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Final Term Topics

Hypothesis and Testing of Hypothesis

Parametric and Non-parametric Tests of Hypothesis

Course Code: MAED 2 - STATISTICAL ANALYSIS w/ COMPUTER APPLICATION

Students Concern: Second Year Students sections 5, 6, 7, 12 and 15.

Professor: Engr. Dimna C. Varona

ACTIVITY FOR FINAL TERM PERIOD

Using 20 respondents/students in your surveyed data on the study titled “ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE OF DFCAMCLP STUDENTS IN RELATION TO THEIR STUDY
HABITS”, answer the following objectives:

1. Is there a significant relationship between the weekly allowance and the academic
performance (GWA) of the students?
2. Is there a significant relationship between the academic performance (GWA) and the
over-all study habits of the students?
3. Is there a significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male and female
students?
4. Is there a significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of below 20 years
old students and at least 20 years old students of DFCAMCLP?
5. Is there a significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of DFCAMCLP
students with 6 and below household members and those with more than 6 household
members?

NOTE:
1. This activity maybe done in groups with a maximum of three members only.
2. Please follow the format in the example given. If it is not possible to use Excel, you
can use the formulas discussed in the module.
3. Send your answers thru email (dims16607@yahoo.com) or thru my messenger not
later than May 24, 2020.
4. Goodluck and please stay safe always!
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Section: II-12
Members:
 Demeterio, Jasmin C.
 Panganiban, Beverly C.

Solution:

1. Significant relationship between the weekly allowance and the academic

performance (GWA) of the students.

a) Hypotheses
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the weekly allowance and
the academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students.
Ha: There is significant relationship between the weekly allowance and the
academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students

b) Data

X Y
W/Allowance GWA
400 88
500 89
500 86
200 86
100 80
650 90
350 85
500 90
350 89
380 81
500 92
1000 90
1000 87
500 89
500 88
400 90
500 90
500 87
350 88
1000 85
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c) Computation of statistical value

Using data analysis under t-test: Paired two sample for means the computed
Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.29.

t-test: Paired two sample form means

  W/Allowance GWA
Mean 509 87.5
Variance 59093.68421 9.210526316
Observations 20 20
Pearson Correlation 0.294634564
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
df 19
t Stat 7.782360609
P(T<=t) one-tail 1.25916E-07
t Critical one-tail 1.729132812
P(T<=t) two-tail 2.51832E-07
t Critical two-tail 2.093024054  

To test the significance, use

r√N–2
t = ---------------
√ 1 – r2

t = 0.29√ (20 – 2)
√ (1 – 0.292)

t = 1.286
df = 20 – 2 = 18

From the table of Critical Values of t, the critical t-value at df = 18, level of
significance = 0.05, and using a two tailed test, is 2.086.

d) Decision

Since the computed value (1.286) is lower than the critical t-value (2.086), the
null hypothesis of no significant relationship between the weekly allowance and the
academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students is accepted.
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e) Conclusion:

1. There is a low positive relationship between the weekly allowance and the
academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students.
2. However, there is no significant relationship between the weekly allowance
and the academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students.

2. Significant relationship between the academic performance (GWA) and the

over-all study habits of the DFCAMCLP students.

a) Hypotheses

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the academic performance

(GWA) and overall study habits of the DFCAMCLP students.
Ha: There is significant relationship between the academic performance
(GWA) and overall study habits of the DFCAMCLP students

b) Data
X Y
GWA OVERALL STUDY HABITS (AVERAGE)
88 22
89 20
86 28
86 24
80 14
90 30
85 36
90 29
89 39
81 26
92 22
90 22
87 28
89 25
88 24
90 25
90 33
87 20
88 19
85 16
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c) Computation of statistical value

Using data analysis under t-test: Paired two sample for means the computed
Pearson correlation is 0.27.

t-test: Paired two sample for means

  GWA AVERAGE
Mean 87.5 25.1
Variance 9.21052632 39.8842105
Observations 20 20
Pearson Correlation 0.27185597
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
df 19
t Stat 44.8736932
P(T<=t) one-tail 4.7779E-21
t Critical one-tail 1.72913281
P(T<=t) two-tail 9.5557E-21
t Critical two-tail 2.09302405  

To test the significance, use

r√N–2
t = ---------------
√ 1 – r2

t = 0.27√ (20 – 2)
√ (1 – 0.272)

t = 1.190
df = 20 – 2 = 18

From the Critical Values of t, the critical t-value at df = 18, level of significance = .05,
and using a two tailed test, is 2.086.

d) Decision

Since the computed value (1.190) is lower than critical t-value (2.086), the null
hypothesis of no significant relationship between academic performance (GWA) and
the overall study habits of the DFCAMCLP students is accepted.
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e) Conclusion

1. There is a low positive relationship between the academic performance

(GWA) and the overall study habits of the DFCAMCLP students.
2. However, there is no significant relationship between weekly allowance and
the academic performance (GWA) of the DFCAMCLP students.

3. Significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male and female students.

a) Hypotheses

Ho: There is no significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male

and female DFCAMCLP students.
Ha: There is significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male and
female DFCAMCLP students.

b) Data

ALLOWANCE PER WEEK

Male Female
500 400
100 500
650 200
500 350
380 350
500 1000
500 1000
500 500
350 400
1000 500

c) Computation of statistical value

Using data analysis under t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
the computed t-value is -0.197.
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t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances

  Male Female
Mean 498 520
Variance 52151.11111 72333.33333
Observations 10 10
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 18
t Stat -0.197181033
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.422947657
t Critical one-tail 1.734063607
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.845895313
t Critical two-tail 2.10092204  

d) Decision

Since the computed value (-0.197) is lower than the critical t-value (2.101), the
null hypothesis of no significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male and
female DFCAMCLP students is accepted.

e) Conclusion

There is no significant difference in the weekly allowance of the male and

female DFCAMCLP students.

4. Significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of below 20 years

old students and at least 20 years old students of DFCAMCLP.

a) Hypotheses:

Ho: There is no significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of

below 20 years old students and at least 20 years old students of
DFCAMCLP.
Ha: There is significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of
below 20 years old students and at least 20 years old students of
DFCAMCLP.
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b) Data
Academic Performance (GWA)
Below 20 yrs. old. At least 20 yrs. old.
88 89
86 89
86 88
80 90
90 87
85 88
90 85
89
81
92
90
87
90

c) Computation of statistical value

Using data analysis under t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
the computed t-value is -0.654.

t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances

  Below 20 yrs. old At least 20 yrs. old
Mean 87.2307692 88
Variance 13.025641 2.666666667
Observations 13 7
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 18
t Stat -0.6541199
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.26065248
t Critical one-tail 1.73406361
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.52130495
t Critical two-tail 2.10092204  

d) Decision

Since the computed value (-0.654) is lower than the critical t-value (2.101), the
null hypothesis of no significant difference in the academic performance of below 20
years old and at least 20 years old DFCAMCLP students is accepted.
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e) Conclusion

There is no significant difference in the academic performance of below 20

years old and at least 20 years old DFCAMCLP students.

5. Significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of DFCAMCLP

students with 6 and below household members and those with more than 6
household members.

a) Hypotheses

Ho: There is no significant difference in the academic performance (GWA)

of DFCAMCLP students with 6 and below household members and
those with more than 6 household members.
Ha: There is significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of
DFCAMCLP students with 6 and below household members and those
with more than 6 household members.

b) Data

Academic Performance (GWA)

6 and below HM. More than 6 HM.
88 89
86 90
86 85
80 89
90 92
81 89
90 88
87 85
90
90
87
88

c) Computation of statistical value

Using data analysis under t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
the computed t-value is -1.132.
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t-test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances

  6 and below HM More than 6 HM.
Mean 86.91666667 88.375
Variance 11.35606061 5.696428571
Observations 12 8
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 18
t Stat -1.132434812
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.136156036
t Critical one-tail 1.734063607
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.272312072
t Critical two-tail 2.10092204  

d) Decision

Since the computed value (-1.132) is lower than the critical t-value (2.101), the
null hypothesis of no significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of
DFCAMCLP students with 6 and below household members and those with more
than 6 household members is accepted.

e) Conclusion

There is no significant difference in the academic performance (GWA) of

DFCAMCLP students with 6 and below household members and those with more
than 6 household members.

~ the end ~

Thank you Ma’am Varona

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CONTENT

Hypothesis refers to an intelligent assumption or guess. In statistical language, it is a statement of

prediction of the relationship between or among variables. It is also an assertion of

conjuncture concerning one or more population

Kind of Hypothesis:

1. 1. Null Hypothesis, Ho - is a statement of no existence of relationship, difference or effect

2. between variables under study. It is formulated with the hope that it will
3. either be rejected or accepted.
2.
5. 2. Alternative Hypothesis, Ha - is a statement of the expectation, derived from the theory under
6. study. An alternative hypothesis may be:
a. a. Directional or One-tailed test of hypothesis – occurs when a direction of the difference is
b. indicated. When you perform a one-tailed test, the entire significance level
c. percentage goes into the extreme end of one tail of the distribution. In the
d. examples below, I use an alpha of 5%. Each distribution has one shaded region
e. of 5%. When you perform a one-tailed test, you must determine whether the
critical region is in the left tail or the right tail. The test can detect an effect only
g. in the direction that has the critical region. It has absolutely no capacity to
h. detect an effect in the other direction.

In a one-tailed test, you have two options for the null and alternative hypotheses,
which corresponds to where you place the critical region.
You can choose either of the following sets of generic hypotheses:

o Null: The effect is less than or equal to zero.

o Alternative: The effect is greater than zero.

Or:
o Null: The effect is greater than or equal to zero.
o Alternative: The effect is less than zero.
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b. Non-directional or Two-tailed test of hypothesis –occurs when it does not specify direction.

Two-tailed hypothesis tests are also known as nondirectional and two-sided tests
because you can test for effects in both directions. When you perform a two-tailed
test, you split the significance level percentage between both tails of the
distribution. In the example below, I use an alpha of 5% and the distribution has
two shaded regions of 2.5% (2 * 2.5% = 5%).

When a test statistic falls in either critical region, your sample data are sufficiently
incompatible with the null hypothesis that you can reject it for the population.
In a two-tailed test, the generic null and alternative hypotheses are the following:

o Null: The effect equals zero.

o Alternative:  The effect does not equal zero.

Hypothesis Testing - is a process of determining the probability or acceptability of a hypothesis as

derived from a theory through scientific collection and through an application
of appropriate statistical test.

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

Two wrong conclusions may be committed by the researcher when making a decision
regarding null hypothesis. They are:

1. 1. Type I error – refers to the rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true. The probability of
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2. making a type I error is called level of significance of the test and is denoted by α.
3. 2. Type II error – refer to the acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false. The probability of
4. making of type 2 error is denoted by Beta β. Beta is inversely proportional to alpha.
5. To reduce the possibility of both types of errors, the researcher must increase his
6. sample size.

Formulation of Hypothesis:

In constructing a hypothesis, see to it that it is measurable and can be tested using any of the
statistical tests of significance.

Examples:

State the null and alternative hypothesis for each of the following objectives.

1. 1. To determine the relationship between functional gain and the time spent in physical therapy:
Ho: There is no significant relationship between functional gain and the amount of time spent in
physical therapy.
Ha : There is a significant relationship between functional gain and the amount of time.
or
Ho: Functional gain is not significantly related to the amount of time spent in physical therapy
Ha: Functional gain is significantly related to the amount of time spent in physical therapy.

2. 2. To compare the temperament of smokers and non-smokers.

Ho : There is no significant difference in the temperament of smokers and non-smokers.

Ha : There is a significant difference in the temperament of smokers and non-smokers.
or
Ho: The temperament of smokers is not significantly different from that of the non-smokers.
Ha: The temperament of smokers is significantly different from that of the non-smokers.

Steps in Testing a Hypothesis:

1. State the hypothesis Ho and Ha.

2. Determine the level of measurement of the variable(s).
3. Choose a significance level of size α.
4. Select the appropriate test statistic and establish the critical region.
5. Compute the value of the test statistic from the sample data.
6. Determine the significance of the computed value by comparing it with that found in the table of
critical values. If the computed value is equal to or greater than the critical value, reject the null
and accept the alternative hypothesis. But if the compute value is less than the critical value,
accept the null and reject the alternative hypothesis.
7. Interpret and discuss the result.

Parametric and Non-parametric Tests of Significance

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1. Z-Test

-used when the population standard deviation is given and when the sample size is large.
There must be at least 20 sample so that the sampling distribution of the mean can be approximated
closely with a normal distribution and z is a value of a random variable having approximately the
standard normal distribution.

The following are the formula to be used in computing the Z-value.

a. Sample mean compared with the population mean.

(X – μ) √N
Z=
σ

Where:
X = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation
μ = population mean
N = number of samples

b. Comparing two sample means

X1 – X2
. Z=
σ 1/N1 + 1/N2

Where:
X1 = mean of the first group
X2 = mean of the second group
N1 = number of samples in the first group
N2 = number of samples in the second group
σ = population standard deviation

c. Comparing two sample proportions

P1 - P2

Z= P1Q1/N1 + P2Q2/N2

Where:
P1 = proportion of the first group
P2 = proportion of the second group
Q1= 1- P1
Q2= 1 – P2

Table 1
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Critical Values of Z at Varying Significance Level

Z test Type 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005

One-Tailed 1.28 1.645 1.96 2.33 2.58

Two-Tailed 1.645 1.96 2.24 2.58 2.01

2. t-test

- used when the population standard deviation is unknown and when the number of samples
is small. Here the researcher must assume that the population has roughly the shape of normal
distribution. Below are the formula used in computing values of t.

a. Sample mean compared with population mean

(X – μ) √N-1
Z=
s
where:
X = Sample mean
Μ = population mean
s = sample standard deviation
N = Number of samples
df = degrees of freedom

b. Comparing two independent sample mean

X1 - X2
t=
(N1 – 1)s12 + (N2 – 1)s22 (1/N1 + 1/N2)

N1 + N2 - 2

where:
X1 = mean of the first group
X2 = mean of the second group
N1 = number of samples in the first group
N2 = number of samples in the second group
S1 = sample standard deviation of the first group
S2 = sample standard deviation of the second group
df = degrees of freedom

c. Comparing two dependent sample means

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∑D

t= N∑D2 – (∑D)2

N-1

df = N -1

where: D = difference between each pair of score

3. 3. One-factor f test or one-factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

- is used when one wishes to test the significant difference among three or more means
obtained from independent samples.

The following are the steps in determining the f-value:

1.Compute the sum of the scores for each group, N for each group, squared scores for each group,
the total N, total sums of scores and the total squared score.

2. Compute the sums of squares.

a. SSt (sums of squares for total variability)

(∑XT)2
SSt = ∑XT2 - ----------
NT

b. SSb (sums of squares for between group variability)

(∑X1)2 (∑X2)2 (∑X3)2 (∑XT)2

SSb = ----------- + ----------- + ----------- - -----------
N1 N2 N3 NT

c. SSw (sums of squares for the within group variability)

SSw = SSt – SSb

3. Determine the degrees of freedom

A. dfb = k -1
B. dfn = NT – k

where: k = number of groups or categories.

4. Find the mean squares, MS

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SSb SSw
MSb = --------- MSW = ---------
dfb dfn

5. Compute the F-ratio.

MSb
F = ---------
MSw

6. Summarize the source of variations and the computed f-ratio in the table.

Table for the one-way ANOV A

Source of SS df MS f DECISION SIGNIFICANCE

Variation

Between
Groups

Within Groups

Total

4. Testing the Significance of Coefficient of Correlation

A. t-test

After computing the coefficient of correlation, the researcher should test its significance. The
t- test is used when the number of samples is less than 30. The formula is as follows:

r√N–2
t = ---------------
√ 1 – r2

df = N – 2

B. Z-test

After computing the Pearson r or Spearman rho or any other coefficient of correlation, the Z-
test will be used to test its significance if the number of samples is at least 30. The formula is
as follows:

Z=r√N–1
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5. The Chi-Square Test of Significance:

- used when one wants to find out whether nominal variables under study are significantly
related or not. Variables may be values of items expressed in frequencies, percentages or
proportions.

A. Goodness of Fit Chi-Square Test

-Involves only one variable of at least two categories. The distribution of measures is
compared for deviation from a hypothesized distribution. The formula is

(fo – fe)2
X2 = ∑ -----------
fe

df = k – 1

where:
fo = observed frequency
fe = expected frequency
fe = Np
p = number of proportions
k = number of groups or categories

B. Chi-Square Test of Independence

- used to determine if two nominal variables are either independent or associated with one
another in given population.

(fo – fe)2
X2 = ∑ -----------
fe

df = (c -1 ) (r – 1)

where:

fc = (row total) (column total) / overall total

c = number of columns
r = number of rows

Computation of the Coefficient of Correlation

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1. Pearson’s Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation

-or simple Pearson’s r is used when the level of measurement is interval or ratio. The
formula is as shown below.

N∑XY - ∑X∑Y
r =
|N∑X2 – (∑X)2||N∑Y2 – (∑Y)2|

Interpretation of correlation coefficient:

±1 Perfect Positive/Negative Correlation

±0.90 - ±0.99 Very High Positive/Negative Correlation

±0.70 - ±0.89 High Positive/Negative Correlation or

Marked Relationship

±0.40 – ±0.69 Moderate Positive/ Negative Correlation or

Substantial Relationship

±0.20 - ±0.39 Low Positive/ Negative Correlation or Small

Relationship

±0.01 - ±0.19 Slight Positive / Negative Correlation or

Negligible Relationship

0 No Correlation

TABLE OF CRITICAL VALUEOF t

0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001

1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 127.321 318.309 636.619

2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 14.089 22.327 31.599
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.215 12.924
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959
7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408
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8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041

9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.610 3.922
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.768
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 3.091 3.467 3.745
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.067 3.435 3.707
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 3.057 3.421 3.690
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.047 3.408 3.674
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 3.038 3.396 3.659
30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.030 3.385 3.646
40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551
50 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.261 3.496
60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460
70 1.294 1.667 1.994 2.381 2.648 2.899 3.211 3.435
80 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.374 2.639 2.887 3.195 3.416
90 1.291 1.662 1.987 2.368 2.632 2.878 3.183 3.402
100 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.364 2.626 2.871 3.174 3.390