Summary

Classifications of Industrial Controllers:

1. Two-position or on–off controllers
Let the output signal from the controller be u(t)and the actuating error signal be e(t). In two-position
control,the signal u(t)remains at either a maximum or minimum value, depending on whether the
actuating error signal is positive or negative,so that

u(t) = U1, for e(t)>0

= U2, for e(t)<0

where U1 and U2 are constants.The minimum value U2 is usually either zero or –U1.

2. Proportional controllers
For a controller with proportional control action, the relationship between the output of the controller
u(t)and the actuating error signal e(t) is

u(t) = Kp e(t)

or, in Laplace_transformed quantities,

𝑈(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)
= Kp

where Kp is termed the proportional gain.

3. Integral controllers
In a controller with integral control action,the value of the controller output u(t)is changed at a rate
proportional to the actuating error signal e(t).That is,

𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= Kie(t)

or

𝑡
u(t) = Ki ∫0 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

where Ki is an adjustable constant. The transfer function of the integral controller is

𝑈(𝑠) Ki
𝐸(𝑠)
= 𝑠
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
The control action of a proportional plus-integral controller is defined by

Kp 𝑡
u(t) = Kpe(t) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑖 0

or the transfer function of the controller is

𝑈(𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + )
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠

where Ti is called the integral time.

5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
The control action of a proportionalplus-derivative controller is defined by

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑
𝑑𝑡

and the transfer function is

𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)

where Td is called the derivative time.

6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
The combination of proportional control action, integral control action, and derivative control action is
termed proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control action.It has the advantages of each of the
three individual control actions.The equation of a controller with this combined action is given by

𝐾𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 (𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑
𝑇𝑖 0 𝑑𝑡

or the transfer function is

𝑈(𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠

where Kp is the proportional gain, Ti is the integral time, and Td is the derivative time.
Ziegler–Nichols Rules for Tuning PID Controllers
Ziegler and Nichols proposed rules for determining values of the proportional gain Kp, integral time Ti, and
derivative time Td based on the transient response characteristics of a given plant. There are two methods
called Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules: the first method and the second method.

1. First Method
The transfer function C(s)/U(s) may then be approximated by a first-order system with a transport lag
as follows:

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾 −𝐿𝑠
= 𝑒
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑇𝑠 + 1

Ziegler and Nichols suggested to set the values of and according to the formula shown in Table below.

Type of Controller Kp Ti Td
P 𝑇 ∞ 0
𝐿
PI 𝑇
0.9𝐿 𝐿 0
0.3
PID 𝑇 2L 0.5L
1.2𝐿

Notice that the PID controller tuned by the first method of Ziegler–Nichols rules gives

1
Gc(s) = 𝐾𝑝 (1 + + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝑇𝑖 𝑠

1
(𝑠+ )2
𝐿
Gc(s) = 0.6T 𝑠

Thus, the PID controller has a pole at the origin and double zeros at s = –1/L.

2. Second Method
Ziegler and Nichols suggested that we set the values of the parameters and according to the formula
shown in Table below.

Type of Controller Kp Ti Td
P 0.5Kcr ∞ 0
PI 0.45Kcr 1 0
𝑃
1.2 𝑐𝑟
PID 0.6Kcr 0.5Pcr 0.125Pcr

Notice that the PID controller tuned by the second method of Ziegler–Nichols rules gives

1
Gc(s) = Kp(1 + 𝑇 𝑠 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝑖

4 2
(𝑠+ )
𝑃𝑐𝑟
Gc(s) = 0.075KcrPcr
𝑠
Thus,the PID controller has a pole at the origin and double zeros at s = -4/Pcr.