CONTENTS Page

Acknowledgment ............................................................. 3
Abstract ............................................................................... 4
Project Specification …………………………………....5
Chapter 1 Introduction …………………………………….... 6
1.1 WiMAX ……………………………………………...6
1.2 RF and Microwaves ………………………………. 8

1.3 RF Front End ........................................................... 10

1.3.1 Antennas ………………………………………….... 11
1.3.2 Filters ………………………………………………. 12
1.3.3 Amplifiers …………………………………………... 13
1.3.4 Mixer ………………………………………………... 14
1.3.5 Oscillators ................................................................... 14
Chapter 2 Transmission Lines ............................................. 15
2.1 Transmission Lines Overview ….………………. 15
2.1.1 Reflections and Standing waves ……………………. 16

2.2 Microstrip Lines …………………………………... 18

2.2.1 Static Analysis …………………………………….... 19
2.2.2 Full Wave Analysis ………………………………..... 20
2.2.3 Losses ……………………………………………….. 21
2.3 Microstrip Line Discontinuities …………….…... 21
2.3.1 T-Junction Discontinuity ……………………….…… 22
2.4 Microstrip Line Comparisons …………………... 23
Chapter 3 Transmission Lines ............................................. 25
Chapter 4 Amplifiers ............................................................... 27
4.1 Amplifier Technologies.......................................... 27
4.2 Noise Analysis ......................................................... 28

1
 4.2.1 External Noise ............................................................ 29
4.2.2 Internal Noise ............................................................. 29
4.2.3 GaAs MESFET ........................................................... 30
4.3 Low Noise Amplifier, LNA .................................. 32
4.4 LNA Design Procedure .......................................... 33
4.4.1 Amplifier Stability ...................................................... 34
4.4.2 Amplifier Gain and Noise Figure ............................... 36
4.4.3 Constant Input Gain & Noise Figure Circles .............. 37
4.4.4 Amplifier Impedance Matching .................................. 39
4.4.5 Building The Amplifier ............................................... 42
4.4.6 LNA Simulations ........................................................ 44
4.4.7 Amplifier Layout ........................................................ 48
CONCLUSION ......................................................................... 49
REFERENCES ......................................................................... 50

2
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to appreciate my family members for their support and encouragement during the
course of this project. I am really thankful to my supervisor, Dr Djuradj Budimir whose knowledge
and guidance played an instrumental role in the successful completion of this project. I admire his
endurance and continuous support during the course of this task. I would also like to acknowledge
my fellow project students for giving me the guidelines and helping me to achieve every milestone.

3
 ABSTRACT
Wireless systems demand for efficient transfer of information between a transmitter and a
receiver. It aims to increase the distance of communication with low cost and minimum energy
requirements. However the effect noise sources in free space and in the transceiver circuitry
distort the desired signal. The increasing distance of communication and the contributions by
unwanted signals in the wireless conducting channel weaken the wanted signal as well.
Therefore it is required to increase the gain and reduce the noise level of the received signal. The
task is achieved by performing low noise amplification.

This report discusses at length about the design of a low noise amplifier for a WiMAX base
station. Special emphasis has been laid upon the amplifier technology used. Building the
amplifier also unfolds the microstrip lines analysis, impedance matching techniques and the MIC
(microwave integrated circuit) technology used in a base station. Considerations have been made
about the performance of individual stages in an RF front end transceiver. The amplifier has been
analyzed in the ADS software and then fabricated to realize its performance.

4
 PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS

Aim:

The aim of this project is to familiarize with the RF front end and build a low noise amplifier
for a WiMAX base station.

Primary goals:

1- To learn about WiMAX receiver Front End Receiver

2- To learn about the MIC technology.
3- To learn about microstrip low noise amplifiers and their frequency behavior
4- Electromagnetic simulation of microstrip lines and their discontinuities
5- To design a low noise amplifier at the pre-specified specification

Secondary Goals:
6- Simulation and characterization of a receiver RF front end for WiMAX system
7- Implement the low noise amplifier the RF front-end receiver for WiMAX application

LNA Specification 1: LNA Specification 2:

Frequency Range (GHz) 3.30 to 3.80 3.30 to 3.80

Noise Figure (dB) 0.82 0.82

Gain (dB) 12.80 12.80

Input Return Loss (dB) -20 at 3.5GHz -15

Output Return Loss (dB) -12 at 3.5GHz -15

5
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 WiMAX:

The abbreviation stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access. It is a 4th
generation (4G) wireless communication technology that can transmit wireless data to multiple
destinations. The term is often linked with IEE802.16 standards which describes the
specifications for a communication protocol [1]. One of the basic applications of WiMAX is
providing internet services. There are three frequency band allocations for WiMAX:

a) 2.30GHz to 2.70GHz
b) 3.30GHz to 3.90GHz
c) 5.15GHz to 5.85GHz

WiMAX technology can be better understood by looking at the use of internet. There are three
basic ways to connect to the internet:

 Broadband Access (DSL or cable modem)

 Wi-Fi Access (through a router)
 Dial up networking

The problems associated with broadband access are that it does not reach all areas and is very
expensive to provide coverage for long distances. Wi-Fi, on the other hand, does not have a big
coverage area and the maximum speed is limited to 54Mb/s. With WiMAX technology, high
speed and very long distance coverage can be achieved. And all is worth for a very low cost. The
coverage of Wi-Fi is limited to maximum distance of 30m but that for WiMAX ranges up to 30
miles radius [2].

A WiMAX base station connects to the internet through a wired connection. The base station
tower can transmit information to any other WiMAX tower through the Line of Sight (LOS)
mechanism. This allows the coverage up to 3000 square miles of distance. The frequencies used
for LOS ranges up to 66 GHz. High frequencies allow more bandwidth of data to be transmitted.

6
It also has less interference because of the ability to reflect from surfaces. The receiver inside the
laptop or a computer consists of a small antenna. The sharing of data between the receiver and
the WiMAX tower is usually of low RF frequencies ranging from 2GHz to 11GHz.

WiMAX uses the same Radio signals as used in Wi-Fi technology. WiMAX can reach up to
70 Mb/s of speed which is nearly equivalent to a Broadband speed. The key difference between a
DSL connection and WiMAX is that a DSL is mostly limited to urban cities but WiMAX can
reach remote areas and requires one time investment for base station and tower. Just like Wi-Fi,
current WiMAX plans are to make WiMAX hotspots with LOS connections. This can provide
very high speed, low interference, internet access to a number of users at a time.

WiMAX finds its uses in number of wireless communication system. As mentioned above, it
can provide high speed internet services to computers and mobile phones. With low interference,
WiMAX can provide high stream video applications that can be used for business conferences,
smooth video calls etc. Current developments in WiMAX are to provide fast response for
SCADA control systems, automated meter readings and visual security systems [4].

7
1.2 RF and Microwaves:

The abbreviation RF stands for radio frequency. RF and Microwaves are a low energy
frequency spectrum ranging from 10KHz to 300GHz. They are electromagnetic waves which
propagate at the speed of light (3×108 ms-1). These frequencies are higher than visible frequency
spectrum, which makes them invisible for human eye [5].

RF and microwave frequencies find their extensive use in wireless communication systems.
Electromagnetic waves which propagate at these frequencies have higher temperatures compared
to lower frequency waves. When these waves are supplied to an antenna, they ionize the air
molecules and create a wireless conducting channel [6]. This channel radiates electromagnetic
fields. High range frequencies also have the ability to flow through insulating medium. One
common example is a capacitor which reacts as a short at higher frequencies. This is because the
waves pass through the insulator with negligible resistance. The power of the signal received at
the receiver depends on the signal to noise ratio in the conducting spectrum. Frequencies used in
gigahertz range are less prone to interference and attenuation. Some of the applications of RF
and microwaves are:

a) Telecommunications
b) Radar
c) Heating for e.g. microwaves
d) Wireless communication for e.g. mobile communications, high streaming video etc.

The frequency designation and the Band designation of RF and microwave frequencies are
shown in Table 1-1a and Table 1-1b:

Name Abbreviation Frequency

Very Low Frequency VLF 9KHz-30KHz
Low Frequency LF 30KHz-300KHz
Medium Frequency MF 300KHz-3MHz
High Frequency HF 3MHz-30MHz
Very High Frequency VHF 30MHz-300MHz
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300MHz-3GHz
Super High Frequency SHF 3GHz-30GHz

8
 Extremely High Frequency EHF 30GHz-300GHz
Table 1-1a: RF and Microwave spectrum [7]

Frequency Range (GHz) Band Designation

0.1-0.3 VHF
0.3-1.00 UHF
1.00-2.00 L
2.00-4.00 S
4.00-8.00 C
8.00-12.40 X
12.40-18.00 Ku
18.00-26.50 K
26.50-40.00 Ka
40.00-60.50 U
50.00-75.00 V
60.50-92.00 E
75.00-110.00 W
92.00-140.00 F
110.00-170.00 D
140.00-220.00 G
170.00-260.00 Y
220.00-300.00 J
Table 1-1b: Frequency Band Designation [7]

It is important to note that the term radio wave is often linked with RF. Radio waves are the
electromagnetic waves of radio frequency. The choice of Radio frequency for a wireless system
design depends upon the operating frequency, distance of transmission, noise, antenna gain,
bandwidth and cost. The bandwidth allocation for RF is regulated by the Federal
Communications commissions (FCC) in United States [8]

1.3 RF Front End:

RF front end is a term used to describe all the cascaded stages of an RF transceiver. An RF
Front End of a WiMAX base station is shown in figure 1-2 below.

9 LO
 Low Noise To Digital
Waveguide Amplifier Baseband Amplifiers Processing
Filter Mixer & Filters and
RF Filters
Antenna destination
Power
Amplifier

LO
Figu re 1 -2: RF Fro nt E nd Sch e ma t ics o f a WiMA X ba se st at io n

The input data, presented to the transmitter, can be voice, video etc. It is also termed as a
baseband signal. The aim is to transmit the information with high frequencies. As mentioned
above, high frequency signals ionize the air molecules to form a wireless conducting channel.
They are also less attractive to noise and interference. The baseband filters select the required
frequency range of the input signal. And the amplifier increases the power level of the signal.
Amplification at this point cures the losses which occur at the later stages. The signal is then
shifted to a higher frequency spectrum by the mixer. The mixer produces the sum and the
difference of the supplied frequency and the local oscillator (LO) frequency. The RF Band Pass
filter rejects the difference frequency band and allows the sum frequency band to pass through.
The filtered signal is then power amplified to increase the output power of the transmitter. This
ensures that the all the information reaches the receiver with enough power so that they can be
easily picked up by the receiving antenna. A waveguide filter sets the power amplified output to
the desired frequency range [9].

The receiving antenna picks up a number of frequency spectrums from different sources. The
waveguide filter connected with the antenna filters out the undesired frequencies. The selected
signal is passed through a Low noise Amplifier (LNA). The purpose is to increase the amplitude
of the signal level with minimum noise. Noise is added by a number of sources during the
wireless transmission. These include lightning, atmospheric attenuation etc [10]. Although, we

10
cannot eliminate the external noise sources but we can minimize the noise of the receiver
circuitry. This ensures that the information reaches the destination (Mobile phones, Wireless
internet etc) with minimum distortion. The baseband RF filter shifts the amplified signal to a
lower frequency at which the mixer can operate. As mentioned above, the mixer picks up the
filtered signal and mixes with the local oscillator to produce sum and difference of their
frequencies. The baseband filter then chops out the sum frequency spectrum and allow the
difference frequency spectrum to pass through. The final RF output is amplified again to cure the
losses occurred during RF filtering and frequency mixing.

1.3.1 Antennas:

Antennas are used to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. They are the only means of
communication between a transmitter and a receiver in wireless systems. Note that the same
antenna is used for transmitting and receiving in a transceiver [11].

When an alternating current or voltage is applied to the conducting plates of the antenna, the
electrons oscillate up and down. Some of the weak atoms in the metal plate losses its electrons,
leaving behind a positive charge of protons. As a result, electric fields are created between
positive and negative charges. These fields decrease as the distance increases due to the
weakening of the force of attraction. The movements of free electrons create electromagnetic
waves of the same frequency as the presented signal [12].

The operating frequency, size and gain of the antenna determine its characteristics. There is
an inverse proportionality between the physical dimensions of the antenna and its operating
frequency. Also the gain of the antenna is directly proportional to the dimensions of the antenna
and the square of the operating frequency [13]. Therefore the choice of an antenna is dependent
upon the desired frequency range.

11
1.3.2 Filters:

Filters allow desired frequency signals to pass through while attenuates the undesired ones.
An all pass filter allows all frequencies to pass through. A low pass filter allows low frequencies
to pass through. Inversely, a high pass filter allows high frequencies to pass through while a band
pass filter allows a specific frequency band to pass through. Alternatively, a band stop filter
chops down a particular band of frequencies. Normally, the pass band allowance and stop band
attenuation of a filter are measured in logarithmic scale, dB (decibels). The dB scale determines
the amplitude of the filtered signal in the pass band and the stop region. Two of the very
common filters are:

a) Chebyshev Filter
b) Butterworth Filter

These filters have generally low pass filter responses. They can be transformed to a high pass,
band pass or a band stop filter by a few alterations in their component combinations. The
responses of these two filters differ in the pass band region. A Chebyshev filter has equidistant
ripples whereas a Butterworth filter has a flat response in the pass band region. In the stop band,
both of them give flat response. Chebyshev filter find its extensive use in RF filtering.

In RF front end, filters play a very special role. As explained above, a waveguide filter rejects
unwanted frequencies to pass through. The RF and the based band filters reject unwanted
frequencies from the signal and the mixing process. Developments in RF has led to integrate the
filters on the same chip for frequencies ranging up to 2 GHz. Above these frequencies, the losses
in the integrated circuits leads to high pass band losses and low stop band attenuation. Because
of this, off chip filters are used for a base station which operates at high RF frequencies [14].

1.3.3 Amplifiers:

An Amplifier is an active deice which increases the amplitude of a supplied signal. There are
three types of amplifiers used in RF front end transceiver. They are:

a) Low Noise Amplifier, LNA (receiver)

12
 b) Power Amplifier, PA (Transmitter)
c) Base band Amplifier (transmitter & receiver)

Low noise amplifiers are normally dealt in terms of their noise figures and gain. Noise figure
is a measure how noisy a system is. The aim is to amplify the received signal with minimum
noise added to it. The signal received is normally very weak and distorted. This because of a lot
of noise sources in the wireless transmission which interferes with the signal. Also the
electromagnetic fields in the wireless conducting channel become weak as the distance of
transmission increases, resulting in the attenuation of the signal. Although, these noise sources
and signal attenuation cannot be cured, but their effects can be reduced through low noise
amplification. The later stages of the RF receiver also add small amount of noise for e.g. RF
band pass filters and the mixer. By decreasing the noise to a very low level, LNA ensures that the
information reaches the destination with minimal distortion.

Power amplifiers (PA) are normally dealt in terms of the power of the signal. Their purpose is
the increase the power level of the signal before being transmitted. A PA ensures that the
information is transmitted with enough power so that they can be easily picked up by the
receiving antenna. It is required because of the high signal to noise ratio (SNR) demand in the
wireless conducting channel. PA’s add a lot of noise in order to achieve high linearity. But
minimizing noise of a transmitting signal at this point is pointless because other noise sources
will interfere with the signal anyway. Also, there is a trade off between the linearity of the
amplified signal and the noise figure. Achieving low noise figure will decrease the power level in
the signal.

Base band amplification in the transceiver cures the losses due to frequency mixing and RF
filtering processes. It is also important to adjust the gain of the filter before it reaches its
destination. For transmitting any input information, it has to be converted from digital to
analogue (DAC) before being amplified and introduced to the later stages of RF front end.

1.3.4 Mixer:

A mixer is two input port and one output port device. It multiplies two sinusoidal signals
together to produce sum and difference of their frequencies. Let us suppose that two signals,
A1cos (2πf1t) and A2cos (2πf2t), are input to a mixer. The result of multiplication would be:

13
 A1 A2
[ A 1 cos (2 πf 1t )][ A 2 cos (2 πf 2 t)] = {cos ( 2 π ( f 1+ f 2 ) t ) +cos ( 2 π ( f 1−f 2 ) t ) } [15]
2

In RF front end transceiver, mixer is required for frequency translation. In the transmitter, it is
used for frequency up conversion. It shifts the baseband signal to a higher RF frequency
spectrum. Inversely, in a receiver, it performs the frequency down conversion where it shifts the
received signal to a low frequency spectrum. Their corresponding sum or difference frequencies
are then removed by the filtering processes [16]. Figure 1-4 shows a block diagram of the
frequency translation in a transceiver.

Input Signal frequency F1 Output Frequency (F1+ F2) & (F1+ F2)

Local oscillator frequency F2

Figure 1-4: Frequency translations by a mixer

1.3.5 Oscillators:

Oscillators are widely used in wireless transceivers. They provide the frequencies required to
up or down convert the sinusoidal RF signal frequencies. They are generally made by quartz
crystal or by transistors with LC (inductor and capacitor) networks. Oscillators, basically
provides a medium for a digital processor to process the received information at low frequencies
and for a transmitter to transmit at high RF frequencies. Frequency stability is an important
consideration in the selection of an oscillator. A good oscillator should maintain its frequency for
a given time.

CHAPTER 2

TRANSMISSION LINES

14
2.1 Transmission Lines Overview:

At high RF and microwave frequencies, simple wires become lossy, radiate power and have
high reactance [17]. Therefore special purpose transmission lines are used to connect RF circuit
components. The electrical and mechanical characteristics of transmission lines make them
suitable for these frequencies. These wires can be used as simple conventional wires or can be
integrated on a chip.

Transmission lines are a two conductor system with uniform cross sectional energy to guide
electromagnetic energy. They are distributed parameters because of their varying voltage and
current along the length of the line [18]. Their physical characteristics are known in terms of
their impedances. Input impedance, ZIN, is the line impedance at the source, Z O is the
characteristic impedance of the line and ZOUT is the impedance of the line at the load. Exhibiting
impedance characteristics allows these lines to be extensively used in matching networks. A
transmission line with its distributed elements is shown in figure 2-1 below.

Varying current & voltage

SOURCE LOAD

L
R

C G
The distributed elements shown in figure 6 are inductance (L), capacitance (C), resistance (R)
and conductance (G) per unit length. Inductance and resistance are due to the conduction losses
in the metal plates. Capacitance
Figure 2-1: is due section
A small to the ofseparation of the
a transmission line metal conductor with the
dielectric. The dielectric losses are directly proportional to its resistance or the inversely
proportional to the conductance, G. In a lossless transmission line, the dielectric conductance is

15
 zero. In a lossy line, attenuation of the signal has to be taken into account in order to measure the
resultant signal voltage level at the load.

2.1.1 Reflections and Standing Waves:

In a transmission line, reflection of the waves occurs if the load impedances do not match
with the characteristic impedance of the line. For a lossless line, if the load termination is equal
to ZO (characteristic impedance of the line), then there is no reflection and the input impedance is
also equal to ZO .The input signal reaches the load with zero losses, independent of the length of
the line. However, if the load is terminated with a different resistance, Z L, reflection occurs and
the input impedance, ZIN becomes a function of the frequency of the waves, f, the length of the
line, L, the characteristic impedance, ZO and load impedance, ZL. The waves reflect because of
the unmatched reactance of the impedances [19]. Figure 2-2a & 2-2b shows the behavior of
transmission lines with different load impedances.

V1 V1 V1 V2 V = (V1 – V2)

ZO ZO ZO ZL

ZO = ZIN ZIN = F (ZO, ZL, f, L)

Fig
ure 2-2a: No Wave Reflection Figure 2-2b: Waves Reflected

The amount of reflection is measured in terms of reflection coefficient. It is the ratio of the
reflective voltage to the incident voltage of the waves. In a lossy line, attenuation of the incident
and reflected signal is also taken into account.

V 2e −γL

Г= ; Where the exponential term take into account the loss factor due to attenuation.
V 1e γL

The Power calculations are:

16
 2

Incident Power, PIN

|V |
= 1 ;
ZO

2
|V 2|
Reflected Power, PT = ;
ZO

2
Therefore the resultant transmitted power at the load = PIN - PT¿ ( 1−|Г L| ) P ¿; And

Return loss, in dB = −10 log ( PP )=−20 log ⁡(|Г |)

T

¿
L

Standing waves emerges in a transmission line when the incident and the reflected waves
interact with each other. This interaction implies the principle of superposition. Maximum
standing wave voltage is achieved when the incident and the reflected voltages have the same
phases. The resultant standing wave voltage is the addition of their individual voltages. And
when the two voltages are 180o out of phase, they difference out to produce the minimum
standing wave voltages. A voltage standing wave ratio is defined as ratio of the maximum
voltage to the minimum voltage.

V 1+V 2 1+|Г L|
VSWR= =
V 1 −V 2 1−|Г L|
;

It is important to note the there always exist a minimum standing wave ratio of 1. This means
that no matter how good the matching is, the incident wave will always see an interacting,
reflective wave. The maximum VSWR occurs when there is an imperfect matching and the
entire signal is reflected.

2.2 Microstrip Lines:

Microstrip lines are the mostly used transmission lines in wireless system design. Ease of
fabrication, small size and low cost make these lines extensively used in both MIC and MMIC
technology (explained later). In a microsrtip line, a conductor strip rests on top of a substrate.

17
 The bottom surface is grounded. The substrates are of two types, hard and soft. Hard substrates
include quartz, sapphire, alumina and Gallium Arsenide, GaAs.

These substrates have high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion, but are also
inflexible and expensive. Soft substrates consist of RT Duroid 5870, RT Duroid 5880, and RT
Duroid 6010.5. Although these substrates have poor thermal conductivity and high thermal
expansion, but they are flexible and relatively cheaper than hard substrates [20]. A three
dimensional structure of a microstrip line is shown in figure 2-3 below:

Figure 2-3: A microstrip line [21]

Analysis of microstrip lines is based upon the operating

frequency. For low microwave frequencies, the operating frequency is assumed to be zero.
Dielectric (εr ) Calculations based on this assumption is called Static or quasi- TEM analysis. However, at high

RF microwave frequencies, the operating frequency is taken into consideration for accurate
results. This approach is known as full wave analysis [22]. The thickness of the conductor is only
a few millimeters and can be neglected in both of these calculations. These analyses are based
upon the physical parameters of the microstrip line and the dielectric constant of the substrate.

2.2.1 Static Analysis:

In static analysis, the frequency is assumed to be zero. The calculations are based upon the
capacitance values with and without the substrate, C and Ca.

18
The characteristic impedance of the line is

1
ZO = ; Where c is the speed of light in free space.
c √C Ca

Phase velocity of the waves is:

C C
v P=c
√ =
C a √ ε eff
;

And the dielectric constant is:

C λO 2
ε eff = =
Ca λg ( )
; Where λ0 is the free space wavelength and λg is the guided wavelength.

The equations for ZO and λeff for given width of the conductor strip (w) and height of the
dielectric (h) are:

For w/h ≤ 1;

( 1 ) ( ε r−1 ) 12 h −1
w 2
ε eff =
2
+
2 [(
1+
w ) 2
+0.04 1− ( h ) ];
8 h 0.25 w
ZO =60 ( ε eff )−1 /2 ln [ w
+
h
o h ms ]
And for w/h >1;

( ε r +1 ) ( ε r−1 ) 12 h −1
ε eff =
2
+
2 [( 1+
w ) 2
];
120 π ( ε eff )−1 /2
ZO = o h ms
w w
h
+1.393+ 0.667 ln 1.444 +
h ( )
There is also a graphical method to find the characteristic impedance, Z O, of the line for
different values of dielectric constant, εr and the conductor width to dielectric height ratio, w/h.

19
2.2.2 Full Wave Analysis:

In full wave analysis, the frequencies are taken into consideration. Z O and εr become
frequency dependent at high RF frequencies. This effect is called dispersion [24]. High
frequencies don’t have a big impact on the characteristic impedance of the line. But the effective
dielectric value, εeff, increases to the value of the substrate, εr. Expression for εeff and ZO are:

2
√ ε r −√ ε eff (0)
ε eff ( f )= ( 1+ 4 F−1.5 )
+ √ ε eff (0 ) ;

4 hf √ ε r −1 w 2
F=
c ( [
0.5+ 1+2 log ⁡(1+ ) ;
h ])
ε eff ( f )−1 ε eff (0 )
ZO (f ) ¿ Z O(f )
√
ε eff (0 )−1 ε eff (f )
; Where εeff(0) & Z0(0) are calculated from static analysis.

2.2.3 Losses:

There are three types of losses in microstrip line:

a) Conductor Losses
b) Dielectric Losses
c) Radiation Losses

Conductor losses are because of the resistance to the current flow between the metal plate and
the ground surface. It: can be calculated by the equation ……………………;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

α c =0.072 √ f λ dB /guided wavelengt h; Dielectric losses

g
w Zo
are due to the weak conductivity of the substrates. These losses are different for every substrate
because of their different chemical and physical properties. An expression to calculate dielectric
losses is

ε r ( ε eff −1 ) tan δ
α d =27.3 dB /guided wavelengt h; where tan𝛅 is the loss tangent of dielectric.
ε eff ( ε r−1 )
Radiation losses occur because of the discontinuities of the microstrip lines (gaps/open ends).

20
These discontinuities increase the energy level of higher order modes which causes radiation.
Different propagation modes are present because different frequencies of the waves travel at
different speeds. Usually these losses are cured by shielding the microstrip line [25]. The
radiation losses at the open ends of the strip conductor can be reduced by selecting a high
dielectric constant substrate.

2.3 Microstrip Line Discontinuities:

Discontinuities arise because of different impedances of the lines connected at a point. These
unmatched impedances exert different reactances to the forward travelling wave and cause
reflections. The discontinuities are mainly characterized by the input return loss, S 11 and forward
transmission coefficient, S22. The discontinuities of microstip lines are:

a) Open ends at the input and output of line

b) Gap when two lines are connected together
c) Short circuit because of the leakage of current between the metal plate and the ground
through the semi-conducting dielectric
d) Step when the widths of the connected lines are different
e) Right Angle Bends at the corners of the lines
f) T-junction when unmatched impedances are connected together in a T shape
g) Cross junction when unmatched impedances are connected in a cross shape.

T- junction will be discussed here as it will be used for connecting line and matching stub in the
low noise amplifier.

2.3.1 T-Junction Discontinuity:

A T-junction discontinuity is created when different impedances are connected together in a T

shape. In a microstrip line, different impedances are present because of the varying widths of the
line. Specially designed T-junctions are normally used in RF and microwave systems to match

21
the widths of three point connections and eliminate losses in the line. The block diagram of the
T-junctions and its frequency behavior are shown in figure 2-5a and 2-5b.

W1 W2

W3

Figure 2-5a: Block diagram of a T junction with forward and reflected transmission of the waves

22
 Figure 2-5b: Frequency behavior of a T junction

The simulations shown in figure 2-5b are performed with equal microstrip line widths. Equal
widths make the fabrication process easier for LNA design (discussed later). The simulation
shows that the forward wave transmission, S21, increases with frequency while the return losses,
S11 and S22, decreases with frequency. The T junction aims to exert an equal and opposite
reactance to the unmatched impedances. This nullifies the effects of unmatched impedances to
the forward travelling waves and hence, minimizes the reflection losses.

2.4 Microstrip Line Comparisons:

Fabrication of microstrip lines on a printed circuit board or on a chip is very cheap. Their
small size makes them very useful for MIC and MMIC technologies. The substrate selection

23
determines their power handling capability. Low cost and ease of fabrication encourages them to
be produced in large quantities. Table 2-1 below shows a comparison of some of the
transmission lines and waveguides.

Transmission Frequency Impedance Quality Power

Line Range (GHz) Range (Ω) Factor (Q) Rating
Rectangular <300 100-500 High High
Waveguide
Coaxial <50 10-100 Moderate Moderate
Line
Strip Line <10 10-100 Low Low
Microstrip ≤100 10-100 Low Low
Line
Suspended ≤150 20-150 Moderate Low
Stripline
Fin Line ≤150 20-400 Moderate Low
Slot Line ≤60 60-200 Low Low
Coplanar ≤60 40-150 Low Low
Waveguide
Table: 2-1 A comparison of transmission lines and waveguide [26]

In comparison with coaxial lines and rectangular waveguides, microstrip lines have lower
power handling capability and higher losses. They have low dispersion effect which makes their
analysis trivial for high RF and microwave frequencies. As mentioned in table 2, the frequency
range of microstrip line is more than coaxial lines and coplanar waveguides. Their impedance
range of 10Ω to 100Ω makes them extensively used for matching applications in a transceiver.
Low Q factor is one of the disadvantages of microstrip lines. Q factor determines the efficiency
of transmission. It is the ratio of the energy stored to the losses due to conduction, radiation and
dielectric [27].

Chapter 3

24
 MIC TECHNOLOGY
The abbreviation MIC stands for microwave integrated circuits. In MIC technology, the active
and passive elements are physically connected on a printed circuit board, PCB. Active elements
include transistors for amplifications and diodes for frequency conversion. Passive elements are
mainly inductors, capacitors and resistors. The transmission lines used for MIC technology are
strip lines, microstrip lines, coplanar strip lines etc. The filters used are generally off chip
because of the inherent losses associated with the chips leading to high return losses and low
insertion losses in the pass band and the stop band regions. MIC technology is used in a base
station where the circuit size is not a concern. To distinct from monolithic microwave integrated
circuits, MMIC, they also referred as hybrid MIC.

The key difference between hybrid MIC and MMIC technology is that in MMIC, the active
and passive elements are fabricated on the same substrate. MMIC technology finds its uses in
mobile phones where the size is am important consideration. Comparisons of MIC and MMIC
technologies are:

1- MMIC technology is used in low power applications ranging up to few milliwatts. This is
applicable for mobile handsets where power ratings are generally low. Increasing the
power leads to high losses in filters and overheating of the device. MIC is used for high
power applications from 1W to few hundred watts. This range is suitable for a base
station where the high power applications are required for e.g. waveguide filters and
power amplifiers.
s
2- The size of a MMIC chip is small and is suitable for mobile phones. MIC has much larger
circuitry than MMIC but it does not matter for a base station as area is not the concern
here.
s
3- MMIC chips can be produced in large quantities once the required responses have been
achieved. However, if the response is not appreciable than the fabrication has to be
started again. This gives an edge to MIC technology where the circuitry provides more
flexibility for alterations. In this technology, there is no guarantee that the chosen design

25
 will produce the desired response if build again.
A
4- A vast collection of components are available for MIC technology. They have the best
transistors for low noise and power amplifications. The amplification performance suffers
for MMIC technology because of high losses in the matching networks and poor noise
figure. MMIC’s also have very limited choice of components.
a
5- Big values of inductors, capacitors and resistors cannot be realized for MMIC technology
but they certainly can be implemented in circuits with MIC technology.
a
6- Designing and building an RF circuit with MIC technology doesn’t require a long time.
But for MMIC technology, it can take three months to come up with a product. The cost
of manufacturing and fabrication are also very high for them.
a
7- High losses and low performance limits the MMIC’s from being used for high RF
frequency applications. Their frequency range is limited to 7GHz, whereas MIC’s are
generally dealt with high RF frequencies ranging up to 100 GHz.

CHAPTER 4

26
 AMPLIFIERS

4.1 Amplifier Technologies:

RF amplifiers generally use three terminal transistors for amplification. The selection of the
substrates plays a key role in the characteristics of the transistor. Two of the most common
substrates used in RF amplification are:

a) Gallium Arsenide, GaAs

b) Silicon, Si
c) Silicon Germanium, SiGe

Common transistors for amplification are:

a) Field effect transistors, FET

b) Bipolar Transistors
c) Hetero-junction bipolar transistors, HBT
d) High electron mobility transistors, HEMT
e) Bipolar CMOS, BiCMOS

Transistors with Silicon substrates can be used up to 12 GHz. For high frequencies, GaAs
substrate transistors are commonly used. Compared to GaAs, silicon is very cheap and can be
easily integrated on a chip. However, transistors with GaAs substrates produce high gain and low
noise figure at high frequencies. Modification in amplifier technology has led to the development
of SiGe. This substrate is cheap, it has small surface area and it can replace GaAs for high
frequency applications.

Field effect transistors have considerable advantages over bipolar transistors. They are used
for both MIC and MMIC (ranging from 5GHz to 10 GHz). Bipolar transistors are used for
amplification at low RF frequencies ranging from 2GHz to 4 GHz. The main disadvantage for
bipolar transistors is their high noise figure when compared to FET’s. If noise figure is not the
concern than bipolar transistors are preferred for very low RF frequencies (up to 1 GHz) because
of high gain and low cost [29]. Table 4-1 below shows a caparison of GaAs transistors with
Silicon bipolar transistors.

27
 Frequency GaAs FET GaAs HEMT GaAs HBT Si Bipolar
Gain Fmin Gain Fmin Gain Fmin Gain Fmin
(GHz)
4 20 0.5 Nil nil nil nil 15 2.5
8 16 0.7 Nil nil nil nil 9 4.5
12 12 1.0 22 0.5 20 4 6 8.0
18 8 1.2 16 0.9 16 nil nil nil
36 nil nil 12 1.7 10 nil nil nil
60 nil nil 8 2.6 7 nil nil nil
Table 4-1: Transistor Comparisons [30]

As mentioned in table 4-1, GaAs is best suited for low noise amplification for frequencies
ranging from 4GHz to 8 GHz because of high gain and low minimum noise figure. GaAs HEMT
is considered for high RF frequency amplifications. Overall, Silicon bipolar is not recommended
for low noise amplifications for any of the frequencies shown. They do have a respectful gain for
frequencies up to 4 GHz and can be used for amplification where noise is not the concern.

At high frequencies, the device which has smallest emitter/source width has the lowest noise
figures. Small emitter/ source width reduces the number of electrons in the conducting channel
[31]. This reduces the gain and increases the stability of the transistors. High stability decreases
the chances of transistor oscillations or any distortions to the amplified signal.

4.2 Noise Analysis:

Noise and other unwanted signals have special considerations in a receiver system
performance. These interfering signals decrease the power level of the transmitted signal. A high
signal to noise ratio is required so that the receiving antenna picks up the useful information
easily.

Two types of noise are induced in a receiver circuitry. One is the noise received by the
antenna from the external sources. These sources interfere with the wireless conducting channel
and make the signal distorted. The second source of noise is the receiver circuitry itself. All
cascaded stages of the receiver system add noise to the received signal. These stages include
amplification, filtering and mixer.

28
4.2.1 External Noise:

External noise is the noise added by the external sources. These sources includes sky noise,
galactic noise, man made noise and atmospheric noise due to lightning.

Sky noise is dependent upon the direction of the antenna and the operating frequency. It is
directly proportional to the noise temperature of the antenna, T A. An antenna pointing towards
the earth or at a lower atmosphere has a constant noise temperature of 290K. Inversely, the
antenna facing the sky has a lower noise temperature [32]. The noise power of the antenna is
expressed as:

N=kTAB; where B is the Boltzmann’s constant.

Man made noise has a variety of sources. The radiations from different communication and
broadcast systems and the power lines are present in space. These radiations interfere with the
desired signal, making it distorted. Atmospheric noise due to lightning creates voltage spikes.
High energy of these spikes encourages them to interfere with the wanted signal. As a result
some part of the signal gets attenuated [32].

4.2.2 Internal Noise:

Internal noise is the noise added by the receiver circuitry. As explained above, all the
cascaded stages in the front end, including the antenna add noise to the received signal. Some of
the noise sources are:

a) Thermal or Nyquist noise. This noise is produced the thermal agitation of bound charges [33].
In a transistor, this noise is produced by the resistance in the active junctions.

b) Shot noise. It is produced because of the fluctuations in the electrons emitted [33]. This noise
is better understood in a transistor current flow in the active junctions.

29
c) Flicker noise. This noise is inversely proportional to the operating frequency, 1/f. It mainly
comes from the electromagnetic radiations and free electron fluctuations. Flicker noise
dominantly exists for frequencies up to 100MHz [33].

d) Phase noise. This noise is produced by the frequency fluctuations. Changing frequencies
cause the phase to fluctuate as well. Phase noise mainly comes from the local oscillator. It
depends upon how long an oscillator maintains its frequency.

The performance of the receiver is recognized by the noise figure, F. The value of noise
figure determines how noisy a system is. Small value of noise figure means that the system is not
very noisy and vice versa. An expression for noise figure is:

F=Signal ¿ noiseratio at ∈ put ¿ noise ratio at Output ¿;

Signal ¿

The logarithmic scale of noise figure in dB is expressed as NF:

NF =10 log ( F ) dB ;

4.2.3 GaAs MESFET:

The abbreviation stands for Gallium Arsenide Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
Figure 4-1a & 4-1b shows the cross sectional view and small signal analysis of GaAs MESFET.

Gate Drain
Source
n- n+
Conducting channel

Semi Insulating

GaAs Substrate
Gate Vg Drain
Rg
Rs  source resistance Vng
Figu re 4 -1a : Ga A s croCss
gs se ct io n vie w
Rg gate resistance ing gmVg ing
Ri  charging resistance Ri
CgsGate to source capacitance
gm  transconductance
ing  induced gate noise 30
ind  induced drain noise Rs
Vng  thermal noise of Rg
Vns  thermal noise of Rs
 -
Vns
+
Source

Figu re 4 -1b : Ga A s sma ll sig na l mo d e l

The two types of noise which exist in GaAs MESFET are thermal and shot noise. Thermal
noise comes from the resistance and shot noise comes from the electrons flow in the conducting
channel. Elements which produce noise are shown in figure 10b. Gate resistance, gate to source
capacitance and its resistance and the source resistance, all add noise to the input signal [36]. An
expression to measure the noise figure of the amplifier is:

Rn
F=F min + ( )|
Gs
2
Y s−Y opt| ; Where Fmin is the

minimum noise figure of the amplifier, Rn is the

noise resistance Ys = Gs +
jBs; is the source admittance Yopt = Gopt +
jBopt; is the optimum source admittance

Noise figure of the MESFET devices is directly proportional to the operating frequency.
Generally the noise figure increases linearly with frequency. The gate width also plays a special
role in recognizing the minimum noise figure and noise resistance of an amplifier. Increasing the
width increases the current flow and decreases the noise resistance of the device and vice versa.
The optimum reflection coefficient of the device does not change significantly with alternating
widths.

4.3 Low Noise Amplifier, LNA:

Low noise amplification is required in a receiver to minimize the noise figure of the wanted
signal, endured by the internal and external sources. Key considerations in the LNA design is the
stability of the amplifier, the noise figure and gain, realizable lengths of the transmission line and

31
 providing DC conditions for the amplifier. Aiding DC conditions ensure that the transistor gates
are open and it works practically.

The software used for LNA design and simulation is Agilent Advanced system design, ADS.
Fabrication of the amplifier is performed by LPKF proto-Mat circuit board plotter. A 50GHz
vector network analyzer, HP8510C is used to measure the S-parameters of the device. The two
port device is connected with the network through 50 ohms probes. To measure the noise figure,
Agilent 8970TM Noise Figure Meter is used.

An RF amplifier is a two port device. Reflections occur at the source, load and the input and
output terminations of the transistor. Analysis and calculations for RF amplifiers are performed
using scattering parameters or S-parameters. Figure 4-2a &4-2b shows a block diagram and
signal flow of an unmatched amplifier.

ZS a1 a2

ZIN ACTIV ZOUT

VS E DEVICE
ZL

гS ГIN ГOUT

b1 b2 Figur
e 4-2a: A two port unmatched amplifier

S21
VS

гS S111 S22 ГL

S12
In low noise amplification, obtaining low noise figure is more considerable than the gain of
Figure
the device. The aim is to reduce the 4-2b:
noiseSignal flow in RF amplifier
to a minimum level at[37]
input of the transistor. The
corresponding amplified signal at the output should be matched for maximum gain. This
procedure can be followed by setting the optimum source reflection coefficient, Г OPT as ГS. The

32
 corresponding ГOUT can be obtained as a function of Г S and S parameters. The input reflection
coefficient should be matched to a 50Ω source which is the impedance of the receiving antenna.
For maximum gain at the output, the load reflection should be conjugately matched with the
output reflection coefficient of the transistor, ГOUT = ГL*. The two impedances act in opposite
directions, therefore conjugate matching nullifies their reactance to the amplified signal. Losses
occur at the source side because of the unmatched input impedance of the transistor, Г IN but it can
be sacrificed for achieving minimum noise figure. Figure 4-3 shows the block diagram of LNA
with minimum noise figure.

VS ГS = ГOPT ГL=ГOUT*
INPUT ACTIVE OUTPUT ZO
MATCHING ГIN DEVICE ГOUT=F(ГS,S) MATCHING

Figure 4-3: Block diagram of LNA with minimum noise figure

4.
4 LNA Design Procedure:

Important steps in designing a low noise amplifier are:

a) Calculate the stability factor of the transistor with a 50Ω input and output resistance. If it
is conditionally stable then build a stabilizing network.

b) Calculate the gain and the noise figure of the transistor.

c) Select a suitable input and output matching network in order to meet the specifications.

d) Calculate realizable length of the selected transmission line and matching stub

e) Provide biasing network and decoupling capacitors. Inductors and capacitors should be
connected with the biasing network to separate AC from DC.

33
 f) Analyze the amplifier performance in the specified software. Tune the lengths of the line
to obtain accurate results.

g) Fabricate the amplifier to realize its performance.

The specified calculations can be performed by using the S-parameters of the amplifier.
Specifications of the line and the transistor measured at 3.5GHz are:

MODEL = GaAs MESFET NE71000_1_19940401 Microstrip Line

NFmin = 0.587dB Dielectric Height = 0.510mm
VDS =3V (for minimum noise figure) Metal thickness = 0.017mm
IDS =10mA (for minimum noise figure) Dielectric constant εr = 2.2
VGS = -0.42 (for minimum noise figure) ZO = 50Ω
Rn = 22.875
Ґopt = 0.775∠39o
S11 = 0.93∠-50o
S12 = 0.09∠60.5o
S21 = 3.065∠140o
S22 = 0.621∠-28o
NE71000 GaAs MESFET transistor is selected because of its low noise figure and an appreciable
value of S21. The overall gain of the amplifier mainly comes from S21 therefore its high
magnitude value is important for high gain.

4.4.1 Amplifier Stability:

Stability of an amplifier ensures the resistance to transistor oscillations. Oscillations distort the
amplified signal therefore it is important to build a stabilizing network, which resists to it in the
required frequency spectrum. There are two forms of stability in a transistor:

a) Unconditionally stable (or stable)

b) Conditionally stable (or unstable)

An expression to calculate the stability of the transistor is:

34
 2 2 2
1−|S 11| −|S 22| +|∆|
K= ; Where
2|S12 S 21|
∆=S11 S22−S12 S 21 If K>1
then the transistor is stable and if vice versa then unstable.

∆={(0.93 ∠−500)¿)} - {(0.09 ∠ 6 0.50 )¿ 3.065 ∠−140 0)}; ∆=0.604 ∠−51.10

2 2 2
1−|0.93| −|0.621| +|0.604|
K= ;
2|( 0.09 ∠−60.50 ) (3.065 ∠−1400)|

K = 0.2, therefore the transistor is conditionally stable. A suitable stabilizing network should be
added at the output of the transistor. The stabilizing regions are found from the smith chart,
using the S-parameters. The output stability regions are calculated by equating the input
reflection coefficient, ГIN to a boundary of magnitude 1 and vice versa for input stability regions.
Expressions to find the output and input stable regions on a smith chart are:

S12 S 21
Radius of output stability circle, R L=
|| 2
S 22| −|∆|
2
| ; Center

of output stability circle, C L =¿; And Radius of input stability

S 12 S 21
circle, Rs =
|| 2
S 11| −|∆|
2
|
; Center of input stability circle

, C s=¿;

Figure 4-4a shows the input and output stable and unstable regions on the smith chart and figure
4-4b shows the stabilizing network connected at the output of the transistor

Input Unstability
Region Output Unstability
Region

35
 Stable Regions

Figure 4-4a: Smith chart showing stable and unstable regions Figure 4-4b: Stability Network

4.4.2 Amplifier Gain and Noise Figure:

The overall gain of an amplifier is called the transducer gain, G T. It is the ratio of the power
delivered to the load to the power delivered to the network available from the source [39]. An
expression for the transducer gain, GT is:

(1−|Γ S|2 )|S 21|2 (1−|Γ L|2 )

GT = 2 2
;
|1−Γ S S11| |1−Γ OUT Γ L|

As mentioned above, to perform the low noise amplification, ΓS is equated to ΓOPT for minimum
noise figure at the input. The corresponding ΓOUT is calculated as a function of ΓS and S-
parameters. Conjugate matching is performed at the output for maximum gain. Based on this
analysis, the overall transducer gain, GT changes to available gain, GA.

( 1−|Γ S|2)|S 21|2

G A= 2 2
; Where
|1−Γ S S11| (1−|Γ OUT| )

Γ S=Γ OPT =0.775 ∠390 ; And Γ OUT =Γ L¿ ;

S12 S 21 Γ
Γ OUT =S22+ S
;
1−S 11 Γ S

Γ OUT =− j0.66∨0.66 ∠ 900 ;

36
Γ L = j 0.66∨0.66∠−90 0 ; therefore the available gain is

( 1−|0.775|2)|3.065|2
G A =10 log 10
{ 2
|1−( 0.721∠−110 )| (1−|0.66|2 ) };

G A =13.20 dB ;

The overall noise figure of the amplifier can be calculated from the expression

2
4 r N | Γ S −Γ OUT|
F=F MIN + 2 2 ; where rN is the normalized noise resistance. With ΓS
( 1−|Γ S| )(|1+ Γ OPT| )
= ΓOPT; F=F MIN =0.587 dB

4.4.3 Constant Input Gain & Noise Figure Circles:

A typical gain of an amplifier can be represented in three stages:

GT = GS.GO.GL
GT is the total gain of the amplifier. GS is the gain of the input matching circuit or inverse of the
input return loss. Go is the gain of the transistor and GL is the gain of the output matching circuit
or inverse of the output return loss. Hence the mentioned available gain of the LNA can be
represented as:

(1−|Γ S|2 )
GS = 2
;
|1−Γ S S 11|
2
GO =|S 21| ;

1
G L= 2
1−|Γ OUT|

It is clear from these equations that the output matching network is functioning for maximum
gain. But there still exists a chance to increase the gain at the input. Since there is a tradeoff
between the gain and the noise figure of the transistor, therefore it is better to analyze them

37
simultaneously. To achieve the purpose, input gain and noise figure circles are plotted on a smith
chart. These circles represent the regions which produce constant gain and noise figure for the
given conditions [40]. Expressions for the input constant gain circles are:

gs S11¿
Centre of circle, C S= 2
; where
1−( 1−gs )|S11|

GS
gs = ; and `
G Smax

1
G Smax = 2
;
1−|S11|

2
√1−gs (1−|S11| )
Radius of circle, R S= 2
;
1−( 1−gs )|S11|
Expression for noise figure circles are:

Γ OPT
Centre of the circle, C F = ;
1+ N

2
Radius of the circle, R = √
2
N + N ( 1−| Γ |)
; where
OPT
F
1+ N

F50−F MIN
N= ( 4 rn
( ) 2
1+|Γ OPT| ) ;

since ΓS is equated to ΓOPT, the radius of the circle is zero and the centre of circle becomes ΓOPT.

For the input gain circle, the value of gS is selected such that the circle parameter just touches
minimum noise figure mark. The value is found out to be 0.52. The respective centre and radius
of the circles are; CS
= Radius of 6.5cm from centre of the smith chart at an angle of 500. RS = 1.3cm. CF =
Radius of 6.5cm from centre of the smith chart at an angle of 390

Figure 4-5 shows a constant gain circle with minimum noise figure on the smith chart.

38
 50O

39O

Input Gain
Circle

ΓOPT

6.5 cm 6.5 cm

Figure 4-5: Constant input gain circle and minimum noise figure plotted on smith chart

4.4.4 Amplifier Impedance Matching:

The impedance matching will be performed as described above. Microstrip line open stub will
be used for matching. Open stub makes the fabrication easier because one of the holes is left
open. The aim is to complete the first stage of the amplifier with the desired matching and
perfect response. Figure 4-6 shows a block diagram of the first stage of the LNA

39
 MLIN

50Ω
MLIN MLOC
50Ω MLOC

The lengths of the microstrip

Figure 4-6:line anddiagram
Block stub can be first
of the calculated
stage ofby using
LNA a Smith chart. For the
design

source side, a circle of radius ZS is drawn. Two solutions are marked at the points where the
plotted circle intersects the unity circle. The distance from any of two solutions to the input
admittance, YS gives the normalized length of the microstrip line, MLIN. Although both of the
solutions are correct but it is preferable to use the one which gives the shorter length. This makes
fabrication easy and cuts down the manufacturing cost. It is important to note that if the length is
not realizable, it should be neglected and the second solution should be considered. The distance
between the open circuit side (at 180O) of the smith chart and the imaginary arc which bisects the
selected solution gives the normalized length of the open stub, MLOC. The same procedure is
applied for the load side but this time, a circle of radius Z L is drawn. The final results should be
multiplied with the guided wavelength, λg in order to obtain practical or realizable lengths.
Figure 4-7a & 4-7b shows the procedure to find the normalized lengths of MLIN and MLOC,
using a smith chart.

´ =0.445
MLOC ´ =0.331
MLOC

ZL
ZS

Solution 1 Solution 1
Open Open
Circuit Circuit
Solution 2
Solution 2
YS
YL

40
 ´ =0.138 ´ =0.054
MLIN
MLIN

Figure 4-7a: Line and Stub calculations at Input Figure 4-7b: Line and Stub
calculations Output

C 3 ×108
λ O= = =85.71 mm ;
f 3.5 ×109

λO
λ g= ; where ε eff can be obtained from Line Calculation tool box in ADS software. The tool
√ ε eff
box also gives the widths of the line and stub. Figure 4-8 shows a demonstration of it.

Dielectric constant εeff

Line Width

Fig
ure 4-8: Line Calculations

The calculated εeff = 1.87 and the line width = 1.55 mm. Therefore

85.71
λ g= =62.68 mm ; As
√ 1.87
mentioned above, the realizable lengths are obtained be multiplying the normalized length with
the guided wavelength:

41
L MLIN / MLOC =ĺ MLIN / MLOC × λ g ;
The lengths at the source side are:
MLIN = 8.65 mm
MLOC = 25.8 mm
And lengths at the load side are:
MLIN = 4.40 mm
MLOC = 20.75 mm

4.4.5 Building The Amplifier:

The first stage of the amplifier involves tuning the values of the calculated lengths of the line
and the stub in order to obtain the required response. It is important to keep the widths of the line
constant. This makes the fabrication process easier and decreases the manufacturing cost of the
transmission line. A 1nH inductor is added to the source of the transistor for stability. The
inductor adds impedance at the source and hence decreases the current drawn from the drain. The
gain decreases as a result. Another advantage of inductor is that it pulls down the input return
loss sharply. This is important because the losses should be as low as possible. Figure 4-9 shows
the schematics of the first stage of the amplifier.

42
 Figure 4-9: LNA first stage schematics

The second stage of the amplifier involves adding a capacitor to the source and load side. The
capacitor blocks any DC noise in the input signal. It also functions as a decoupling capacitor by
blocking the DC signal of the biasing network (explained later). The value of capacitor selected

is 0.1nF. Since the matching is already done, therefore the length of the line does not affect the
output response. A realizable length can be 10mm. A T-Junction is added to nullify the
reflections due to unmatched impedances of the three point line and the stub connection. The T-
Junction ensures that the three different impedances are perfectly matched and there is no loss of
the signal. Figure 4-10 shows the schematics of the second stage of LNA.

Figure 4-10: Schematic of the second stage of LNA

The third stage involves adding a DC biasing network to the transistor. In reality, without any
DC network, the gates of the transistors will not be open and it will be in the cut off region.
Hence the amplifier will be switched off. The desired noise figure also depends upon the biasing
of the transistor. Therefore it is important to work out the realization of the amplifier for practical
applications. Inductors and capacitors are connected with the biasing network in order to separate
AC from DC. At high frequencies, the inductor act as open circuit for AC signal and short circuit
for DC signal. Therefore it prevents the AC signal from leaking away and allows the DC signal
to pass through. The capacitor with one leg shorted, prevents any glitches in the DC supply. It
also acts as short and allows any leaked AC signal to short to the ground. The values of the

43
selected inductors and capacitors are 10nH and 0.1nF. The biasing network is added after the
matching network in order to prevent tuning the values again because of the impedances of the
inductors and capacitors. A T-Junction is used again to connect the line and the matching
network with the biasing network. Figure 4-11 shows the final LNA schematics along with the
DC network.

Figure 4-11: Final schematic of Low noise amplifier

4.4.6 LNA Simulations:

The simulations are performed by taking the gain of the transistor, S 21, the input return loss,
S11 and the output return loss, S22 into consideration. The lengths are tuned with the aim to
achieve maximum gain and minimum noise figure and return losses possible. Logarithmic scale,
dB, is considered as it makes the analysis easier. The simulations for LNA specification1 gain,
return losses and the output noise figure are shown figure 4-12a & 4-12b.

44
Figure 4-12a: Simulations of gain and return losses for LNA specification 1

45
 Figure 4-12b: Simulation of output and minimum figure for LNA specification 1

Figure 4-11a shows a sharp response for the input (S 11) and output return losses (S22) in the
desired band of 3.3GHz to 3.8GHz. The gain (S 21) has been increased to 13dB and the input and
output return losses have been lowered to -12dB and -20dB at 3.5 GHz. Outside the band, the
losses increase while the gain decreases. A small amount of noise figure has been traded off to
increase the gain level to approximately 13dB. As shown in 4-12b, the noise figure is increased
from minimum level to 0.63dB at 3.5 GHz. The noise figure of the amplified signal is simulated
because this will be transferred to the rest of the stages of the receiver. The tuned values of
MLIN and MLOC are:

At Input:
MLIN = 7.8 mm
MLOC = 18.95 mm
At Output:
MLIN = 8.1 mm
MLOC = 19.7 mm
It is important to note that the sharp values for the input return loss has been
achieved at the cost of gain. It is possible to increase the gain but the aim is to achieve low noise
figure with minimum losses. The simulations for LNA specification 2 are shown in figure 4-13a
and 4-13b.

46
47
Figure 4-13a: Simulations of gain and return losses for LNA specification 2

48
 Figure 4-13a shows a sharp response for the input (S 11) and output (S22) return losses in the
desired band of 3.3GHz to 3.8GHz. The values are achieved by a few alterations in the lengths of
MLIN and MLOC. For LNA specification 2, the gain (S 21) has been increased to 13.2dB and the
input and output return losses have been lowered to -17 dB and -14dB at 3.5 GHz. Although the
two return losses can be tuned for exactly -15dB but it has been aimed to achieve appreciable
values in most of the band. Outside the band, the losses increase while the gain decreases. As
shown in 4-13b, the noise figure is increased from minimum level to 0.68dB at 3.5 GHz in order
to increase the gain. The tuned values of MLIN and MLOC are:

At Input:
MLIN = 7.85 mm
MLOC = 19.15 mm
At Output:
MLIN = 8 mm
MLOC = 19.8 mm

4.4.7 Amplifier Layout:

The layout of the LNA is shown in figure 4-14. The layout includes the T junction, matching
stub, microstrip line, transistor, decoupling capacitors and input and output ports.

Figure 4-14: LNA layout

49
 CONCLUSION
The low noise amplifier has been designed for a WiMAX base station according to the
specifications. LNA is required because the signal picked up by the antenna is usually very weak
and distorted. Therefore it is important to perform low noise amplification to increase the gain
and achieve respectable noise level. Special emphasis has been laid upon obtaining realizable
lengths for microstrip lines and the matching stubs. The stabilizing network, connected with the
amplifier resists the transistor from oscillations in the required frequency spectrum. A biasing
network is being added to make the transistor work in the saturation region. Inductors and
Capacitors are added to the DC supply to separate AC from DC. The inductor at the source of the
transistor adds more stability and sharpens the response of the input return loss at the cost of
gain. Analyses dictate that there is a tradeoff between the gain and noise figure of the amplifier.
A high current in the active junctions of the transistor produces high gain but also increases the
noise contributions. At the input of the transistor, the source impedance is matched to 50Ω for
minimum noise figure where as conjugate matching is performed at the output for maximum
gain. The property of the substrate and the type of transistor selected actually determines the
maximum gain and minimum noise figure that can be achieved from an amplifier. Modern
technology is using SiGe substrate instead of GaAs because of low cost, small surface area and
appreciable performance for high RF frequencies.

The RF front end includes all the cascaded stages in a transceiver. The position of each stage
in the front end is determined by analogue performance required. Designing LNA covers the
analyses of the transmission lines, their discontinuities and the technology used (MIC or MMIC).
MIC technology is used for a base station where the active and passive elements are fabricated
separately. The wireless communication between a base station to base station or receiver is
determined by the wireless technology used. For WiMAX technology, communication between
base station to a transmitting tower is line of sight (LOS) and between a transmitting tower to a
receiver is non-LOS. Current developments in WiMAX are leading to make hotspots for
WiMAX with LOS communication between base station and the receiving tower.

50
 REFERENCES
[1] http://www.wimax.com/education

[2] http://computer.howstuffworks.com/wimax1.htm

[3] http://computer.howstuffworks.com/wimax1.htm

[4] http://www.kohlgroup.com/whatiswimax.htm

[5] http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-rf.htm

[6] http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214263,00.html

[7] Budimir, Djuradj, “3TSE612, RF and Microwave System, University of Westminster”, 1998

[8] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[9] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[10] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[11] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[12] http://www.intuitor.com/resonance/radioTVres.html

[13] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[14] Pozar, David M, “Microwave and RF of Design of Wireless Systems”, John Wiley & Sons,
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[15] http://michaelgellis.tripod.com/mixersin.html

51
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I Inc, 2001

[17] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[18] Budimir, Djuradj, “3TSE612, RF and Microwave System, University of Westminster”, 1998

[19] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[20] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[21] http://www.emtalk.com/images/Designer/Tutorial1/ms_model.jpg

[22] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[23] http://personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/D.Jefferies/gifpics/msimp.gif

[24] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[25] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

[26] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1989

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[31] Budimir, Djuradj, “3TSE612, RF and Microwave System, University of Westminster”, 1998

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52
[33] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 90, John Wiley & Sons, w q
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[34] http://mobiledevdesign.com/tutorials/radio_characterizing_phase_noise/

[35] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 273, John Wiley & Sons,
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[36] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 274, John Wiley & Sons,
w q Chichester, 1989

[37] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 270, John Wiley & Sons,
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[38] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 283, John Wiley & Sons,
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[39] Budimir, Djuradj, “3TSE612, RF and Microwave System, University of Westminster”, 1998

[40] Kai Chang, “RF and Microwave Wireless System”, page 287, John Wiley & Sons,
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53