Source: SWITCHMODE POWER SUPPLY HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 13
BRIDGE CONVERTERS

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The full-bridge push-pull converter requires four power transistors and extra drive
components. This tends to make it more expensive than the flyback or half-bridge
converter, and so it is normally reserved for higher-power applications.
The technique has a number of useful features; in particular, a single primary
winding is required on the main transformer, and this is driven to the full supply
voltage in both directions. This, together with full-wave output rectification,
provides an excellent utility factor for the transformer core and windings, and
highly efficient transformer designs are possible.
A second advantage is that the power switches operate under extremely well
defined conditions. The maximum stress voltage will not exceed the supply line
voltage under any conditions. Positive clamping by four energy recovery diodes
eliminates any voltage transients that normally would have been generated by the
leakage inductances.
To its disadvantage, four switching transistors are required, and since two
transistors operate in series, the effective saturated “on”-state power loss is
somewhat greater than in the two-transistor push-pull case. However, in high-
voltage off-line switching systems, these losses are acceptably small.
Finally, the topology provides flyback energy recovery via the four recovery
diodes without needing an energy recovery winding.

13.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLES

13.2.1 General Conditions

Figure 2.13.1 shows the power section of a typical off-line bridge converter. Diagonal
pairs of switching devices are operated simultaneously and in alternate sequence. For
example, Q1 and Q3 would both be “on” at the same time, followed by Q2 and Q4.
In a pulse-width-controlled system, there will be a period when all four devices will
be “off.” It should be noted that when Q2 and Q4 are “on,” the voltage across the
primary winding has been reversed from that when Q1 and Q3 were “on.”
In this example, a proportional base drive circuit has been used; this makes the
base drive current proportional to the collector current at all times. This technique is

2.103
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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

FIG. 2.13.1 Full-bridge forward push-pull converter, showing inrush limiting circuit and input filter.

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

13. BRIDGE CONVERTERS 2.105

particularly suitable for high-power applications and is more fully described in Part
1, Chap. 16.
During the “off” period, under steady-state conditions, a current will have been
established in L1, and the output rectifier diodes D5 and D6 will be acting as
flywheel diodes. Under the forcing action of L1, both diodes conduct an equal share
of the inductor current during this “off” period (except for a small magnetizing
current). Provided that balanced diodes are used, the voltage across the secondary
windings will be zero, and hence the primary voltage will also be zero (after a short
period of damped oscillatory conditions caused by the primary leakage inductance).
Typical collector voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.13.2.

FIG. 2.13.2 Primary voltage and current waveforms for full-bridge converter.

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.106 PART 2

13.2.2 Cycle of Operations

Consider a cycle of operation under steady-state conditions in Fig. 2.13.1. Assume
that the drive circuit initiates a turn-on pulse for Q1 and Q3. These two devices
will start to turn on. Collector current will now flow via the primary winding of
T1P through the primary of the proportional drive transformers T2A and T2B. By
positive regenerative feedback, the turn-on action of the two transistors is en-
hanced, and this results in rapid switching to the fully “on” state, with Q1 and Q3
fully saturated.
As soon as Q1 and Q3 turn on, current will start to build up in the primary
winding of T1P at a rate defined by the primary leakage inductance. This current is
made up of the reflected load current and a small proportion of magnetizing current
for the transformer magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 2.13.2.
Simultaneously, during the turn-on edge, the current in the secondary rectifier
diode D5 will increase and that in D6 will decrease at a rate defined by the total
secondary leakage inductance and the external loop wiring inductance through D5
and D6. For low-voltage, high-current outputs, the external loop wiring inductance
can be the predominant effect. When the secondary current has increased to the
value which was flowing in L1 prior to the switch-on of Q1 and Q3, D6 will become
reverse-biased, and the voltage at the input of L1 will now increase to the secondary
voltage Vs less the drop in diode D5.
The voltage across L1 will be (Vs-Vout) in the forward direction, and the current in
L1 will ramp up during this period. This current is transferred to the primary as
shown in Fig. 2.13.2.
After an “on” period defined by the control circuit, the base drive current will be
diverted away from the power transistors by the drive transformer, and Q1 and Q3
will turn off. However, a magnetizing current has now been established in the
transformer primary, and leakage inductances and the ampere-turns will remain
constant, the current transferring to the secondary. Therefore, by flyback action, the
voltages on all windings will reverse. If sufficient energy has been stored in the
leakage inductances, the primary voltage will fly back to a point at which diodes D2
and D4 conduct, and the excess flyback energy will be returned to the supply lines.
If the leakage inductance is very low, the snubber capacitor C5, R5, and the output
diodes D5 and D6 will provide effective clamping. D5 and D6 will divert the
majority of the flyback energy to the output. Because of the hard clamping action of
primary diodes D1 through D4 and secondary diodes D5 and D6, the voltage across
the switching transistors cannot exceed the supply line voltage by more than a diode
drop at any time.

13.2.3 Snubber Components

During the turn-off transient, the snubber components R5, C5 will reduce the turn-
off stresses on the power devices by providing an alternative path for the collector
current during the turn-off transient. It is possible to replace the four snubber
networks by a single RC network across the transformer primary, but better
common-mode control of the primary voltage is given by the arrangement shown
when all power transistors are off. This action is more fully described in Part 1,
Chap. 17.
The flywheel action provided by the output diodes is an important feature of
this type of push-pull circuit. Figure 2.9.2a and b shows the working range for the

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

13. BRIDGE CONVERTERS 2.107

core flux swing in both push-pull and single-ended operation. The range is much
wider in the push-pull case, as the core will not restore to zero, even when all
transistors are turned off, because of the flywheel conduction of D5 and D6 as
follows.
Because D5 and D6 remain conducting during the “off” period, the voltage
across the secondary, and hence across all windings, is zero when the switching
transistors are turned off. As a result, the core will not restore to Br during the “off”
period but will be held at +B̂ or –B̂ . Hence, when the following diagonal pair of
input transistors are turned “on”, the full flux density range of 2B̂ (from –B̂ to +B̂)is
available for use, allowing the transformer to be designed for a lower number of
primary turns. The secondary voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 2.13.2.
This secondary diode clamping effect is lost when the load falls below the
magnetization current (as referred to the secondary). However, this would not
normally be a problem, as under these conditions the “on” pulse would be very
short and ⌬B small.

13.2.4 Transient Flux Doubling Effect

Under transient loading conditions, a problem can sometimes occur if the full range
of the B/H characteristic is used. If the supply has been running under light load, the
pulse width will be narrow, and the core will be working near B=0. If a sudden
increase in load drives the unit to full pulse width, only half the range of ⌬B is now
available for this transient change, and the core may saturate. Be careful to consider
transient conditions and either allow sufficient flux density margin to cope with this
condition or limit the control slew rate to allow the core to establish a new working
condition. (This effect is sometimes referred to as “flux doubling.”)

13.3 TRANSFORMER DESIGN (FULL BRIDGE)

The design approach for the push-pull transformer is relatively straightforward. The
single primary winding is used for both half cycles of operation, providing extremely
good utility of core and windings.
To minimize magnetization currents, the maximum primary inductance
consistent with minimum turns is required. Consequently, a high-permeability
material will be selected, and the core will not be gapped. (A small core gap is
sometimes introduced if there is a chance of a DC current component in the
transformer, as the onset of saturation is more controllable with a core gap.)

13.4 TRANSFORMER DESIGN EXAMPLE

Assume that a transformer is to be designed on a ferrite core to meet the following

requirements:

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.108 PART 2

Input voltage 90–137 or 180–264 (by link change)

Frequency 40 kHz
Output power 500 W
Output voltage 5V
Output current 100 A

13.4.1 Step 1, Select Core Size

Assume an initial efficiency for the transformer and secondary rectifier circuit of
75%. The transmitted power for the transformer will then be 500/0.75=666 W.
From Fig. 2.13.3, for push-pull operation at this power level, an EE 55–55–21

FIG. 2.13.3 Core selection chart for balanced push-pull operation, showing throughput
power as a function of frequency with core size as a parameter. (Courtesy of Mullard Ltd.)

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

13. BRIDGE CONVERTERS 2.109

core is indicated for a temperature rise of 40°C under convected air-cooling

conditions. Hence this core will be used in the following example.

13.4.2 Step 2, Select Optimum Flux Density

For push-pull operation, the full B/H loop may be used. (See Fig. 2.9.2.) A large flux
density excursion gives fewer primary turns and lower copper losses, but increased
core losses.
Normally, it is assumed that minimum loss (maximum efficiency) will be found
near the point where the copper and core losses are equal, and this would be the
normal design aim in the selection of working flux density.
Figure 2.13.4 shows how core losses increase for A16 ferrite core material as the
number of turns is reduced and the peak flux density is increased from 25 to 200 m
T, (At the same time, of course, the copper losses will decrease, but this is not
shown here.)

FIG. 2.13.4 Core loss per gram of A16 ferrite as a function of fre-
quency, with peak flux density as a parameter. (Note: Graph is
plotted for peak flux density B̂; flux density sweep ⌬B is 2×B̂.)
(Courtesy of Mullard Ltd.)

Figure 2.13.5 shows, for a pair of EE55–55–21 cores in A16 ferrite at 40 kHz,
how the core, copper, and total losses change as the number of turns is changed and
the peak flux density is increased toward 200 mT. It will be seen that a minimum
total loss occurs near 70 mT. (For each turns example, optimum use of the core
window area and wire gauge is assumed.)

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.110 PART 2

FIG. 2.13.5 A16 ferrite core loss, copper loss, and total loss for a pair of EE55/55/21 cores,
when wound for optimum performance in a typical switchmode transformer. Loss is shown as
a function of the peak flux density. Note that the minimum total loss occurs when the trans-
former induction (turns) is optimized so that the core loss is 44% of the total loss.

In this example, the minimum loss (maximum efficiency) occurs when the core loss
is 44% of the total loss at 70 mT. However, the minimum loss condition has a relatively
wide base, and the choice of peak flux density for optimum efficiency is not critical in
the 50- to 100-mT range. The normal assumed optimum choice (where the copper and
core losses are equal) would be 80 mT, which is not very far from optimum.
For each design there is an optimal flux density swing, depending upon the
operating frequency, the core loss, the topology, and the winding utilization factors.
Figure 2.13.6a, b, and c shows the manufacturers’ peak and optimum flux
density recommendations for optimum transformer designs using the EE55–55–21
and other cores in forward and push-pull applications. From Fig. 2.13.6c (at 40
kHz), the manufacturer’s recommended peak flux density is 100 mT, which is not
far from optimum, and this higher value will be used in this example to reduce the
number of turns.

13.4.3 Step 3, Calculate Primary Voltage (Vcc)

As the peak flux density was chosen for near optimum efficiency and is well clear of
saturation, the design approach used here will be to calculate the primary turns for
the maximum “on” period (50% duty ratio) with the input voltage at minimum.
This will occur at the minimum line input of 90 V rms, and the DC voltage for the
voltage doubler connection will be

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

FIG. 2.13.6 (a) Magnetization curve for N27 ferrite material at 25°C and 100°C.
(Courtesy of Siemens AG.) (b), (c) Optimum peak flux density as a function of
frequency, with core size as a parameter. (Courtesy of Mullard Ltd.)

2.111
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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.112 PART 2

where Vin=ac input voltage, rms

Note: The derivation of the DC voltage and ripple component is more fully covered
in Part 1, Chap. 6. Hence, at 90 V input, using the voltage doubler connection,

13.4.4 Step 4, Calculate Maximum “On” Period

If cross conduction (two series transistors “on” at the same time) is to be avoided,
then the maximum “on” time cannot exceed 50% of the total period.
Hence

At 40 kHz,

13.4.5 Step 5, Calculate Primary Turns

The voltage waveform applied to the transformer primary during an “on” period is
rectangular, and the turns can be calculated using the volt-seconds (Faraday’s law)
approach.
In the push-pull transformer, both quadrants of the BH loop are used, and the
flux density swing, under steady-state balanced conditions, will go from -B to +B for
a positive half cycle.
It should be noted that Fig. 2.13.4 shows the peak flux density B̂, but assumes
losses for a peak-to-peak swing . For optimum efficiency, B̂ was
selected at 100 mT. Therefore, the peak-to-peak change (flux density swing)
, or=200 mT for this example.
The core area for the EE55–55–21 is 354 mm2, and the primary turns may now
be calculated as follows:

where Vcc = minimum DC header voltage

ton = maximum “on” period, µs
⌬B = total flux density swing, T
Am = minimum pole area, mm2

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

13. BRIDGE CONVERTERS 2.113

Hence

13.4.6 Step 6, Calculate Secondary Turns

When the bridge converter is operating at full conduction angle (maximum output),
the primary waveform tends to a square wave. Consequently, the rectified output
tends to DC, and the output voltage will be the secondary voltage less rectifier, choke,
and wiring losses.
Allowing 1 V for all losses, the transformer secondary voltage Vs will be 6 V.
Therefore, the turns for each half of the secondary winding will be

Note: The secondary is normalized to one turn and the primary to 37 turns, giving a
peak flux density slightly higher than 100 mT in this example.
The secondary voltage Vs used for this calculation is the voltage produced at the
minimum line input of 90 V. At this voltage the pulse width is at maximum. At
higher input voltages, the pulse width will be reduced by the control circuit to
maintain output voltage regulation.
To minimize the copper losses and leakage inductance, it is important to choose
the optimum gauge and shape of transformer wire and to arrange the makeup for
minimum leakage inductance between primary and secondary windings. A split-
layer winding technique will be used in this example.
The high-current secondary winding should use a copper strip spanning the full
width of the bobbin (less creepage distance). Suitable winding techniques and
methods of optimizing wire shapes and gauges are more fully covered in Part 3,
Chap. 4.

13.5 STAIRCASE SATURATION

There will, inevitably, be some imbalance in the forward and reverse volt-seconds
conditions applied to the transformer. This may be caused by differences in storage
times in the transistors or by some imbalance in the forward voltage of the output
rectifier diodes. However it is caused, this imbalance results in the flux density in the
transformer core staircasing toward saturation with each cycle of operation.
Restoration of the core during the “off” period cannot occur, because during this
period the secondary is effectively short-circuited by the clamping action of diodes
D5 and D6, which will both be conducting, under the forcing action of L1 (provided
that the load is above the critical current value for L1).
When the core reaches saturation, there is a compensation effect, as the
transistors which are conducting the higher current on the saturating cycle will have
their storage times reduced, and so a measure of balance will be restored. However,

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 BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.114 PART 2

a problem still exists for transient operation, and this is discussed in the following
section.

13.6 TRANSIENT SATURATION EFFECTS

Assume that the power supply has been operating for a period under light loading
conditions, staircase saturation has occurred, and one pair of transistors is operating
near the saturated point. If a transient increase in load is now applied, the control
circuit will demand a rapid increase in pulse width to compensate for losses and to
increase the current flow in L1. The core will immediately saturate in one direction,
and one pair of transistors will take an excessive current, with possible catastrophic
results.
If the power transistors have independent fast-acting current limits, then the
“on” pulse will be terminated before excessive current can flow, and failure of the
power devices can be avoided. This is not an ideal solution, since the transient
response will now be degraded.
Alternatively, the slew rate of the control amplifier can be reduced so that the
increase in pulse width is, say, less than 0.2 µs on each cycle. Under these conditions,
the storage self-compensation effect of the power transistors will normally be able to
prevent excessive saturation. However, the transient response will be very much
degraded, once again. Nevertheless, these two techniques are commonly used.

13.7 FORCED FLUX DENSITY BALANCING

A much better solution to the staircase saturation problem may be applied to the
push-pull bridge circuit shown in Fig. 2.13.1.
If two identical current transformers are fitted in the emitters of Q3 and Q4, the
peak values of the currents flowing in alternate pairs of transistors (and, therefore,
in the primary winding) can be compared alternately on each half cycle.
If any unbalance in the two currents is detected, it acts upon the ramp
comparator to adjust differentially the width of the drive pulses to the power
transistors. This can maintain the transformer’s average working flux density near
the center of the B/H characteristic, detecting any DC offset and adjusting the drive
pulses differentially to maintain balance.
It should be noted that this technique can work only if there is a DC path
through the transformer winding. A capacitor is sometimes fitted in series with the
primary winding to block any DC current; DC transformer saturation is thus
avoided. However, under unbalanced conditions this capacitor will take up a net
charge, and so alternate primary voltage pulses will not have the same voltage
amplitude. This results in a loss of efficiency and subharmonic ripple in the output
filter; further, maintaining balanced transformer currents and maintaining capacitor
charge are divergent requirements, leading to runaway condition. Therefore, this
DC blocking arrangement using a capacitor is not recommended.
The series capacitor Cx must not be fitted if the forced current balancing system is
used, as it will eliminate the detectable DC component, and the circuit will not be
able to operate. This is more fully explained in Part 3, Sec. 6.3.

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13. BRIDGE CONVERTERS 2.115

If the transformer’s working point can be maintained close to its center point, full
advantage can be taken of the working flux density range, giving improved transient
capability without the possibility of transformer saturation and power device
failure.
When current-mode control is used for the primary pulse-width modulation, flux
balancing happens automatically, provided Cx is not fitted. See Part 3, Chap. 10.

13.8 PROBLEMS

1. Why is the full-bridge converter usually reserved for high-power applications?

2. What is the major advantage of the full-bridge converter?
3. Why is the proportional drive circuit favored in the bridge converter?
4. Why is it particularly important to prevent staircase saturation in the fulgeconverter?
5. What measures are usually taken to prevent staircase saturation in the bridge
converter

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