen
combination of NITROGEN and HYDROGEN gases.
from two sources (NH4 and NO3).However EXCESS nitrate fertiliser washed into
streams and rivers can cause EUTROPHICATION.
The Haber Process is a REVERSIBLE reaction
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + heat Eutrophication is when the excess fertilisers cause the plant life to grow too
much, they then die and bacteria then takes over processing the decaying matter,
FLOW DIAGRAM OF HABER PEOCESS this uses up the oxygen and causes the animal life to also die. The water then
The nitrogen and
hydrogen which DO NOT becomes stagnant.
REACT are REUSED
CARBON
PRESSURE of Carbon is the lightest non-metallic element in GroupIV of the periodic table.
350 atm. is observed TEMPERATURE of It forms the basis of life chemistry. It forms allotropes.
450°C is used
Text box
ALLOTROPES
Allotropes are solid forms of an element with different molecular structures.
IRON is put DIAMOND and GRAPHITE occur naturally as allotropes of carbon.
INCOMING hydrogen as CATALYST
and nitrogen are  DIAMOND is suitable for
mixed together in a  Cutting and Grinding tools because it is
3:1 RATIO
the hardest naturally occurring substance

 GRAPHITE is suitable for

 Lubricant because it is soft and flaky
The ammonia which
due to a layered structure which is held
forms is passed
Hydrogen is obtained through a COOLER to
by a week interaction.
GRAPHITE DIAMOND
from water or natural LIQUEFY and removed LIME
gas (methane)
One of common compounds that carbon takes part in is LIME STONE.
Nitrogen is obtained
There are some kinds of lime. Are you clear which is which?
easily from air (which is
78% nitrogen)
LIME STONE calcium carbonate CaCO3  used for manufacture of iron, making cement.
LIME or QUICK LIME calcium oxide CaO  used for NEUTRALISATION of acidic soil
USES OF AMMONIA: SLAKED LIME calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2  used for LIME WATER
 to make fertilisers e.g. ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate 67
 to make nitric acid
COTENT LEARNING OBJECTIVE (Pupils should be able to)
 Describe a homologous series as a group of compounds with a
general formula, similar chemical properties and showing a
Introduction of
gradation in physical properties.
Organic
 Describe the general characteristics of any homologous series
Chemistry  Define the functional group.
 Name, and draw the structure of the organic compounds
 Describe the properties of alkans
 Describe the properties of alkenes
 Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons:
 Describe the manufacture of alkenes and of hydrogen by cracking
Hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons.
 Name natural gas and petroleum as sources of fuels
 Describe the separation of petroleum by fractional distillation.
 Name the uses of petroleum fractions
 Describe the properties and use of alcohols
 Describe formation of ethanol by fermentation
Alcohols and  Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of
Acids ethanol
 Describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol to form the
ester, ethyl ethanoate
 Describe the structure of the polymer product from a given
monomer and vice versa.
 Describe the pollution problems caused by non-biodegradable
plastics.
 Identify carbohydrates, proteins and fats as natural polymers
 Describe the formation of addition polymers
Polymer
 Describe the formation of condensation polymers
 Describe some natural polymers as possessing the same linkages as
some synthetic polymers
 Describe the hydrolysis of carbohydrates gives simple sugars
 Describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids
 Describe soap as a product of hydrolysis of fats

68
10.1 Introduction of Organic Chemistry its FUNCTIONAL GROUP. Organic
compounds with the same functional
group are grouped into a family called a
Organic Chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the HOMOLOGOUS SERIES.
compounds of carbon (except carbonates and oxides of carbon). There are many homologous series and each series is given a name.
“Organic” relates to living “organisms,” and all organic compounds The properties of an organic compound have a lot of to do with its functional
are or have been associated with living material. group. Members of the same homologous series have:

1. same general formula.

Food, fibres, fuels, tyres, plastics and most medicines are all carbon containing 2. similar chemical properties (same functional group).
compounds known as organic compounds. Although they are made of a few elements 3. a trend in physical properties as the molecular mass increases.
such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, there are such a large variety of compounds. - As the number of carbon atoms INCREASES:
A functional group is an
It is because of the ability of carbon atoms to form strong covalent bonds.  Melting points and boiling points INCREASE
atom or group of atoms
Here we learn general properties of organic compounds and try to classify them.  Flammability DECREASES (don’t catch fire so easily)
that give an organic
 Viscosity INCREASES (don’t flow so easily) molecule its typical
 Volatility DECREASES (don’t evaporate so easily) chemical properties.
GENERAL PROPERTIES of ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
Table lists some homologous series of organic compounds.
 They do not conduct electricity
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES GENERAL FORMULA FUNCTIONAL GROUP
 They have low melting point
They are flammable and volatile (evaporate so easily) ALKANES CnH2n+2 Nil
 You could also say
 They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like ALKENES CnH2n -C=C- Double bonds -C-C- Single Bonds
ethanol, acetone, etc. ALCOHOL CnH2n+1OH -OH Hydroxyl group
 Most of them burn forming carbon dioxide and water -C=O
[E.g.] Methane : CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CnH2n+1COOH | Carboxyl group
O-H
ESTER CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 -COO- Ester functional group
Table : Common homologous series
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES ‘n’ stands for NO. of Carbon atom
A FEW OF RULES in a molecule of the compound
Homologous Series is a group of
The chemical and physical properties of NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNS
compounds with increasing
an organic compound are determined by Organic compounds are named according to how many carbon atoms they contain
number of carbon atoms where
and which functional group they possess. Table below gives the prefixes and the
each member differs from the
PREFIX (start with) + SUFFIX (end with)
next consecutive member by
suffixes assigned.
[EXAMPLE 1]
1 C atom  “METH” another –CH2 unit.
Alkane  “ane” 69
2 C atoms  “ ETH”
Alkene  “ene”
3 C atoms  “ PROP”
Alcohol  “ol”
4 C atoms  “BUT”
Carboxylic acid  “oic acid”
5 C atoms  “PENT”
 An organic molecule belongs to the alcohol series and contains 4 carbon atoms. ISOMERS
Since the names of alcohols end with ‘-ol’, the molecule will be called butanol.
Isomers are different compounds which have
[EXAMPLE 2] the SAME MOLECULAR formula but
The name of the molecule with formula C2H5 COOH is propanoic acid, since it DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL formula
contains 3 carbon atoms and belongs to the carboxylic acid series.

 The more carbon atoms the more isomers which are possible
DRAWING STRUCTURAL FORMULAE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDＳ
To describe organic compounds, we often use STRUCTURAL FORMULAE as well [EXAMPLE 1] C4H10
H
as molecular formulae. You can find the same number of lines as bond |
around the atom H H H H
H H—C—H H
RULES: * Each C has FOUR (4) bonds | | | |
| | |
* Each H, OH or COOH has ONE (1) bond H— C— C — C —C —H
H — C — C — C — H
| | | |
STEPS: [E.g.] Ethane C2H6, Ethene C2H4 and Ethanol C2H5OH | | |
H H H H
1. Write the correct No. of C atoms for compound H H H
Butane Isobutane
C C C C C C B.P. = -0.5°C B.P. = - 12°C
Ethane Ethene Ethanol
Isomers of the SAME HOMOLOGOUS SERIES have
2.Draw the bonds connecting these atoms SIMILAR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 REMEMBER DOUBLE BOND for ALKENES but DIFFERENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (like B.P, M.P.)

C–C C=C C-C

3.Add in any functional groups (OH or COOH) (usually to last C atom) [EXAMPLE 2] C2H6O
H H H H
C–C C=C C – C -OH | | | |
4. Lastly fill in the correct no. of H atoms (so that each C atom has 4 bonds) H— C— C — OH H— C— O —C —H
| | | |
H H H H

= Ethanol Diethyl ether

DOUBLE-CHECK; In ALCOHOL series In ETHER series
ALL bonds are drawn
Ethane Ethene Ethanol
(no missing bonds) Isomers of DIFFERENT HOMOLOGOUS SERIES have
70 DIFFERENT CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 10.2 Hydrocarbons  The more number “n” increase, the more viscous (more difficult to pour
Oil is an essential item to us. Crude oil is mainly composed of some hydrocarbons. out)
It can be separated into Petrol, Kerosene, Diesel oil and so on.
We are going to see the hydrocarbons that are basic organic compounds. Table below shows the first 4 members of the alkane series.

No. of Physical State

All hydrocarbons have covalent molecules. CHEMICAL
Hydrocarbons are organic C ALKANE FORMULA
STRUCTURAL FORMULA at Room
compounds that contain only They are found naturally in PETROLEUM Temperature
atoms
carbon and hydrogen atoms and NATURAL GAS.
H
|
1 Methane CH4 H—C—H GAS
ALKANES and ALKENES are HYDROCARBONS (contain only C and H atoms) |
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids are not hydrocarbons (contain O atoms as well) H
H H
| |
2 Ethane C2H6 H— C—C —H GAS
SATURATED Hydrocarbons (e.g. ALKANES) | |
We can classify hydrocarbons H H
 Contain ONLY SINGLE C-C bonds
in terms of bonding. H H H
We will see this issue later. | | |
UNSATURATED Hydrocarbons (e.g. ALKENES)
3 Propane C3H8 H— C— C —C —H GAS
 Contain DOUBLE C=C bonds | | |
H H H
H H H H
Where ‘n’ is the number of
ALKANES General formula: CnH2n+2 | | | |
carbon atoms in one molecule. 4 Butane C4H10 H— C— C —C —C —H GAS
| | | |
The alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons, this means that they are
H H H H
compounds of two elements; hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
They are the main hydrocarbons found in petroleum and natural gas. Table; Properties of the first 4 members of the alkane series.

PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
Every name ends
with ‘-ane’.
 Alkanes have ALL C-C SINGLE BONDS
 Alkanes are insoluble in water
As the number of “n” increase, the melting point and boiling point
increase, become the weak intermolecular force also increases. If the
71 number of “n” is;
1 to 4: they are gas
5 to 16: liquid.
more than or equal to 17: solid
 CH4(g) + Cl2(g)  CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
+ Cl-Cl  Cl + H-Cl
Alkane molecules contain only –C-C- SINGLE COVALENT BONDS. Thus
alkanes are said to be SATURATED.
This reaction does not take place in
the dark. Sunlight is needed to
provide energy to break the Cl-Cl
bond to produce chlorine atoms which
then react with the alkane molecule.

In all organic compounds, main atoms

are Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen. Carbon: C C C
The number of covalent bonds are
decided. Hydrogen: H
Carbon atom form 4 covalent bonds
Hydrogen atom form 1 covalent bonds Oxygen: O O
Oxygen atom form 2 covalent bonds

CHEMICAL REACTION OF ALKANES

Alkanes are fairly unreactive molecules as their single bonds are strong.
They are used mainly as fuels to provide heat energy.
Thus they don’t form polymers
COMBUSTION OF ALKANES
Alkanes burn in air (oxygen) to release much energy and form carbon dioxide and
water.
[EXAMPLE 1] Methane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
[EXAMPLE 2] Alkanes can be used as fuels
When the air supply is limited, incomplete combustion occurs producing carbon
and monoxide.
Methane + insufficient oxygen  carbon monoxide + water vapour
2CH4 + 3O2  2CO + 4H2O

SUBSTITUTION REACTION
In presence of SUNLIGHT, it undergoes a Substitution Reaction with chlorine
to form chloroalkanes. (i.e. H atoms replaced by Cl atoms)

[EXAMPLE]
Methane + Chlorine  Chloromethane + hydrogen chloride

72
ALKENES General formula: CnH2n Any organic compounds contain a CARBON = CARBON DOUBLE BOND is called
The alkenes are also a homologous series of hydrocarbon. They contain only UNSATURATED.
carbon and hydrogen.
They are formed when petroleum fractions undergo cracking. CHEMICAL REACTION OF ALKENES
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the carbon = carbon double bond.
PROPERTIES OF ALKANES Almost all reaction of alkenes takes place at the carbon = carbon double bond.
Table below shows the first 3 members of the alkene series.
No. of Physical State An addition reaction is a
CHEMICAL In additional reacton, one half
C ALKENE FORMULA STRUCTURAL FORMULA at Room reaction in which one molecule
of the double bond remains
atoms Temperature adds to another to form a
unchanged. The second half of
single molecule product.
H H the double bondbreaks
2 Ethene C2H4 | | GAS
H— C = C —H In general
H H H
C C C C
| | | C C
3 Propene C3H6 H— C—C = C —H GAS X Y
| X Y
H X Y
H H H H
| | | | ADDITION OF STEAM
4 Butene C4H8 H— C—C —C = C —H GAS Alkenes react with water (steam) to form alcohols over a phosphoric (V) acid
| | (H3PO4) catalyst at 300 oC.
H H

Table: Properties of the first 3 members of alkene family

. [EXAMPLE]
Every name
If n=1, to give the chemical formula CH2, it does not ethene + steam  ethanol + H-O-H 
ends with ‘-ene’. C2H4 + H2O  C2H5OH
exist.
O-H
The formulae of each
All alkenes contain carbon – carbon double bonds (- C = C -). member differs from
This is the functional group of the alkene family. the previous one by an ADDITION OF HYDROGEN
extra Alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes on heating, in the presence of a
-CH2- group nickel catalyst.

73
 Bromine Bromine
[EXAMPLE] SHAKE !
solution solution
+ H-H  ethene + H2  ethane
C2H4 + H2  C2H6 The reddish-brown colour of the bromine solution is decolourised as the bromine
is used in the reaction
 Margarine is made from vegetable oils by hydrogenation. Vegetable oils
contain C =C bonds in the molecules. Addition of hydrogen across unsaturated
C=C bonds with nickel catalyst to make saturated fats; that is margarine.

COMBUSTION OF ALKENES
Alkenes burn in plenty of air (oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water.

[EXAMPLE] ethane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water vapour

C2H4 (g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Alkenes will produce soot and carbon monoxide when

there is insufficient oxygen for complete combustion.

ADDITION OF AQUEOUS BROMINE

Alkenes react with the aqueous
bromine.
reddish brown
[EXAMPLE]
C2H4 + Br2  C2H4Br2
+ Br-Br 
Ethene +bromine  1,2-dibromoethane
colourless Br Br

TEST FOR UNSATURATION

We can use the addition reaction as a test to find out if a hydrocarbon is an
alkane or alkene. Fig below shows the testing process.
Liquid alken Gaseous
alkenes

Bromine Bromine
74
becomes becomes
colourless colourless
 - This is an addition reaction of bromine

FROM THE OBSERVATIONS

 The reddish brown colour of bromine is Broken pot
ALKENE
quickly decolourised, i.e. the colour of the (Catalyst)
 mixture in the test tube changes from
What is shaken with a reddish brown to colourless.
(Alkene)
solution of bromine is ….

 There is no reaction. Alkanes do not

ALKANE undergo addition reactions because they
are saturated.

PREPARATION OF ALKENES
Alkenes are formed when petroleum fractions undergo CRACKING, while Alkanes On heating over a suitable catalyst, it will break down into
are the main hydrocarbons found in petroleum and natural gas. smaller molecules. These molecules may include alkenes.

CRACKING SOURCES OF ENERGY

Most of our energy comes from the burning of CRUDE OIL and NATURAL GAS.
Cracking is the chemical process of breaking down large molecules from heavy In some countries, solid COAL is used as fuel.
Crude oil is also known
fraction into more useful smaller molecules. It produces alkenes and alkanes
as PETROLEUM
and/or hydrogen gas in the presence of a catalyst. FOSSIL FUELS

The products of cracking CAN NOT BE PREDICTED accurately. Fossil fuels are found in the form of crude oil, natural gas and coal
They are formed as dead plant and animal material are subjected to intense
pressure and heat over millions of years.
[EXAMPLE 1] Big alkane  Smaller alkane + Alkene Consequently, these fuels are NON－RENEWABLE energy sources.
C16H34  C8H18 + C4H8 + 2H2H4
 Cracking is also used to make hydrogen gas NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon, mainly methane gas (CH4). It release
[EXAMPLE 2] Big alkane  Alkene + Alkene + Hydrogen energy when it burns in air to form carbon dioxide gas and water:
C18H38  C8H16 + C10H20 + H2
In a laboratory, in order to form alkenes from paraffin oil (big alkane C10H22), CH4(g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + + 2H2 O(g)
Cracking takes place in the way (CATALYTIC CRACKING) shown below. This reaction is highly EXOTHERMIC.

75
COAL
Coal is a hard block mineral consisting mainly of carbon. It is a fossil fuel. When it
burn in air, the main products are carbon dioxide and water.
Coal contain small amount of sulphur compounds. When it burns, the sulphur is
oxidised to sulphur dioxide which is one of substance of the pollution (See chapter 9).
10.3 Alcohols and Carboxylic acids
Most of organic compounds in living things contain oxygen. What we have seen
are hydrocarbons which have carbon and hydrogen only. Now we are going to see
Alcohols and Carboxylic acids which contain oxygen.

ALCOHOLS General formula: CnH2n+1OH

Coal + Oxygen in air  Carbon dioxide + Water
At the same time, small amounts of soot, oxides of sulphur Alcohols are - colourless, flammable liquids Functional group of the alcohols
and nitrogen and ash (a solid residue) are formed. - good solvent and fuel.
- Coal is not a clean fuel. The sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gases present in - soluble in water. -OH (hydroxyl group)
the waste gases of a coal burning power station are removed by passing them
through wet limestone before the waste gases are emitted into the atmosphere. PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS
Table below shows the first 4 members of the alcohol series.
CRUDE OIL (petroleum) No. of Physical State
Crude oil (petroleum) is a mixture of hydrocarbons with different carbon chain length. CHEMICAL
C ALCOHOL STRUCTURAL FORMULA at Room
Petroleum is quite useless as a mixture; FORMULA Temperature
atoms
 It is usually refined by fractional distillation to separate out its different H
compounds to make useful fuels and petrochemicals. |
LIQUID
1 Methanol CH3OH H — C — OH
- Crude oil is separated into 7 fractions | (B.P.=64℃)
Boiling H
FRACTION USE No. of C atoms H H
Point
| |
Below 40°C Petroleum Gas Gas fuel 1~3 LIQUID
40 -75 °C Petrol / Gasoline Car fuel 4~8
2 Ethanol C2H5OH H — C — C — OH
| | (B.P.=78℃)
75-150°C Naphtha Chemical feed stock 7 ~ 14 H H
160-250°C Paraffin / Kerosene Stove fuel / Jet fuel 11~ 15
H H H
250-300°C Diesel Diesel fuel 16 ~ 20
| | |
300-350°C Lubricant oil Lubricating oil, waxes 20 ~ 35 LIQUID
3 Propanol C3H7OH H — C — C — C — OH
and polishes | | | (B.P.=97℃)
Over350°C Bitumen Making roads More than50 H H H

The process is unable to give pure fractions H H H H

Compounds which contain a | | | |
because the boiling points of the hydrocarbons LIQUID
found in crude oil are too close for efficient small number of carbons 4 Butanol C4H9OH H — C — C — C — C — OH
have low boiling point, while | | | | (B.P.=117℃)
separation.
Hence, in table, the data quoted shows a range compounds which contain a H H H H
of boiling points instead of a single boiling point. large number of carbons
Every name
have high boiling point. 76
ends with ‘-ol’.
 Table: Properties of the first 4 members of alcohol family
Trends:
As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol increases,
1 the boiling point increases
Oxidation of alcohols can also take place they are left exposed to
2 the solubility in water decreases
oxygen in the air for a few days.
For example, if ethanol is left exposed in the air it turns “SOUR.” This
is the common fate of wines and beers which are opened but no drunk.
The reason is that the ethanol has been oxidised to ethanoic acid
(ingredient of vinegar)

ETHANOL C2H5OH

CHEMICAL REACTION OF ALCOHOLS This is the commonest alcohol, and is a colourless, water-soluble liquid.
USE of ethanol is:
COMBUSTION OF ALCOHOLS 1 as surgical spirit. It is sometimes more economical to
Alcohols burn in air (oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water vapour. 2 used as a fuel in vehicles or rockets produce ethanol from ethene gas
3 in alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine obtained by cracking petroleum
[EXAMPLE] Methanol + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour fractions.
2CH3OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 4H2O  Ethanol is Produced by fermentation or As for Process of the addition
reaction, you can refer to ‘ ALKENE’
the addition reaction of an ethene with steam
OXIDATION OF ALCOHOLS
Alcohols can be oxidized to carboxylic acids. FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the conversion of
[EXAMPLE] This is one of methods to prepare ethanol. sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide
Ethanol can be oxidized into an organic acid called ethanoic acid This process is used all over the world gas by the action of micro-organism
C2H5OH + O2  CH3COOH + H2O for baking, wine-making, and brewing such as yeast, in the absence of air.
ethanol + oxygen  ethanoic acid + water beer.

A solution sugar is mixed with water and keep at a temperature around 25-30 oC in
the absence of air.
+ O2  + H2O
YEAST If air is present, oxidation of
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
ethanol will take place and to
37°C
form ethanoic acid and water.

77
 C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 H H
| |
CONDITIONS FOR FERMENTATION Propanoic LIQUID
3 C2H5COOH H —C — C — C = O
Acid | | | (B.P.=141℃)
 This process must take place in the absence of air (oxygen).
Most yeast stop growing when the alcohol content of the solution reaches H H OH
15 percent. The alcohol can be concentrated by distilling it from the H H H
 This process takes place at an optimum temperature of 25 -30 ℃.
fermented liquor. | | |
Butanoic LIQUID
4 C3H7COOH H —C —C— C — C = O
Acid | | | | (B.P.=164℃)
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS General formula: CnH2n+1COOH
H H H OH

The carboxylic acids form a homologous series. The general formula for the carboxylic acids is CnH2n+1COOH,
They are generally WEAK ACIDS. Functional group of
where ‘n’ STARTS WITH 0 for the first member of the series.
So they exhibit normal acidic properties. the Carboxylic acids

As the number of carbon atoms in the molecule increase, the boiling point increase
-COOH or
They exist mainly as molecules and do not form
hydrogen ions as easily as mineral acids. That is why The most important carboxylic acid is ETHANOIC ACID. It is used for flavourings
the acidity of compounds in this series is weak
and as a preservative

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Table: Properties of the first 4 members of carboxylic acid family Carboxylic acids are prepared by oxidation of alcohols.
No. of Physical State
CARBOXYLIC CHEMICAL STRUCTURAL You can check the previous page!
C at Room OXIDATION IN AIR
ACID FORMULA FORMULA Temperature
atoms Ethanoic acid is made by exposing alcohol to the air in the presence of bacteria.
H— C =O The ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid. (See chemical reaction of alcohols)
Methanoic LIQUID
1 HCOOH |
Acid OH (B.P.=101℃) OXIDATION OF ETHANOL USING OXIDISING AGENT
The orange acidified potassium dichromate solution turns green in this reaction.
H
|
Ethanoic LIQUID CHEMICAL REACTIO OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
2 CH3COOH H— C—C =O
Acid | | (B.P.=118℃) ESTER:
H OH Esters are made by combining an organic acid with an alcohol. The process is
called esterification. The reaction is carried out by warming the acid and the
alcohol with a little concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as catalyst

[EXAMPLE] ethanoic acid + ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water

78
 C2H5COOH + C4H9OH  C2H5COOC4H9 + H2O
III) propanoic acid + methanol  methyl propanoate + water
C2H5COOH + CH3OH  C2H5COOCH3 + H 2O

+ + H2O
SOME ORGANIC REACTIONS
alkane + O2  CO2 + H2O
ETHANOIC ACID loses the –OH group alkene + O2  CO2 + H2O
Esters also form a homologous series. while ETHANOL loses the –H group alkene + H2  alkane
to form WATER. alkene + H2O  alcohol
ESTERS General formula: CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1
Functional group alcohol + carboxylic acid  ester + H2O
Esters are organic compounds formed of the esters COMBUSTION: alcohol + O2  CO2 + H2O
by the reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol. OXIDATION: alcohol + 2[O]  carboxylic acid + H2O
Esters are volatile fragrant substance -COO-
or
USE OF ESTERS
 Flavourings in food
 Ingredients in Perfume (sweet smelling)

DETERMINATION of NEMES and CHENICAL FORMULAE

The names and formulae of the esters formed follows;

Reaction: ORGANIC ACID + ALCOHOL  ESTER + WATER

Name: [ ] anoic acid + { } anol  { } yl [ ] anoate + water
Formula: [ ] COOH + { } OH  [ ] COO { } + H2O

[EXAMPLES]
I) ethanoic acid + ethanol  ethyl ethanoate + water
CH3COOH + C2H5OH  CH3COOC2H5 + H 2O
II) propanoic acid + butanol  butyl propanoate + water

79
10.4 Polymers
Most organic compounds have at most a few tens of atoms. Some have as many as
one million atoms. Large molecules can natural materials like proteins, DNA,
cellulose or starch, or Man-made materials like plastics. Such large molecules have
properties which depend on the functional groups they contain and the overall shape
of the molecule itself.
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic polymers are substances such as plastics, and man-made fibers such as
nylon and terylene. They are formed by either addition or condensation polymerisation.
USES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

POLYMERS are very large molecules that are formed when thousands of smaller  Poly(ethene): plastic bags, plastic film, sheet
units of identical molecules called MONOMERS are joined together.  Nylon: making clothing, making rope (fish line) and strong fabric such as hot
air balloon.
Polymers are also called  Terylene: can be woven, made into very strong fabric for use as sails or tents.
M -M-M-M-M-M-M-M-
Monomer molecule polymer molecule MACROMOLECULES
POLLUTION PROBLEMS OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

Bonding that takes place  When plastics burn to form poisonous gases on combustion.
Chemical reaction by which monomers are joined between monomers are
together to forme a polymer is called POLYMERISATION.  Plastics are often non-biodegradable and remain in the soil for a long time.
covalent bonds

If you look at it as a bright side,

There are 2 types of polymerisations;
plastics are resistant to corrosion
１ADDITION polymerisation – the addition reaction between monomers
２CONDENSATION polymerisation – the successive linking together of monomers NATURAL POLYMERS
Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are natural polymers found in plants and animals
 Polymers occur NATURALLY or may be SYNTHETIC (man-made) . produced by living organisms.
All natural polymers are biodegradable,
Hence there are 2 groups of polymers. unlike most synthetic polymers
１SYNTHETIC polymers PROTEINS
２NATURAL polymers It is often called PLASTIC Proteins are natural polymers of amino acids which from all enzymes, and also
the main structural materials of animals.

Part of the structure of a protein molecule

Addition polymers;
[e.g.] Poly, P.V.C. Teflon
Synthetic polymers
Condensation polymers;
Monomers: Amino acids
POLYMERS [e.g.] Terylene, Nylon

Amino acids are the monomer units of all

Natural polymers Condensation polymers; proteins and contain the –COOH and –NH2
[e.g.] Proteins, Fats groups at either end of the molecule.
80 [e.g.] H2N-CH(COOH)H glycine
H2N-CH(COOH)CH3 alanine
FATS
Fats are naturally occurring esters of a fatty acid and glycerol.
HYDROLYSIS OF NATURAL POLYMERS
They are solid at body temperature and are widely The condensation polymerisation reaction in natural polymers is easily reversible
used by plants and animals as a means of storing by the process of hydrolysis
food which can be used as a fuel(energy).
Hydrolysis is the chemical
For example, if starch hydrolysis takes
reaction of a compound with
place, starch (polymer) will break down
the structure of fats water which causes it to break
into smaller molecules, eventually into
Monomers: Glycerol Fatty acids down.
sugars (monomers).
C3H5(OH)3

Fatty acids are general names for hydrocarbons which
contain the –COOH. Carboxylic acids belong to this.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are important nutrients for energy to plants and animals.
Examples of carbohydrates are starch, sugar, glycogen and cellulose
Carbohydrates are made from small sugar molecules joined together.
Part of the structure of a Starch molecule
HO OH
SUGAR
Monomers: Sugar
Chemical formula of sugar is
C6H12O6
General formula of carbohydrates is
Cx(H2O)y
HYDROLYSIS
Polymer to Monomer
SOAP is formed by boiling fats
STARCH SUGARS
with aqueous sodium hydroxide.
This is because the fatty acids
PROTEINS AMINO ACIDS
react with sodium hydroxide to form
their sodium salts.
FATS FATTY ACIDS  These salts have a WATER-LOVING
END and a WATER-HATING END.
The water-hating end attaches itself
to the grease and the water-loving
end causes the grease to detach i.e.
STARCH HYDROLYSIS
dissolve therefore ‘cleaning’
STARCH is broken down to form SUGAR by:
 ACID HYDROLYSIS (heated with dilute acid)
Acid hydrolysis is slow but eventually the starch is It takes place in the
broken down into glucose, which is the monomer and
stomach of mammals.
will not undergo further hydrolysis.
 ENZYME HYDROLYSIS ( by enzyme amylase)
Enzyme breaks down the starch down into the Amylase is found in
disaccharide maltose which contains two glucose saliva in the mouth.
units minus a water molecule.
81
[EXERCISE]
The diagram below gives a summary of the breakdown of starch to maltose and glucose and
then to ethanol. (From 2003 national exam.) Step 2 open the double bonds in the monomer
(a) Name the processes represented by the letters A and B.
molecules:
(b) What is the purpose of the yeast in process A?
YEAST A
(C6H10O5)n
(C6H12O6)n
SALIVA ACID YEAST
Step 3 join the monomer molecules together. The structure can be represented
Starch MALT Maltose Glucose Ethanol
simply as shown on the right.
C12H22O11
+
Where ‘n’ stands for the
CO2
ACID B number of monomers in
the structure
ANSWER
(a) A: Fermentation B: Hydrolysis
(b) For catalyst / For the reaction to speed up
The group –CH2CH2- in the simplified structure is
called the REPEATING UNIT of the polymer.
FORMATION OF POLYMERS
As we have seen, we can classify polymers into two groups in terms of how to form.
- Table shows monomers, polymers and their uses.
ADDITION POLYMERS MONOMER POLYMER USES
Addition polymers are synthetic polymers made from unsaturated monomers
H H
(e.g. alkenes) through an addition reaction. In addition polymerisation, H H  Plastic bags
monomers add onto one another to form a single polymer C C  Cling film
. H C C H  Waterproof sheets
H H n
[EXAMPLE] Formation of poly (ethene) Ethene  Plastic plates
Poly(ethene)
Polyethene (polymer) is made from ethene molecules (monomer). The monomer
molecules contain a carbon-carbon double bond (-C=C-) that can add onto one
another.

The steps below show how to draw the structure of poly(ethene).

Step 1 Draw some monomer molecules side by side:
This is an ADDITION
REACTION. To join monomers
togeter they must have either
82
C = C double bonds or reactive
functional groups that will link
them together on the left as
well as on the right to form a
chain strucure.
 H H Condensation polymers are made from monomers containing alcohol, carboxylic
acid or amino functional groups which link together. Condensation polymers can
H Cl
C C be natural or synthetic
H C C H n  Water pipes
H H
 Waterproof sheets Condensation polymerisation is the successive linking together of monomers to
Chloroethene Poly(chloroethene)
 Electrical insulators form a polymer with the elimination of a simple molecule such as water.
or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)
[EXAMPLE 1] Formation of terylene

F F Terylene is made by condensation polymerisation of a diol monomer with a

F F dicarboxylic acid.
C C  Coating for non-stick
F C C F n cooking utensils
F F A condensation polymer
Tetrafluorothene  Sealing and Bearings
Poly(tetrafluoroethene) may contain two kinds
(PTFE or Teflon) of monomer.

[EXERCISE]
Diol is an alcohol containing Dicarboxylic acid is an carboxylic

The structure of a polymer is shown. Step12draw

-OH the
groups in its alternately
monomers acid containing 2 -COOH groups in
molecules its molecules
From what hydrocarbon is the polymer made?
Draw its structure

ANSWER Step2 take away one water molecule from each pair of monomer molecules.

To determine the structure of the monomer The molecules are said to

=
The polymer is an addition polymer.
The monomer from which it is made must
contain a carbon – carbon double bond.
first identify the repeating unit in the
polymer. The monomer is obtained by
‘closing the ends’ of the repeating unit to
obtain the double bond.
The repeating unit is 
condense together to give
water.
Step3 join the remaining parts of the monomers together.
The repeating unit of terylene

CONDENSATION POLYMERS Hence, the structure of

83 terylene can be represented
as

n
 Two monomers of terylene are joined by the
group. Step2 Take away one water molecule from each pair of monomer molecules
This is known as an ESTER LINKAGE. in order for molecules to condense together to give water.
 Polymers containing ester linkages are
called POLYESTERS

Natural polymers can be formed by ester linkages as well as synthetic polymers.

-Table below shows example polymers which have an ester linkage
POLYMER Step3 join the remaining parts of the monomers together.
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS NATURAL POLYMERS The repeating unit of nylon
LINK
POLYESTERS
ESTER

Hence, the structure of

nylon can be represented as
Two monomers of nylon are joined by the
group of atoms.
This is known as an AMIDE LINKAGE.
Monomers; Alcohol +Acid  Polymers containing amide linkages are n

[EXAMPLE 2] Formation of Nylon Monomers; Glycerol + Fatty acid called POLYAMIDES

Two different monomers join together to form nylon. Natural polymers can be formed by amide linkages as well as synthetic polymers.
The acid and the amine ends on the monomers can react to form an amide linkage. -Table below shows example polymers which have an amide linkage
POLYMER
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS NATURAL POLYMERS
LINK
POLYAMIDES
AMINE form a homologous group AMIDE
which has –NH2 as its functional
group.
 It is derived from ammonia by
Dicarboxylic acid
Diamine is an amine replacement of one or more H
containing 2 -NH2 atoms by hydrocarbons.
groups in its molecule [E.g.] Aniline C6H5NH2

Step1 Draw the monomers alternately Monomers; Amine +Acid Monomers; Amino acid

84
[EXAMPLE 3] CARBOHYDRATES
As you have seen, carbohydrates (starch and cellulose) are natural
condensation polymers made up of smaller sugar molecules joined together
ANSWER: A
Terylene is a condensation polymer.
Therefore, the key to work out is to identify the linkages of the polymers.
Terylene has ESRTER LINKAGES -COO.
Monomer  Repeating unit
As you can find between monomers, Figure A has ester linkages.
Hence, the structure of
carbohydrate can be
represented as [EXERCISE 2]
Which pair of substances both contain the linkage shown?
The polymer of Carbohydrates O
is like n
A. nylon and terylene
B. sugars and protein
C. nylon and protein
It has single monomers. D. terylene and poly(ethene)

ANSWER: C
The units in carbohydrates are joined by the This is AMIDE LINKAGE. Hence polymers to be answered should be polyamides
Nylon is a synthetic polyamide, while protein is a natural polyamide.
 We say that carbohydrates have CELLULOSE LINKAGES.
[EXERCISE 1]
Which of the following structures represents Terylene? KILONA LONA has finished. But your learning still continues.
(From 2004 National Exam.) As long as you’re studying, you’re making a progress.

85
 Substance Melting point (oC) Boiling Point (oC)
Oxygen -219 -183
Iron 1540 2900
Diamond 3550 4832
Sulphur 119 445
1. Matter
Which substance in the table is…
1. The figure shows the changes of state of matter (a) a liquid at 200 oC
(b) a gas at 0 oC
melting B
(c) a solid at 1600 oC
solid Liquid gas
A condensation
Name the process represented by A and B. 4.The table below shows the boiling points of the elements found in a sample of
liquid air.
2. Study the heating curve and answer the questions below. element argon helium neon nitrogen oxygen
Temperature (oC) boiling
-186 -269 -246 -196 -183
point/oC
Which elements would be gaseous at -190oC?
Z
F

2. Experimental Techniques
Y 1. U is soluble mixture. A, B, C and D are known pure substances. A pupil carried out
G
a chromatography experiment to separate the mixtures. Below is the chromatogram
X
showing the result of the separation.
Time
(a) Name the temperature G and F.
(b) At what state or states can a substance exists at the point X, Y and Z in graph.
Movement
of solvent
3. Study the table below. This table shows the melting points and boiling points of
oxygen, iron, diamond and sulphur.
Start line
U A B C D

(a) Which of the dyes are present in U?

(b) Suggest which of the dye is insoluble in this solvent.
86
2. What is the name of substance
(a) which remains on the filter paper after filtration?
(b) which is able to pass through the filter?
3. Name one method to separate the following mixtures: crude oil, liquid air.
4. The proton number of Chlorine is 17, and Sodium is 11.
(a) Draw the electronic structure of the elements Chlorine and Sodium.
(b) Write down the formula of a compound formed when Sodium combines with
chlorine.
(c) Draw the structure of compound (b).

4. Name a method to separate a mixture of 5. The diagram below represents electron (x) arrangement of a particular atom.
(a) water and cooking oil Study this diagram and answer the questions that follow
(b) a mixture of iodine and sodium chloride
The relative atomic mass of the atom represented is 31
5. A liquid is thought to be pure ethanol. What is the best way to test its purity? (a) What is its proton number?
A. Test with universal indicator paper (b) What is its neutron number?
B. Burn its completely in oxygen
C. Measure its boiling point.
D. React with aqueous sodium hydroxide
6. Complete the table below for these two isotopes of chlorine.
3. Atoms, elements and compounds Mass Number
Number
1, Which of the following atomic particles have almost the same mass as a neutron. Chlorine of
number of protons
A Proton B Electron C Sodium ion D Alpha particle neutrons
35 35 17
Cl
45 3
2. An element x forms an ion 21 X How many protons, electrons and neutrons are 37
Cl 20
there in the ion of X?
Protons Electrons Neutrons
A 21 21 24
4. Stoichiometory
B 21 18 45
1. Calcium and nitrate ions combine to form calcium nitrate. The formula of the
C 21 18 24
compound formed is…
D 18 21 24
A CaNO3 B Ca2NO3 C Ca(NO3)2 D CaNO6

3. Which of the following represents a magnesium ion?

2. Sodium phosphate has a formula Na3PO4. Then the total number of atoms in the
formula of iron (ll) phosphate is …
A B C D
A 6 B8 C 13 D 17

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3. Consider the reaction
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 6. Chemical Reaction
(a) What mass of Lime (CaO) would be produced from 20 tonnes of lime stone 1. State four factors to speed up the reaction
(CaCO3)
(b) What mass of carbon dioxide will be given off by heating 20 g of calcium 2. Name the substance which reduced in each reaction below.
carbonate? (a) CuO (s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (g)
4. Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and (b) SO2 (g) + 2Mg (s) S (s) + 2MgO (s)
hydrogen gas.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation, including state symbols, for the reaction 3. Explain an (a) exothermic reaction and (b) endothermic reaction
of magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(b) Calculate the mass of magnesium chloride formed when 6.0g of magnesium 4. The rate of the reaction between a magnesium ribbon and an excess of dilute
react with an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid. hydrochloric acid could be measured. .
The volume of hydrogen produced was recorded every minute as shown in the table
5. Balanced equations below. below.
(a) Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H 2O + CO2 Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(b) H2S + O2 → H2O + SO2 Volume of Hydrogen (cm3) 0 14 23 31 38 40 40 40

(a)Plot the results on a graph paper and draw the graph.

5. Periodic Table (b) What was the total volume of hydrogen produced when the reaction was over?
1 Complete the sentences. (c) Why did the reaction stop?
(a) In the periodic table, elements are arranged in the order of the . (d) How could you make the reaction go faster?
(b) Elements in Group I are called .
(c) Elements Group I have boiling points and melting points, and
low . compare with other metals. 7. Acids, Bases and Salts
(d) An atom of halogen has valency electrons. So it forms the ion 1. (a) Name the ion which all acids solution contain.
which has one charge. (b) Name the ion which all alkali solution contains.
(e) Elements in Group 0 are called .
2. What is the difference between strong acid and weak acid?
2. Complete the table below.
Element Chemical formula State at r.t.p 3. Write a chemical equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
Chlorine aqueous sodium hydroxide.
Bromine Br2
Iodine Solid 4. Which one of the following equation represents neutralization?
A Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu (s)
B Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g)
3. Which one displaces bromine from aqueous sodium bromide?
C ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
A Chlorine B Iodine C Sodium D Sodium chloride

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 1 Which of the following compounds cannot react with hydrogen?
5. There are some oxides, CO2, ZnO, CuO, SO2, Al2O3, CO, MgO A C4H8 B C5H10 C C6H12 D C7H16
(a) Define amphoteric oxide.
(b) Which oxides are basic oxides? 2. Explain isomers using butane as an example.
(c) Which oxides are amphoteric oxides?
(d) Which oxides are neutral acids? 3. Which
(e) Which oxide cause acid rain? substance is A B C D
the main
H H H H H
6. There are salts: NaCl, BaSO4, CuSO4, AgCl, K2CO3, CaCO3 component of
(a) Which salts are soluble in water? natural gas? H O H H H H H
C C C C C
(b) Which salts can be obtained as precipitates?
4. How crude H H H H H
oil could be
8. Metals
refined?
1. Give two advantage of alloy.
2. What is use of stainless?
5. What does the ‘unsaturated’ mean?

3. In extraction on iron, state three materials which are added to the top of the
6. Write the equation for the reaction of ethene and steam with their structural
furnace with the heated ore.
formulae.

4. Name the ore and chemical formula that is used in the extraction of iron. 7. Which of the following structures represents nylon?

5. What is the function of carbon monoxide in extraction of iron?

9. Non-Metals
1. Name four common gases in the clean air and state the composition each.

2. What method is used for manufacture of oxygen from air?

3. Name the reactants and products, and give the condition in Haber process.

4. Write the balanced chemical equation of Haber process.

10. Organic Chemistry 8. Which substance below belongs to homologous series of the general formula
CnH2n?
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 A. Ethane B. Ethanoic acid C. Ethene D. Ethanol 4. (a) a separating funnel (b) sublimation
5. C
9. Which substance below belongs to a homologous series of general molecular When a substance is pure, it has a sharp melting and boiling points.
formula CnH2n+2
A. CH3COOH B. C2H5OH C. C3H8 D. C2H4
3. Atoms, elements and compounds
10. Write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of ethanol. 1. A
C2H5OH + O2 →
The mass of a neutron and proton are one (it doesn’t have any unit). The mass of an
11. State the final product for the hydrolysis of carbohydrates. electron is approximately 1/1840. The alpha particle is the nucleus of helium atom.
A. Simple sugars B. Ethanol C. Polymers D. alcohol

12. Which substance reacts with steam? 2. C

The number of protons in an atom of the element is given by the atomic

number, which is 21. It is a cation and it has a charge of +3, so the
number of electrons is the number of protons – 3, that is 21 – 3 = 18. The
ANSWER number of neutrons is equal to the mass number – the atomic number,
which is 45 – 21 = 24.
3, A
1. Matter The atomic number of magnesium is 12 and it loses two electrons to become full outer-shell, so
there must be 10 electrons in a sodium ion
1. A Freezing B Evaporation
2. (a) G: Melting point F: Boiling point 4. (a)
(b) X: Solid Y: Solid and Liquid Z: Liquid and Gas
3. (a) Sulphur (b) Oxygen (c) Diamond
M.P B.P Cl Na
q
Temperature

Liquid chlorine Sodium

Solid Gas
(b) NaCl
4. helium, neon and nitrogen
The valencies of sodium and chlorine are 1 and 1. The formula is given by exchanging
A substance is a gas at a temperature above its boiling point.
their valencies as shown below,
Na1 Cl1 → NaCl
2. Experimental Techniques
(c)
1. (a) A and C (b) B : Spot B doesn’t move because of insoluble in this solvent,
2. (a) residue (b) filtrate
3. Fractional distillation
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 Sodium ion has valency of 1, the valency of phosphate ion must be equal to three
+ - times the valency of sodium ion, which is 3 x 1 or 3. The valency of iron (ll) ion is 2.
Therefore the formula of iron (ll) phosphate is Fe3(PO4)2. One PO4 molecule is
Na Cl
composed of one P atom and four O atoms, which is in total five atoms. In
Fe3(PO4)2, there are three Fe atoms and two PO4 molecules, which are 3 + 2 x 5 = 13
atoms.

5. (a) 15 3. Relative atomic mass of Ca: 40, C: 12 and O: 16, so relative molecular mass of
Number of Electrons = Number of Protons CaCO3: 100 (40+12+3x16) and CaO: 56 (40+16).
(b) 16 So,
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Number of protons (31-16=16) (a) CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Relative mass 100 56
6.
Actual mass 20 tonnes X tonnes
Number 100X = 56 x 20
Mass Number
Chlorine of X = 11.2 tonne
number of protons
neutrons (b)
35 35 17 18 CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Cl
37
Cl 37 17 20 Relative mass 100 44
Actual mass 20 g X g
 Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number 100X = 44 x 20
 Number of Electrons = Number of Protons = Atomic Number X = 8.8 g
(So that Atoms should be electrically neutral)

4 (a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Stoichiometory (b) Relative atomic mass of Mg:24, H:1 and Cl:35.5, so relative molecular mass of
1. C MgCl2: 95 (24+2x35.5).

The valencies of calcium and nitrate are 2 and 1. The formula is given by exchanging Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
their valencies as shown below, Relative mass 24 95
Actual mass 6.0 g Xg
Ca2 NO31 → Ca(NO3)2 24X = 95 x 6.0
X = 23.75 g

2. C

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5. 1. Concentration, Pressure, Surface area of solid, Temperature, Catalyst (You can
(a) Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O +CO2 choose four factors)
No. of Na 2 2x1=2 2. (a) CuO (CuO is said to be reduced to Cu because it has lost oxygen)
C 1 1 (b) SO2 (SO2 is said to be reduced to S because it has lost oxygen)
O 3 3 3. (a) A reaction that given out heat to the surrounding.
H 2x1=2 2 (b) A reaction that taken in heat from the surrounding.
Cl 2x1=2 2x1=2 4.
(a)

(b) 2H2S + 3O2 → 2H2O + 2SO2

50
No. of H 2x2=4 2x2=4

Volume of hydrogen (cm3)

S 2x1=2 2x1=2 40
O 3x2=6 2x1+2x2=6
30

5. Periodic Table 20
1. (a) atomic number (b) alkali metals (c) low, density (d) seven, negative 10
(e) noble gases
0
2. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Element Chemical formula State at r.t.p Time (min)

Chlorine Cl2 Gas

Bromine Br2 Liquid
(b) 40cm3
Iodine I2 Solid
(c) Because all magnesium has been used up.
(d) Use more concentrated hydrochloric acid or increases the temperature of
3. A substances.
This is the question about displacement reaction.
More reactive halogens will DISPLACE F Cl Br I
less reactive halogens from their
More less 7. Acids, Bases and Salts
aqueous salt solutions 1. (a) Hydrogen ion H +
reactive reactive
(b) Hydroxide ion OH-
A Cl2 + 2NaBr 2NaCl + Br2
2. Strong acid ionize completely, weak acid ionize partially. In weak acid, ionization
B I2 + 2NaBr X
is reversible
3. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
6. Chemical Reaction 4. C

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 Acids react with bases to give salts and water only. This reaction is called compounds have formula of CnH2n, and it is the general formula of alkenes. They can
neutralisation undergo hydrogenation because alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) 2.
Base Acid Salt Water Butane C4H10 H
5. (a) The oxides which react with both acids and bases. H C H
(b) CuO, MgO (c) ZnO, Al2O3 (d) CO (e) SO2 H H H H H H

6. (a) NaCl, CuSO4, K2CO3 H C C C C H H C C C H

(b) BaSO4, AgCl, CaCO3 H H H H H H H
8. Metals
1. Stronger and harder than the pure metals, resistance of corrosion Isomers are different compounds which have the same molecular formula but
2. Car bodies, Cutlery different structural formula.
3. Lime stone, Cokes and haematite (iron ore) 3. Methane CH4
4. Haematite, Fe2O3 4. Fractional distillation
5. Reducing agent (reduce oxygen from iron ore) 5. Compounds which have molecules containing double or triple covalent bonds are
said to be unsaturated.
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
6.

Reduced H H H H

9. Non-Metals C C + H O H H C C H
1. Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Carbon dioxide 0.04%, Noble gases 0.94% H H H H
H H H H
2. Fractional distilation
7. B O H
3. Reactants: Hydrogen H2, Nitrogen N2
The unit in nylon are joined by the group of atoms
Products: Ammonia NH3
8. C -C – N -
Pressure: 350 atm, Temperature: 450oC, Iron is put as catalyst
4. 3H2 + N2 2NH3
Substance Formula
Ethane C2H6
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
10. Organic Chemistry
Ethene C2H4
1 D
Ethanol C2H5OH
C7H16 has formula of CnH2n+2, and it is the general formula of alkanes. It does not
undergo hydrogenation because alkanes are all saturated hydrocarbons. Other
9. C

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CnH2n+2 is C3H8 when n = 3

10 C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

11. A

12.A
C2H4 (g) + H2O → C2H5OH (g)
This is an addition reaction. In this reaction, molecules are always added across a
carbon = carbon double bond (C=C).

94
 [EXAMPLE 1]
(a) State the name of your Chemistry teacher [1 mark]
ANSWER: MR. T. IGUCHI
(b) Define the role of a Chemistry teacher [1 mark]
ANSWER: To teach chemistry to students
(c) Describe your Chemistry teacher in terms of physical appearance
 READ the QUESTION carefully
THINK: 5 marks = 5 points!! [5 marks]
look out for KEY WORDS for CHEMISTRY
 Average height NOT (as need physical appearance):
collect any DATA relevant for the question
 Short hair  Punctual
 Wears glasses  Friendly
 THINK how you can use what you KNOW to ANSWER the question
 Mkuwa (Mzungu)  Strict
Use the PERIODIC TABLE if necessary
 Male  Too lenient
Now write these 5 points into short sentences 
 ANSWER what the question ASKS FOR
ANSWER:
Look out for KEY WORDS to answer the EXAM QUESTION
My chemistry teacher is a male of average height. He has black short hair and
e.g. state, define, describe, calculate, draw
sometimes wears glasses. He comes from Japan.
Use the number of MARKS as a guide to HOW DETAILED your answer
should be:
[EXAMPLE 2]
EACH MARK should be ANOTHER POINT for your answer!!
(a) State the S.I. unit of matter [1 mark]
ALWAYS SHOW any WORKING OUT
ANSWER: kilogram

(b) Define diffusion [1 mark]

Common Exam Terminology ANSWER: Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high
“State”: one or two words concentration to an area of low concentration
“Define”: one sentence
“Describe” / “Discuss” / “Explain”: a few sentences (c) Describe in terms of Kinetic Theory the process of melting [3 marks]
“Compare“ / “Contrast”: differences / similarities between THINK: melting = solid  liquid {heating}
“Draw”: diagram Kinetic Theory = MOVING particles
“Calculate”: calculations with working out  Answer should include all these details and cover at least 3 points (3 marks!!)
ANSWER:
 As a solid is heated, the particles begin to vibrate more and more
 Eventually the particles vibrate so much that they overcome the attractive
forces and begin to move about like particles in a liquid
i.e. the solid has melted to become liquid

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