Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is changing the traits of one organism by inserting genetic material from
another organism

Recombinant DNA

Transgenic Organism

Principle of genetic engineering

1. Bacteria contain two type of DNA.
a. Bacterial chromosome (nucleoid)
b. Plasmids (smaller pieces of DNA)
2. Bacteria naturally swap plasmids
3. A molecular sissor and molecular glue is required to cut genes of one DNA molecule and
to paste it for another DNA molecule
4. Restriction endonucleases – enzymes that cut DNA at specific points. Different
restriction enzymes cut DNA at different places.
Some restriction end cut straight cuts also known as blunt ends.
But other enzymes cut staggered cuts also known as sticky ends
Fragments of DNA with overlapping ends with complementary bases. These
complementary bases are known as sticky ends. These exposed bases are easily joined by
ligase enzymes.
5. DNA ligases – Enzymes that joins the cut ends of DNA molecule
6. The plasmid used to transfer genes to a bacterium is known as vector. Modern method
which is widely used.

The process of genetic engineering

The main steps of genetic engineering:
1. Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required gene leaving it with sticky ends.
Sticky ends are a short section of unpaired bases
2. A vector, which is usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus, is cut by the same restriction
enzyme leaving it with corresponding sticky ends.
 3. The vector and the isolated gene are joined together by ligase enzyme.
4. The vector inserts the gene into required cells.
5. The genes are transferred to animal, plant or microorganism cells, during early
development, which allows them to develop with the desired characteristics.

This diagram shows how the genetic engineering of insulin works:

Bacteriophage as vectors

Bacteriophage or also known as phage is a virus that attack bacteria. They also can be used as
vectors. Virus with a foreign DNA will inject its own DNA and foreign DNA upon attack to
bacteria. Use of viruses as vectors were mainly used in early days.
Use of genetically modified bacteria
1. Human Insulin

Insulin for diabetic patients were extracted from pancreases of cattle and pigs in early
days. But they were not biochemically same as human insulin thus not effective. Using
genetically modified bacteria we produce insulin exactly similar to human insulin.
2. Enzymes for washing powders
Many stains on cloths are biological. Eg: blood stains are mainly proteins.
Bacteria that has been genetically modified are capable of producing enzymes which are
capable of standing against high temperatures. These enzymes digest large insoluble
molecules into small soluble molecules making them easy to remove.
3. Enzymes in the food industry
Eg: production of glucose isomers.

4. Human growth hormone

5. Bovine somatotropin (BST)

A growth hormone in cattle. Used to increase muscle mass and milk production

6. Production of human vaccines

Eg: Hepatitis B vaccine
Producing genetically modified plants

Unlike bacteria plants are multicellular. Therefore, all cells must receive a copy of the modified
gene. This brings a challenge and thus the procedure has two major steps

1. Introducing the new gene into plant cells

2. Producing a whole plant from modified cells

Soil bacteria known as Agrobacterium is capable of injecting plasmids into plant cells and
therefore a suitable vector for inserting modified genes into plant cells.

But Agrobacterium is not capable of infecting plants like cereals. Therefore another technique
should be used in order to inject the modified gene.

Gene Gun
Genetically modified plants (GM Foods)

1. Fruits and vegetable which have extended shelf live

2. Plants that are resistant for herbicides (weed killers)
3. Frost resistant plants – Eg: Arctic fish that contains anti free agent in blood have been
transferred into plants.
4. Golden rice- rice contain genes that make beta carotene. Beta carotene convert into
vitamin A when we consumed.(Vitamin A avoid night blindness)
5. Plants which produces antibodies against human infectious diseases. Eg: soybeans

Bt crops
Bacillus thuringiensis is the name of a bacteria that produces toxins that kill insect larvae.
This is a useful function for crops, so we use genes from the bacteria in crops to increase
their insect resistance.
Genes are cut out from the bacteria using restriction enzymes, and re-inserted into the
crop using ligase, as described above. The crop will then produce the toxin - any insects
that eat the crop will die.
As a result, less of the crop gets eaten by insects, increasing the crop yield and profits.
However, there are concerns over this method - we don’t know if the toxin has any effect
on human health, for example. Killing insects also results in a loss of biodiversity, which can
affect the entire ecosystem.
Genetically modified Animals
Like multicellular plants, inserting genetically modified genes into animals is a challenging task.
The most successful method of inserting recombinant DNA is to inject DNA directly into newly
fertilized egg cells.

1. Manufacturing of antibodies and blood clotting factors

2. High yielding farm animals
3. Production of organs for transplanting for humans (Xenotransplantation)

Ethics
There are ethical issues involved in genetic modification, as well as concerns about the possible
health risks of genetically modified food. For example, a genetically modified food might contain
a substance that causes an allergic reaction in some people, or higher levels of a toxin naturally
found in the food. Others think it is ethically wrong to create new life forms, or to move genes
between different species.

Future uses
In the future, researchers are hoping to use genetic engineering to be able to overcome some
inherited disorders, such as cystic fibrosis and Huntington's disease amongst others.

Summary

Benefits of genetic Risk of genetic engineering

engineering

It can be very useful in medicine to GM crops might have an effect on wild

mass produce certain hormones in
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi)
flowers
and therefore insects.
● GM crops are infertile and these genes
could spread into wild plants, leading to
infertility in other species, which affects
the entire environment.
● Growing with herbicides and pesticides
can kill insects and other plants, which
would reduce biodiversity.
 Benefits of genetic Risk of genetic engineering
engineering

In agriculture it can be used to improve People are worried that we do not completely
yields by: understand the effects of GM crops on human
● Improving growth rates health
● Introducing modifications that
allow the crops to grow in
different conditions, e.g. hotter
or drier climates
● Introducing modifications that
allow plants to make their own
pesticide or herbicide
Crops with extra vitamins can be Genetic engineering in agriculture could lead
produced in areas where they are to genetic engineering in humans. This may
difficult to obtain. result in people using the technology to have
designer babies
Greater yields can help solve world They pose a selection pressure, which could
hunger, which is becoming an lead to increased resistance in other species,
increasingly bigger issue due to creating super weeds and pests.
population growth.