Biology 101

The
Introduction:
Scientific Method Dr. Mohamed Medhat Ali
M.D., Ph.D.
 Objectives

1. Understand the Scientific Method

2. Learn the hypothesis-based science

3. Differentiate between quantitative and

qualitative data, inductive and deductive
reasoning, and science and technology

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 Biology

• Biology is the scientific study of life.

• The word Science is derived from Latin and means “to

know”.
• Biologists ask questions such as:
▪ How a single cell develops into an organism?
▪ How a certain disease is developed and progressed?
• Biologist apply the Scientific Method to answer
their questions.

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 The scientific method

• The scientific method (inquiries) includes:

-Making observations
-Forming logical hypotheses
-Testing hypotheses through experiments

• Inquiry is the search for information and

explanation.

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 Making Observations (collecting data)

• This approach is based on observation and the analysis of data.

• Recorded observations are called data.

-Qualitative data often take the form of recorded descriptions

-Quantitative data are generally expressed as numerical

measurement, organized into tables and graphs. Should be
analyzed statistically

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 Qualitative Data

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 Forming and Testing Hypotheses

• Observations can lead us to ask questions and propose

hypothetical explanations called hypotheses.

• Should be logical and testable.

• It leads to predictions that can be tested by making

additional observations or by performing experiments.

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 • For example:
– Observation: Your flashlight does not work.
– Question: Why doesn’t your flashlight work?
– Hypothesis 1: The batteries are dead.
– Hypothesis 2: The bulb is burnt out.

• Both these hypotheses are testable.

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 Observation: Flashlight doesn’t work.

Question: Why doesn’t the flashlight work?

Hypothesis #1:
 Hypothesis #2:


Batteries are dead. Bulb is burnt out.

Prediction: Replacing
 Prediction: Replacing


batteries will fix problem. bulb will fix problem.

Test of prediction:
 Test of prediction:


Replace batteries. Replace bulb.

Result:
 Result:

Flashlight doesn’t work.
 Flashlight works.

Hypothesis is contradicted. Hypothesis is supported.

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 Inductive reasoning

• Inductive reasoning derives generalization from large number

of specific observations.

• For example: “the sun always rises in the east”

More plausible:
1. In Eastern countries, the sun rises in the East
2. In Western countries, the sun rises in the East
3. The sun most probably always rises in the East

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 Deductive reasoning

• Involves logic that flows in the opposite direction of

inductive reasoning. i.e. from the general to the
specific.
• General premises (hypothesis) >> specific results
that would be expected if the premises are true.
• How? You conduct experiments to see whether the
results are as predicted by the hypothesis or
premises.
• This deductive testing or thinking or reasoning is
called the “if … then” logic.
 Deductive reasoning

• Example: If the dead battery hypothesis is correct,

then the flashlight should work if you replace the
batteries with new ones.
 Testing your hypothesis

• A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable.

• Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not prove

that this hypothesis is true.
– For example, you replace your flashlight bulb, and it now works; this
supports the hypothesis that your bulb was burnt out, but does not
prove it (perhaps the first bulb was inserted incorrectly)

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 Designing Scientific Experiments

• Experiments used to test hypothesis must be controlled

experiments.

• Control groups must be tested along with experiments groups

for results to be clear and valid.

• A controlled experiment compares an experimental group

with a control group.

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• A controlled experiment means that control groups are
used to cancel the effects of unwanted variables.

• A controlled experiment does not mean that all unwanted

variables are kept constant.

• In science, observations and experimental results must be

repeatable (reproducible)

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• Sometimes you can’t test your hypothesis using
experiments but you can test your hypothesis using
observations. Like observing the bulb for signs of being
burnt or by checking the batteries expiry date.

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 A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating
Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations
Florida Inland population

GULF OF 

MEXICO Beach

population

Beach population Inland population

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• Observation: The two types of mice match the coloration of
their habitats.

• Natural predators of these mice are all visual hunters

• Francis Bertody Sumner hypothesized that the color patterns

had evolved as adaptations to protect the mice from
predators

• Hopi Hoekstra and a group of students tested this hypothesis

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• Hypothesis: mice that did not match their habitat
would be preyed on more heavily than mice that did
match the surroundings

• Experiment: Researchers built models of mice,

painted them to match one of the surroundings, and
placed equal numbers of each type of model in
each habitat

• They then recorded signs of predation

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Figure 1.25

Results Beach habitat Inland habitat

100
attacked models
Percentage of


50

Light models Dark models Light models Dark models

Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged


(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)

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• Science cannot support or
falsify supernatural
explanations, which are
outside the bounds of science.

• Religious beliefs.

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 Theories in Science

• In the context of science, a theory is:

➢Broader in scope than a hypothesis

➢General, and can lead to new testable hypotheses
➢Supported by a large body of evidence in
comparison to a hypothesis

Hypothesis is a prediction, theory is an explanation

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 The Culture of Science

• Science is a social activity. Most scientists work

in teams, which often include graduate and
undergraduate students

• Good communication is important in order

to share results through seminars,
publications, and websites

• Work of scientists are build on others work.

Scientists must be able to repeat each others
results.

• Diversity among scientists promotes progress

in science.

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 Science misconduct

• Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas,

processes, results, or words without giving appropriate
credit.
• Fabrication is making up results and recording or
reporting them.
• Falsification is manipulating research materials,
equipment, or processes or changing or omitting data
or results such that the research is not accurately
represented in the research record.
 Science, Technology, and Society

• The goal of science is to understand natural

phenomena.

• The goal of technology is to apply scientific knowledge for

some specific purpose.

• Biology is marked by “discoveries” while

technology is marked by “inventions”.

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 • The combination of science and technology has
dramatic effects on society.
– For example, the discovery of DNA by James Watson and
Francis Crick allowed for advances in DNA technology such as
testing for hereditary diseases.

• Ethical issues can arise from new technology,

but have as much to do with politics,
economics, and cultural values as with science
and technology.

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 Science is a collaborative effort
• Science is better as a team/peer reviewed work
with feedback and standards. The mad lonely
scientist model is just cinematic and cartoonish
fiction.
 Review Questions Overview

The scientific method

•Which of the following is not a part of the process of the
scientific method
a) Observation
b) Opinion
c) Hypothesis
d) Theory
e) All of the above are part of the process of scientific
method
The scientific method
•Which of the following is not a part of the process of the
scientific
a) Observation
b) Opinion
c) Hypothesis
d) Theory
e) All of the above are part of the process of scientific
method
 Theories in Science

After data have been analysed, tentative explanations or

solutions proposed based on the data are called:
a) a guess
b) an observation of a phenomenon
c) a hypothesis
d) a concept that has been tested reproducibly and is likely
to be true
e) a law of nature
 Theories in Science

After data have been analysed, tentative explanations or

solutions proposed based on the data are called:
a) a guess
b) an observation of a phenomenon
c) a hypothesis
d) a concept that has been tested reproducibly and is likely
to be true
e) a law of nature
 Theories in Science

A key step in developing a new explanation is:

a) making observations about a place or process

b) asking questions about the observations
c) proposing an interpretation that can be tested
d) collecting new observations to test predictions
e) all of the above are important steps for
developing a new explanation
 Theories in Science

A key step in developing a new explanation is:

a) making observations about a place or process

b) asking questions about the observations
c) proposing an interpretation that can be tested
d) collecting new observations to test predictions
e) all of the above are important steps for
developing a new explanation
 Objectives

1. Understand the Scientific Method

2. Learn the hypothesis-based science

3. Differentiate between quantitative and

qualitative data, inductive and deductive
reasoning, and science and technology

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings