- each period begins with a new outer shell
 General Chemistry 1 electron
SECOND QUARTER
THE PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic Table
- tabulated arrangement of the known elements
- 118 elements
- discovered by Dmitri in 1869
• 65 elements known
• according to atomic number (Henry Mosely)
• based on chemical properties of an element
Periodic Law
- states that the properties of elements are
periodic functions of their atomic weights
Modern Periodic Law
- states that the properties of elements are
periodic functions of their atomic numbers
Structure
- 18 groups/families (Vertical Arrangement)
- 7 Periods (Horizontal Arrangement)
Classification
- Metals: solid at room temperature
- Nonmetals
- Metalloids
Valence Electrons
- the number of outermost electrons in the
outermost energy level
- FOR GROUP A FAMILIES: group number is also the
number of their valence electrons
Periodic Patterns
- the chemical behavior of elements is determined
by its electron configuration
- energy levels are quantized so roughly
correspond to layers of electrons around the
nucleus
- shell
• all the electrons with the same value of n
• n is the period in the periodic table
GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
Group IA (1) - Alkali Metals
- oxidation: +1
- most reactive (esp. to water)
- strongest known base
- found as part of compounds
- H, Li, Na, K, Cs, Fr
Group IIA (2) - Alkali Earth Metals
- oxidation: +2
- most metallic (luster)
- electric conductors
- easily tarnishes in air
- reducing agents
- Mg: mineral for the heart
- Ca: for the bones
- Sr: Ca absorption
- Ba, Ra: for x-ray purposes
Group IIIB - XIIB (3-12) - Transition Elements
- largest group: 38 elements
- ductile and malleable
- electrical and heat conductors
- strengthening materials
- Valence Electrons: found in more than 1 shell
- Au, Ag: currency and jewelry
- Cu, Ti, Pt, Co, Cr: alloys
- Hg: liquid, quicksilver, most reactive to heat and
pressure
Group IIIA (13) - Boron Family
- post transition metals (except Boron)
- Al: most abundant
- metals with biological use
Group IVA (14) - Carbon Family
- two types of metal: transition & refractory
- used in alloys in metallurgy
Group VA (15) - Nitrogen Family
- most familiar
- low boiling point and freezing point
- common partner of other elements in the
periodic table
- colorless
- most of them are gases
- most toxic
Group VIA (16) - Oxygen Family
- two types of metal: transition & refractory
- often used as alloys in Metallurgy
- metals with biological use
- O: respiration ( O2 → UV-B Reflection → O3)
- S: pyrotechnics, cosmetics
- Se: body micromineral
Group VIIA (17) - Halogens Family
- generally gaseous
- very reactive
- found in compound form
- F: toothpaste → (Ca & SrF)
- Cl: table salt → (NaCl)
- I: antiseptic → (KI - Betadine)
- Br: micromineral → ( Ca & SrF)
Group VIIIA (18) - Noble/Inert Gases
- most stable
- almost non-reactive → valence shell is
complete
- found in compound form
- only elements that exist as individual atoms in
nature
- He: ballons
- Ne: neon lights
- Ar: constitutes 0.93% or 0.94% of the atmosphere
Lanthanides & Actinides
- sometimes known as Inner Transition Metals
- only elements to reach 3f14 and 4f14
- electronic configuration always end in 3s2
(Lanthanides) and 4s2 (Actinides)
- elements with the most complicated chemistry
- doesn’t have periodic trends because of complex
physical and chemical properties
- artificially made
** all Group A Elements are called Representative
Elements**
** all Group B Elements are called Transition
Elements**
Electronic Configuration
- the distribution of electrons along the orbital of
an atom
PERIODIC TRENDS
Atomic Radius
- defines atomic size of an element
- L → R : decreasing atomic radius
- T → B : increasing atomic radius
Ionization Energy
- metals lose electrons more easily than
nonmetals
- metals: good reducing agents
- nonmetals: lose electrons with difficulty
- when comparing anions/atoms/cations, they
should be isoelectronic
- cation < atom < anion
- OCTET RULE: state in which an atom cannot take
anymore electrons
- L → R : increasing ionization
- T → B : decreasing ionization
Electronegativity
- the atom’s ability to attract and bind electrons
- the energy released when an atom accepts/gains
electrons
- dependent on electronegativity
- L → R : increasing electronegativity because
elements become non-metallic except noble
gases
- T → B : decreasing electronegativity because of
an increase in element metallicity
Electron Affinity
- the energy change when an electron is added
- the energy released when an atom accepts/gains
electrons
- dependent on electronegativity
- L → R : increasing electron affinity
- T → B : decreasing electron affinity
Metallic Character
- the metallic property of an atom
- L → R : decreasing metallic character
- T → B : increasing electron affinity
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES
** Noble Gases: nonreactive **
** Transition Metals: chemical properties don’t
differ that much**
** Lanthanides & Actinides: complex physical anf
chemical properties**
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
** SHIELDING ELECTRONS: shield the valence
electrons from the force of attraction exerted by
the nucleus (minimize nuclear charge)**
** Higher atomic number → Higher nuclear charge • good electric conductors when melted or
dissolved in water
→ Smaller atom**
• most are soluble but not in non-polar liquid
** More shielding electrons → More energy level →
• high melting point: opposite charges attract,
Bigger atom → Less the pull is the nucleus of the forming strong ionic bonds → a lot of energy
valence electrons** is needed to separate the ions
** Anion → Size gets bigger** • highly soluble in H2O: polar substances
** Cation → Size gets smaller** - Electrostatic Energy: energy required to
completely separate a solid ionic bond in one
** Transition Metals: chemical properties don’t differ that mole of gaseous molecule
much**
Covalent Bonding
** Lanthanides & Actinides: complex physical anf
chemical properties** - electron sharing
- atom combination lead to chemical bond
CHEMICAL BONDING
formation
Why do atoms combine?
- Nonmetal → Nonmetal
- to be stable
- atom combination lead to chemical bond - TYPES
formation
• Single-bond: one pair of e- is being shared by
the bond
- TWO KINDS OF ATOM COMBINATION: • Double-bond: two pairs of e- are shared
• transferring of electrons
• sharing of electrons to have eight valence • Triple-bond: three pair of e- are shared
electrons each - Bond energy: energy required to break a
Lewis Dot Structure particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecule
- Gilbert Lewis: developed a representation of an • BOND ENERGIES: Single-Bond → Double-Bond
atom to conveniently show the valence electrons → Triple-Bond
- Lewis Symbol: consists of a chemical symbol to - Covalent Compounds
represent the nucleus of an atom paired with • liquid, gas, solid at room temperature
dots that represent the no. of valence electrons • low melting point
- Lewis Structure: combination of Lewis symbols • non electrolytes
that represents either the transfer or the sharing • low to insoluble in water
of electrons in a chemical bond • most are soluble but not in non-polar liquid
Chemical Bond - Types of Bond
- forces that hold groups of atom together and • Polar Bond: electrons are not shared equally
make them function as one between two atoms
Ionic Bond • Non Polar Bond: when a bond of two atoms of
the same degree of electronegativity happens
- electron transfer
- electrostatic attraction between ions
- also known as electrovalent bonds Classification of Bonds
- Metal → Nonmetal Difference in
Bond Type
- opposite charged ions attract each other Electronegativity
0 Polar
- STRUCTURE:
≥2 Ionic
• ions are packed together to maximize the
0 < EN < 2 Polar Covalent
attraction between ions
Electronegativity Bond Type
• cations are always smaller than parent atom EN ≥ 1.7 Ionic
• anions are always larger than the parent atom EN < 1.7 Polar Covalent
- always electrically neutral 0 ≤ EN ≤ 0.5 Non Polar Covalent
- Ionic Compounds
• crystalline solids
• nonconductors as solids
Formal Charge (FC) Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
- no. of valence electrons in free atom — (minus) - “To minimize repulsions, each group of valence
no. of lone pair electrons — (minus) 0.5 (no. of electrons around a central atoms is located as
bond-pair electrons) far as possible from the others.”
- should be as small as possible Electron Group Arrangement
- neg. FC usually appear on the most - the closer together two groups of electrons are
electronegative atoms
- pos. FC usually appear on the least forced, the stronger the repulsion between them
electronegative atoms - lone pair electrons spread out more than do bond
- sum of the FC of the atoms must equate to 0 for a pair electrons
neutral molecule and must equal the ionic charge - ORDER OF REPULSIVE FORCES
for a polyatomic atom • lone pair-lone pair → lone pair → bond pair →
Metallic Bond bond pair-bond pair
- metal atoms bonded to several other atoms Classification of Bonds
- attraction between electrons and metallic
cations
- sharing of valence electrons by neighboring
metal atoms
- electrons can move among atoms
- explained by the Electron Sea Model
• atoms in a metallic solid contribute their
valence electrons to form a “sea” of electrons
that surrounds metallic cations
• delocalized electrons: not held by any specific
atom and can move easily throughout the
solid
- PROPERTIES
• malleable, lusty, and ductile
• good conductors of heat and electricity
• high melting and boiling pts.
• insoluble
• Group 1 and 2 metals - soft
• Transition Metals - hard Molecular Polarity
- depends on:
Molecular Geometry • Dipole Moment: product of partial charge and
Molecular shape distance; gives the extent of the charge
displacement
- three-dimensional arrangement of nuclei joined
- the overall dipole moment of a molecule is
by bonding groups
the sum of its bond dipoles
- TERMINOLOGIES
- molecules have zero dipole moment because
• Bond Lengths: the distance between the nuclei
of bonded atoms they cancel one another

• Bond Angles: the angels between adjacent • Molecular shape

lines representing the bonds
• Electron Group Geometry: defined by the
bonding and nonbonding electron groups
• Molecular Geometry: defined by the relative
positions of the nuclei which are connected by
the bonding groups
- Polar Molecules: dipole moments are
asymmetrical and don’t cancel out; therefore,
they have asymmetrical shape/atoms (lone pairs)
- Non Polar Molecules: dipole moments are
symmetrical and cancel out