Mutual Relationships between Organisms and the Environment

Ecology

Everything around us belongs to the environment. The scientific study of the relations that living
organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment is called as ecology. And
it is an interdisciplinary branch of biology.

Organizational levels of the environment

Individual organism

One member of a given species. Individual organisms interact with environment for most of its
needs.

 Interaction among the organisms within the species.

 Interactions among species
 Interactions with environment

Population

A group of individuals of the same species which live interacting with each other in a defined area
in a given time.

E.g: Elephant population in Yala National Park in 2009

A population has following features

• Growth rate
• Density
• Interspecific competition etc.

Population growth

Two basic forms of growth curves can be identified.

(1)The S shaped /sigmoidal curve (2) J shaped curve

Sigmoidal curve describes a situation in which the population density increases slowly initially,
and then as they reproduce rapidly approaching an exponential growth rate.
Lag phase

Exponential phase

Decelerating phase

Stabilized phase

It then shows a declining rate until a zero population growth rate is achieved where rate of
reproduction (naturally equals rate of death (mortality)

 This type of population growth is said to be density dependent.

 The point of stabilization or zero growth rate is the maximum carrying of the environment
for the organism concerned.

Carrying capacity

The maximum density of population that could be accommodated over a long period by the
resources of a particular environment.
The interaction associated to feeding seen among individuals of a population –competition &
cannibalism.

The density of a population is dependent on

i. Death rate
ii. Birth rate
iii. Immigration
iv. Emigration

Crude birth rate (CBR)

The number live births per thousand of the total mid tear population of a particular year in a given
geographical area.

CBR=Total births × 1000

Midyear population

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

The number of deaths per thousand of the total midyear population of a particular year in a given
geographical area.

CBR=Total deaths × 1000

Midyear population
Community

Populations of different species in a particular area interacting with each other

E.g, Animal community of Yala National Park

Interactions among populations include

 predatory,
 herbivorous
 competition
 symbiotic relationships (mutualism, commensalism and parasitism)
Ecosystem

The functional / dynamic unit comprising all living organisms in a community and the abiotic
environment which interact with each other.

E.g: A forest

Biosphere

The large functional system comprising all ecosystems on earth. But it comprises only from the
living part.

Structure and functions of ecosystems

Components of ecosystems

All ecosystems are composed of two main components.

 Abiotic (non-living)
 Biotic (living)

Abiotic components

Many important physical and chemical properties of the major components, air,
substratum, and water influence living systems

E.g: light, temperature, rainfall, salinity, pH

Biotic component

The major biotic components of an ecosystem include

• Primary producers
• Consumers (primary and secondary)
• Detrivores including decomposers

The biotic components of an ecosystem are interconnected on the basis of feeding and energy
transfer relationships
Producers

Autotrophic organisms forming the food source or potential chemical energy supply for all other
organisms in the ecosystem.

Eg: Green plants, Algae, cyanobacteria, photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria

Consumers

Organisms unable to synthesize organic food from inorganic materials therefore depending on the
primary products of producers. And all consumers are heterotrophs.

Three levels can be identified

a) Primary consumers - Feed on autotrophs (plants) considered as herbivores

b) Secondary consumers – Feed on primary consumers. Either carnivores or omnivores
c) Tertiary consumers – Feed on secondary consumers. Either carnivores or omnivores

Detrivores / decomposers

Heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing plant and animal parts as
well as organic fecal matter).

They can be saprotrophs or detrivores

Eg: Fungi, Bacteria, Earthworms, Millipeds

Energy flow through an ecosystem

The amount of energy fixed at this level is only 10% and the difference of 90%accounts for

1) Raespired by the consumer and lost as heat

2) The faecal matter
3) The parts not eaten by the consumers
In this way at each transfer is a90%loss of energy making the links of food chain limited to4/5
trophic levels.
Primary production

Primary production is the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy within a given
period by the primary producers.

Primary productivity

Primary productivity is the rate of production.

The amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by a unit area within a unit time by the
primary producers.

Gross primary productivity (GPP)

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of light energy converted to chemical energy
by a unit area within a unit time by the primary producers (includes respiratory energy).

Given by KJ m-2 yr-1 or g m-2 yr-1

 GPP increases with the size of ecosystem.

 Ocean shows the highest GPP

Net primary productivity (NPP)

Net primary productivity (NPP) is the amount of biomass produced by primary producers by a unit
area within a unit time [excludes respiratory energy (R)].

Given by KJ m-2 yr-1 or g m-2 yr-1 GPP = NPP + R

 The net primary productivity is the available energy for the next trophic level/primary
consumer
 The energy is transferred through a series of organisms in an ecosystem in a single direction
(unidirectional path).

Food chain

Food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships through which the energy flows in the ecosystem
/ community.
Trophic level

Trophic level is a step of a food chain through which energy of an ecosystem / community is
transferred.

• As there is a loss of energy from each trophic level to another, a food chain will not contain
more than 4 or 5 links.
 The proportion of energy that flows from the lower trophic level to the next in general is
only about 10%. Therefore, about 90% is lost.

Types of food chains

a. Grazing food chains

Begins with a primary producer and end in a herbivore or predator

Eg:for a grazing/predator food chain-

Grass→ slug→ lady bird→ spider→ insectivorous bird→ hawk

b. Parasitic food chains

Begin with a primary producer and end in a parasite

c. Detritus food chains (decomposing food chains)

Begin with dead organic matter

Leaf litter→ earthworm→ bird(mynah)→ hawk

Dead animal→ blow flies→ frog→ snake

Food webs

Consumers in a community do not depend only on one type of food. Food webs are food chains,
interconnected at different trophic levels in an ecosystem/ community.
 Cycling of elements in nature by ecosystems

Materials in an ecosystem is a limited resource, therefore it should be recycled.

Materials will be used by organisms to derive energy and to build up their body mass.But at each
trophic level some amount of these materials are return to the environment as waste and dead
materials. All dead remains of organisms and other waste products are decomposed by
decomposers and return the materials to the environment as reusable inorganic end products.

Major cycles include,

 Hydrological cycle
 Nitrogen cycle
 Carbon cycle
 Carbon cycle

Cycling of C atoms in the biosphere through abiotic and biotic components and short term and
long term cycles.

o Cycling take place in aquatic and terrestrial environment.

o C is present in atmosphere mainly in the form of CO2
 Atmosphere acts as the major pool of CO2
 Atmosphere CO2 is fixed by photosynthesis in plants, algae and bacteria
(photosynthetic) into organic compounds
 The organic C compounds thus formed are passed into heterotrophic organisms/animals by
feeding directly or indirectly. When organisms respire to obtain energy the organic carbon
is converted to CO2 and released to atmosphere.
 When organisms die C in dead bodies are decomposed by microorganisms, bacteria and
fungi. CO2 is released to atmosphere in decomposition.
 If decomposition is not completed the decay in organic matter under anaerobic conditions
will be converted to peat or fossil fuel such as oil or coal over millions of years .
 Combustion of fossil fuel in industry, automobiles, house-hold and organic materials bring
back carbon to atmosphere as CO2.
 C (in dead plant and organisms’ especially in aquatic organism form CaCO3 deposits).
 On combustion or volcanic activity the carbonate sediments decomposed to release CO2 to
atmosphere.
 Nitrogen cycle

Though 78%of atmosphere is formed by N2, most organisms cannot directly use this.

There are 5 major steps of nitrogen cycle.

 Proteolysis
 Ammonification
 Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrification
 Denitrification

 The atmospheric N2 is converted to NH4+ by these bacteria and conversion of NH4+ to

proteins is called assimilation.
 The plants and microbes have proteins in their bodies.
 When the plants are eaten by animals, they become the proteins of animals.
 Deaths of plants and animals or excreta of animals or secretions of plants will bring organic
N compounds to soil in inanimate forms.
 Dead organic N compounds are excrete are decayed by decomposers-Saprotrophic bacteria
and fungi to amino acids.
 Amino acids are broken down to NH4+ ions by ammonification by bacteria.
 NH4+→NO2- by nitrifying bacteria. By Nitrosomonas
 NO2-→ NO3-
 By Nitrobacter
Ecological pyramids

Graphical / diagrammatical representation of feeding relationships of an ecosystem.

Three types can be identified

1. Pyramids of biomass
• Biomass of organisms of each trophic level is represented. Each rectangle will
represent the total dry weight at a tropic level in terms of weight per unit area /
volume
• The biomass at the time of sampling is as standing bio mass / standing crop
biomass. These figures do not indicate the rate of production or productivity.
• Due this reason pyramids of biomass too may appear inverted at certain instances.

Eg:-in the ocean and lakes at certain seasons, the biomass of primary consumers exceed the
biomass of primary producers.

2. Pyramids of numbers
Represent the no of individuals in each trophic level
• The no.of organism in each level is represented by a proportionately dawn rectangle and
when successive levels are arranged a pyramid is constructed.
• In constructing pyramid of numbers true pyramid shape is often not obtained because size
of the organism is not considered.
• Therefore it can be even inverted.

3. Pyramids of energy

• Represent total energy fixed at each trophic level.

• Each bar of a pyramid energy represents the amount of energy per unit area / volume that
flows through that tropic level in a given time period.
• Therefore pyramids of energy are never inverted.
• Pyramids of energy are the most useful of the 3 pyramids as it indicates the information of
productivity of an ecosystem.
 Pollution

When material and energy is present in a particular environment in potentially harmful amounts,
it is said that pollution has occurred.

The concept of pollution

Release in to the environment of substances or energy in such quantities and for such duration that
they cause harm to people or other organisms or the environment.

Pollution can affect all aspects of environment, man-made and natural ecosystems, abiotic and
biotic components

Soil Pollutants their sources and impacts

• Pesticides
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, Aldrin, Endrin etc)
• Polychlorinated biphenyls
• Heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, As)
Cadmium
Emitted by metal plating and combustion of plastics.
Cause softening of the bones and kidney failure.
Mercury
Paint industry Fungicides and paper industry
Causes nervous system diseases
Lead
Printing industry petroleum residues and discarded batteries
Causes Pb poisoning
• Radioactive Material
• Polythene and plastics

Water pollutants, their major sources and their impacts

• Nitrates and Phosphates

• Oil
• Heavy metals; Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic,
• Pesticides
• Non-degradable material (polythene)
Air pollution

Deterioration of the quality of air by releasing substances or energy in such quantities which
prevent smooth/ balanced functioning of natural processes and produce undesirable environmental
and health effects.

Main sources air pollutants

Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons, Particulate matter,

Chlorofluorocarbon, Carbon dioxide, Ozone

Major Global Problems

Acid rains

• Rain water is usually acidic. But if the pH level falls below 5.6 it is considered as acid rain.
• Causing agents include NO2, SO2, SO3
• Burning of fossil fuels and coal is a major causative factor for acid rains

The impacts of acid rain

1. Destruction of vegetation
2. Acidifying of soil and affect absorption of nutrients by plants
3. Corrode metals
4. Erode limestone/ buildings
5. Increase up take of heavy metals from soil by plants
6. Reduce soil organisms responsible for N2 fixation
7. Decrease photosynthesis due to yellowing/ scorching of leaves
8. Decrease the abundance of aquatic organisms due to decrease in pH
9. Decrease soil fertility

Global warming

The average temperature of the atmosphere is increasing

Contributory factors

Atmosphere gases such as CO2, oxides of nitrogen, Methane, water vapor and Ozone prevent a
part of the radiation that reaches the earth’s surface being radiated back in to space. And they
reradiate them to earth and it warm up the environment.
CO2 is the principal greenhouse gas but CH4, CFC, H2O vapour, O3, is also important as
greenhouse gasses.

Impacts of global warming

1. Increase in volume of the ocean leading to gradual rise in sea level.

2. In the longer term rising temperature can cause the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps
contributing further to sea level rise.
3. Changes in pattern of atmospheric flow. Wind patterns, climatic factors will change and
rainfall pattern may alter.
4. Affect to the agricultural production, composition of vegetation and its distribution can be
changed.
5. May alter limits of forests, grass lands and deserts.
6. Increase drought conditions, Increase irrigation demand
7. Increase of flood may result in loss of habitats, extinction of certain species
8. Increase of forest fires may change vegetation patterns
9. Expansion of water may cause beach erosion and disruption of coastal fisheries
10. Affect human population and health through increased deaths by heat diseases
11. Increase of migration may cause spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas

Depletion of the Ozone layer

The stratospheric Ozone layer is a very effective screen which prevents a major part of the ultra-
violet radiation coming from the sun from reaching the surface of the earth.

It plays a very important part in the maintenance of life on earth.

Contributory factors

• Release of chlorofluorocarbon compounds

• Release of nitric oxides - NO

Impact of Ozone depletion

1. Increased risk of cataracts and skin cancer in people (UV radiation is a mutagenic agent).
2. Lowering crop yields through interference with photosynthesis
3. Reduced immunity
4. Increased mutations
Measures to minimize ozone depletion

1. Minimizing burning of fossil fuels

2. Stop of destruction of forests
3. Agreements and conventions

Eutrophication

Accumulation of phosphates and nitrates in water bodies in excess over a long period of time due
to use of excess use of fertilizers and release of sewage.

Causes of eutrophication

• overgrowth of algae/ algae bloom

• Photosynthesis become limited as light penetration decreases
• BOD level increases
• Bad odor due to ammonia, H2S

Biodiversity

Biological diversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part of.

This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems

Loss of Biodiversity

Reduction of the number of species in the biosphere is known as loss of biodiversity.

Reasons for the loss of biodiversity

1. Environmental pollution
2. Deforestation
3. Global warming

Strategies to overcome the loss of biodiversity

1. Use of conservation methods

2. Minimizing of environmental pollution