1

Second Language Writing for

University Purposes:
From learner, to teacher, to researcher.

Larissa Goulart
lg845@nau.edu
PhD Candidate
Northern Arizona University
 BACKGROUND

- Teacher at the Idioms without Borders

Program from 2013 – 2015.

- MA in ELT

- PhD in Applied Linguistics

 3

STUDENT WRITING
What do we teach in our English pre-sessional classes or in intensive English
programs?

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 4

STUDENT WRITING
What do we teach in our English pre-sessional classes or in intensive English
programs?

Display English skills

Limited amount of communicative purposes (to argue, to

narrate)

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 5

STUDENT WRITING

Second language writing research

- Composition classes

- Assessment writing

- Graduate classes

- English/Languages department

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 6

Goal
Describe the linguistic patterns of texts L2 students write for university
purposes.

- What are the underlying dimensions of linguistic

variation across registers in L2 writing for university
purposes?

- How does this variation relate to L1 writing?

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 7

Methods
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
 BrAWE – Brazilian Academic Written English Corpus
8

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 BrAWE – Brazilian Academic Written English Corpus
9

Total Number of words Mean text length

Argumentative Essay 29 42,597 1468.86
Case Study 47 104,547 2224.40
Research Report 16 46,690 2918.13
Critique 52 100,374 1930.27
Design 8 18,554 2319.25
Exercise 41 59,340 1447.32
Laboratory Report 78 158,913 2037.35
Literature Review 8 16,722 2090.25
Narrative essay 53 82,007 1547.30
Problem-Solution 17 29,882 1757.76
Proposal 30 76,051 2535.03
Total 379 735,677 1941.10

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 BAWE – British Academic Written English Corpus
10

Total Number of words Mean text Length

Case Study 22 63,531 2887.77
Critique 36 82,852 2301.44
Design Specifications 14 46,827 3344.79
Empathy Writing 16 16,392 1024.50
Essay 201 569,375 2832.71
Exercise 16 23,405 1462.81
Explanation 24 47,365 1973.54
Literature Survey 3 4,637 1545.67
Methodology Recount 26 58,181 2237.73
Narrative Recount 16 36,303 2268.94
Problem question 2 6,340 3170.00
Proposal 3 2,748 916.00
Research Report 16 96,251 6015.69
Total 395 1,054,207 2668.88
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
 BAWE – British Academic Written English Corpus
11

Total Number of words Mean text Length

Case Study 22 63,531 2887.77
Critique 36 82,852 2301.44
Design Specifications 14 46,827 3344.79
Empathy Writing 16 16,392 1024.50
Essay 201 569,375 2832.71
Exercise 16 23,405 1462.81
Explanation 24 47,365 1973.54
Literature Survey 3 4,637 1545.67
Methodology Recount 26 58,181 2237.73
Narrative Recount 16 36,303 2268.94
Problem question 2 6,340 3170.00
Proposal 3 2,748 916.00
Research Report 16 96,251 6015.69
Total 395 1,054,207 2668.88
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
 12

MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Ingredients = linguistic variables

Identifies the linguistic

variables that tend to occur
together.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 13

MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

- Gardner et al. (2019)

- Hardy & Friginal (2016)

45 features

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 14

Results
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
 Dimension 1 Dimension 2 Dimension 3 Dimension 4 Dimension 5
Expression of personal Informational Involved academic Stance towards the
Expression of possibility
opinion density narrative work of others
Third person pronoun Present tense (.80) Word length (.90) Mental verbs (.57) Finite stance verb
(.59) All modals (.65) Nominalizations That- deletion (.43) complement clauses
Stance adverbs (.55) Verb to be (.62) (.54) Third person pronouns (.92)
Animate nouns (.37) Subordinators (.47) Premodifying (.42) Verb complement
Finite stance-noun Predicative adjective nouns (.40) Wh-clauses (.40) clauses (.82)
complement clauses (.35) (.41) Type/token ration Non-finite stance verb Finite stance noun
Perfect aspect (.34) (.39) complement clauses (.39) complement clauses
Non-finite stance-noun Past tense verbs Action verbs (.38) (.39)
complement clauses (.30) (.31) Animate nouns (.38) Communication verbs
(.35)
Compressed procedural Accounts of completed Engaging
Elaborate descriptions
information actions presentations
Premodifying nouns (-.91) Past tense verbs (-.70) Action verbs (-.31) Prepositions (-.53)
Common nouns (-.69) Proper nouns (-.35) Attributive Definite articles (-.33)
Passive voice (-.60) adjectives (-.54) Attributive adjectives (-
Concrete nouns (-.43) Definite articles (- .31)
Quantitative nouns (-.41) .55)
Action verbs (-.37)

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 16

Expression of personal opinion

vs
Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 Expression of personal opinion

Independent
DF F-value p R²
Variable
L1 Register 12 13.55 p <.0001 .276
L2 Register 10 11.57 p <.0001 .218

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 18

Expression of personal opinion

Excerpt 1 - CRAHRHUP200T04 – Critique (2.98)

These culinary refusals are also another important aspect of the novel. Julia states, right from the
beginning of the story, that she does not like to cook: she only does it for her family. She hates the
fact that she has to cook, but she does it.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 19

Expression of personal opinion

Excerpt 1 - CRAHRHUP200T04 – Critique (2.98)

These culinary refusals are also another important aspect of the novel. Julia states, right from the
beginning of the story, that she does not like to cook: she only does it for her family. She hates the
fact that she has to cook, but she does it.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 20

Expression of personal opinion

Excerpt 1 - CRAHRHUP200T04 – Critique (2.98)

These culinary refusals are also another important aspect of the novel. Julia states, right from the
beginning of the story, that she does not like to cook: she only does it for her family. She hates the
fact that she has to cook, but she does it.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 21

Expression of personal opinion

Excerpt 1 - CRAHRHUP200T04 – Critique (2.98)

These culinary refusals are also another important aspect of the novel. Julia states, right from the
beginning of the story, that she does not like to cook: she only does it for her family. She hates the
fact that she has to cook, but she does it.

Excerpt 2 - NEPSLIUP150T04 - Narrative essay (1.82)

The Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron set up their office in 1978 and followed
a path of success and recognition that has put them between the most admired architects in the
world. Unlike other famous architects, their buildings do not have a recognizable style. You will
never know what to expect from one of their projects, and that is a consequence of their main
philosophy of work: never do the same thing twice.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 22

Expression of personal opinion

Excerpt 1 - CRAHRHUP200T04 – Critique (2.98)

These culinary refusals are also another important aspect of the novel. Julia states, right from the
beginning of the story, that she does not like to cook: she only does it for her family. She hates the
fact that she has to cook, but she does it.

Excerpt 2 - NEPSLIUP150T04 - Narrative essay (1.82)

The Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron set up their office in 1978 and followed
a path of success and recognition that has put them between the most admired architects in the
world. Unlike other famous architects, their buildings do not have a recognizable style. You will
never know what to expect from one of their projects, and that is a consequence of their main
philosophy of work: never do the same thing twice.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 23

Excerpt 3 – EXPSQMLP09T02 – Exercise (-4.15)

As the microstrip lines get closer to 30 Ghz, it can be noticed that the transmission coefficient goes
extremely low, this can be checked in the CST simulation. Usually this low performance is due to the FR-
4 substrate, this material has very high dielectric losses with millimeter waves. As a result of the
substrate changing, it can be noticed that Alumina is a great choice for higher frequencies, since it has
the highest transmission coefficient.

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 24

Excerpt 3 – EXPSQMLP09T02 – Exercise (-4.15)

As the microstrip lines get closer to 30 Ghz, it can be noticed that the transmission coefficient goes
extremely low, this can be checked in the CST simulation. Usually this low performance is due to the FR-
4 substrate, this material has very high dielectric losses with millimeter waves. As a result of the
substrate changing, it can be noticed that Alumina is a great choice for higher frequencies, since it has
the highest transmission coefficient.

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 25

Expression of personal opinion

Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 2.47 .01* -0.52

Critique -.04 .96 -.009

Design -2.12 .04* -.84

Exercise .38 .70 .11

Literature Review .26 .81 .28

Laboratory Report -.20 .84 -.04

Proposal .25 .81 .09

Research Report .18 .85 .06

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 26

Expression of personal opinion

Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 2.47 .01* -0.52

Critique -.04 .96 -.009

Design -2.12 .04* -.84

Exercise .38 .70 .11

Literature Review .26 .81 .28

Laboratory Report -.20 .84 -.04

Proposal .25 .81 .09

Research Report .18 .85 .06

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 27

Design Excerpt 4 – 0250e – L1 - Design (-2.28)

Blood sampling is a vital medical procedure, and is used for many different
purposes, from assessing liver and kidney function, to controlling substances such
as blood glucose and hormones. Traditional methods used to sample blood and
deliver drugs to the human body can be inefficient and often painful. The use of
hypodermic needles is a common choice however this procedure can cause
significant pain to the patient and in many cases, is not acceptable when the rate of
drug release needs to be accurately controlled. There are many safety concerns
associated with the use of hypodermic needles, with needle injuries accounting for
16% of reported incidents by NHS staff, totaling approximately 100,000 injuries per
year 33. As a result of these concerns, alternative technologies have been
investigated.

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 28

Design Excerpt 4 – 0250e – L1 - Design (-2.28)

Blood sampling is a vital medical procedure, and is used for many different
purposes, from assessing liver and kidney function, to controlling substances such
as blood glucose and hormones. Traditional methods used to sample blood and
deliver drugs to the human body can be inefficient and often painful. The use of
hypodermic needles is a common choice however this procedure can cause
significant pain to the patient and in many cases, is not acceptable when the rate of
drug release needs to be accurately controlled. There are many safety concerns
associated with the use of hypodermic needles, with needle injuries accounting for
16% of reported incidents by NHS staff, totaling approximately 100,000 injuries per
year 33. As a result of these concerns, alternative technologies have been
investigated.

Compressed procedural information

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
1
 29

Expression of personal opinion

Design Excerpt 5 – DEPSQMLP91T01 – L2 - Design (.83)

Because of the limited number of Ports on the 8051 microcontroller, we need a

“port extender” to help us communicate with the display and the Keypad. That’s
what the 8255 device does, it is a Peripheral Interface Adapter. It has 3 Ports A, B, C
that can work as input as well as output needing just a bit of programing
beforehand. Port A and Port B can be defined (as output or input) separately, but
port C has to be divided into two parts. As you can see in Figure 1, the block
diagram shows how the Peripheral Interface 8255 is connected to the 8051
microcontroller and the Keypad display.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 30

Case Study

Second Language – Expressions of opinion (.24)

It is very important to understand the characteristics of the service… – Case study: CSPSBLUP34T02 (1.68)
Now, looking at the Schmenner Classification model it is not possible to classify Social Media again…

English L1 – Compressed Procedural information (-.17)

The total overall threat rating is given by the sum of these individual ratings, and is translated into an
overall Low (5-7 total score), Medium (8-11 total score) or High (12-15 total score). Case Study: 6108h (-1.0)

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

1
 31

Expression of possibility
vs
Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

2
 Expression of possibility

Independent
DF F-value p R²
Variable
L1 Register 12 4.23 p <.0001 .09

L2 Register 10 5.44 p <.0001 .10

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

2
 33

Expression of possibility

Excerpt 4 – EXPSBSUP42T02 – Exercise (5.13)

The BFS is preferred, if there are multiple solutions, BFS will always find and return the
shallowest one, while the DFS might not return the shallowest one. The DFS searches an
entire branch before searching another one. Therefore, it could spend a lot of time going
through a large branch, while there is a shallow solution in the other one. The BFS is
usually more time efficient than the DFS.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

2
 34

Expression of possibility

Excerpt 4 – EXPSBSUP42T02 – Exercise (5.13)

The BFS is preferred, if there are multiple solutions, BFS will always find and return the
shallowest one, while the DFS might not return the shallowest one. The DFS searches an
entire branch before searching another one. Therefore, it could spend a lot of time going
through a large branch, while there is a shallow solution in the other one. The BFS is
usually more time efficient than the DFS.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

2
 35

Excerpt 5 – CSPSBSUP18T02 – Case Study (-2.63)

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge linked the city of Tacoma to the Gig Harbour at the Kitsap Peninsula in
the state of Washington, U.S.A. It was designed by engineer Clark Eldridge, its construction began in
September 1938. The project, quite a standout from those of other bridges at the time, included “I”
beams rather than the traditional grid for deck support as an alternative to save money.
Nevertheless, ever since its deck was built, workers noticed it gained vertical movement in the form
of longitudinal waves during windy weather, which granted the bridge the infamous nickname
“Galloping Gertie”. Leon Moisseiff, a renowned engineer who acted as consultant in the project,
admitted at the time that two of his latest bridges were also experiencing the same problem,
though in minor scale.

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
2
 36

Excerpt 5 – CSPSBSUP18T02 – Case Study (-2.63)

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge linked the city of Tacoma to the Gig Harbour at the Kitsap Peninsula in
the state of Washington, U.S.A. It was designed by engineer Clark Eldridge, its construction began
in September 1938. The project, quite a standout from those of other bridges at the time, included
“I” beams rather than the traditional grid for deck support as an alternative to save money.
Nevertheless, ever since its deck was built, workers noticed it gained vertical movement in the
form of longitudinal waves during windy weather, which granted the bridge the infamous nickname
“Galloping Gertie”. Leon Moisseiff, a renowned engineer who acted as consultant in the project,
admitted at the time that two of his latest bridges were also experiencing the same problem,
though in minor scale.

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
2
 37

Expression of possibility
Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 4.46 <.001* 1.19

Critique .76 .44 .16

Design -.65 .52 -.28

Exercise .55 .58 .12

Literature Review .24 .82 .19

Laboratory Report .38 .70 .08

Proposal 1.61 .23 1.30

Research Report -.20 .83 -.07

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
2
 38

Expression of possibility
Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 4.46 <.001* 1.19

Critique .76 .44 .16

Design -.65 .52 -.28

Exercise .55 .58 .12

Literature Review .24 .82 .19

Laboratory Report .38 .70 .08

Proposal 1.61 .23 1.30

Research Report -.20 .83 -.07

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
2
 39

Case Study Expression of possibility

English L1 – Expressions of possibility (.72)

If pest control is to be an issue, it may be advantageous to plant the rows parallel to prevailing
costal winds. Rows should be spaced, with a distance of 8-10 feet, or wider if larger harvesting
equipment must be accommodated. – 6012d (2.72)

English L2 – Account of completed events (-2.01)

For the first two years after they had met, Nicole and James were colleagues and did not have any
significant influence in each other’s lives. However, in 2013, they became closer colleagues and attended
some events in common outside their university. They began to walk with the same group of people.
CSLSBAUP47T01 (-2.09)

Account of completed events

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
2
 Informational density
vs
Engaging presentations

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

3
 Informational density

Independent R² (per
DF F-value p
Variable cent)
L1 Register 12 2.01 p = .02 2
L2 Register 10 7.23 p <.0001 14.1

Engaging presentations

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

3
 Informational density

Excerpt 6 – PSPSSHUP99T01 – Problem-Solution (3.46)

In face of those environmental problems discussed above it is noticeable that urban

development plans should minimize pollution and other adverse effects on the local and
natural environment in order to achieve more sustainable practices. Sustainability is a
contemporary concept of development and it involves a complex understanding about
practices that promote a better relation between nature and humanity, but in a simpler
way.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

3
 Excerpt 7 – DEPSQMLP91T01 – Design (-3.37)
The keypad is a 4x4 matrix of pushbuttons. To communicate with the Keypad, Port C of the 8255
device is used.

Excerpt 8 - DEPSSHUP98T04 – Design (-2.49)

This defines the component interfaces for the bracket, drive shaft and motor components. The
subassembly housing includes engine, bracket component, cage and propeller. The first part
included was the motor. The bracket was positioned in the two axis of the small holes of the
motor.

Engaging presentation
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
3
 Informational density
Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 1.71 .09 0.37

Critique -.06 .94 -.01

Design 1.76 .09 .80

Exercise 3.65 <.001* .92

Literature Review .55 .63 .55

Laboratory Report .40 .68 .09

Proposal .04 .96 .03

Research Report -.74 .46 -.26

Engaging presentation
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
3
 Informational density
Register t- value p Cohen’s D

Case Study 1.71 .09 0.37

Critique -.06 .94 -.01

Design 1.76 .09 .80

Exercise 3.65 <.001* .92

Literature Review .55 .63 .55

Laboratory Report .40 .68 .09

Proposal .04 .96 .03

Research Report -.74 .46 -.26

Engaging presentation
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
3
 Exercise Informational density

English L1 – Informational density – Exercise (.41)

The poem exposes the divergence between idealism and actuality by using structural parallelism to
establish a familiar configuration that is suddenly disrupted by the sixth stanza. It operates through a series
of metaphors where the first five stanzas follow a strict pattern; each is comprised of three lines beginning;
'If love was,' with the second line commencing ‘I.’ – 3008c (2.45)

English L2 – Engaging presentation – Exercise (-.57)

A communication between the board and a computer is established using the individual integrated circuit
for serial communication (UART) in the microcontroller. Using a peripheral device for the UART
communication, the ADC reading is shown in the user’s screen. The user has also the option to press the
ESC key in the keyboard to insert a new limit value for the alarm. EXPSULSP194T02 (-2.48)

Engaging presentation
1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION
3
 47

DISCUSSION

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 48

Dimensions of variation
- Expression of personal opinion vs compressed procedural
information
- Expression of possibility vs account of completed events
- Informational density vs engaging presentations
- Involved academic writing vs elaborate descriptions
- Stance towards the work of others

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 49

Dimensions of variation
- Expression of personal opinion vs compressed procedural
information
- Expression of possibility vs account of completed events
- Informational density vs engaging presentations
- Involved academic writing vs elaborate descriptions
- Stance towards the work of others
Teaching
- Opportunities for students to practice writing these registers in their
English classes.

- Examples of how these linguistic features are used in university

registers.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 50

Critiques: Critique of a book/movie/tv show

Laboratory reports: everyday procedures

Teaching
- Opportunities for students to practice writing these registers in their
English classes.

- Examples of how these linguistic features are used in university

registers.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 51

L1 vs L2
Expression of personal opinion > Compressed procedural information (case study and
design)

Account of completed events > Expression of possibility (case study)

Engaging presentation > Informational density (exercises)

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 52

L1 vs L2
Expression of personal opinion > Compressed procedural information (case study and
design)

Account of completed events > Expression of possibility (case study)

Engaging presentation > Informational density (exercises)

Teaching
Explicitly teaching the linguistic resources used to express these
communicative purposes.

Giving examples in class of L1 and L2 writing and compare how they

achieve the goal of these assignments.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 53

Examples from BAWE (L1 and L2 students)

Teach co-occurring features together

Teaching
Explicitly teaching the linguistic resources used to express these
communicative purposes.

Giving examples in class of L1 and L2 writing and compare how they

achieve the goal of these assignments.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

 54

Future steps

- Students from other language backgrounds.

- Disciplinary variation.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. METHOD 3. RESULTS 4. DISCUSSION

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