Rivers, Floods and Management

What is the drainage basin hydrological cycle?

It is a local, open system which continuously cycles water through inputs, stores and outputs between the
atmosphere and a drainage basin.

What is a drainage basin (rivers catchment)?

The area of land that is drained by a river and its tributaries

Define the term watershed

A ridge of land that marks the boundary of a drainage basin – beyond this point any precipitation will fall into the
adjacent basin

Describe the inputs, stores, transfers and outputs of a drainage basin hydrological cycle. (15)

Inputs:

Precipitation – this is anyway moisture comes out of the atmosphere e.g. rain / hail / sleet / snow

Stores:

Interception – this is where precipitation falls on vegetation overlying the ground, before it reaches the soil
(evaporation is likely to happen to this form of storage and some light rainfall events may not even reach the soil
as the water is intercepted and the evaporated before it reaches the soil)

Vegetation storage – this is all the water that plants have taken up and then have contained in their systems

Surface Storage – this includes puddles, ponds and lakes

Groundwater storage – this is all the water that is stored in the soil (soil moisture). The water table is the top of
the ‘zone of saturation’ (the zone of soil where all pores are full of water)

Channel Storage – all the water held in a river or stream (water falls directly into river = channel precipitation)

Transfers / flows / processes:

Surface Runoff – this is down to the rock being frozen/baked solid, already full of water, can’t infiltrate quick
enough

Through fall – water dripping from leaf to leaf

Stem flow – water running down a plant stem or tree

Infiltration – this is water soaking into the soil (porous rocks have little gaps in that water flows into and pervious
is rock with cracks)

Percolation – water seeping from soil into water table

Through flow – this is water moving through the top soil (fast)

Interflow – this is water flowing through permeable rock above the water table (medium)
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Groundwater flow – this is water flowing slowly below the water table through permeable rocks

Base flow – this is groundwater flow that feeds into rivers

Channel flow – water flowing in the channel (also called discharge)

Outputs:

Evaporation – this is water turning into water vapour

Transpiration – this is evaporation through

plants

Evapotranspiration –the process of the two

together (a collective term). Potential ET is the
amount of water that could be lost from a place
by ET, based on the environment. For example,
deserts have a high potential ET because of the
hot and sunny conditions, but there is no water in
the first place for actual ET to happen. However,
the amount of water available for ET in
England is usually always higher than that
that actually takes place.

Ground + Above Condensation (of water in clouds)

In Soil
Above Water Table
Below Water Table
Throughfall (water dripping from one plant onto another)
SRO (water flowing overland)
Stemflow (water running down a plant stem or plant part)
Infiltration (Water soaking into soil)
Throughflow (water moving through the soil)
Interflow (water flowing downhill above the water table)
Percolation (water seeping down into the water table)
Groundwater flow (water flowing slowly at the bottom of the
water table)
Baseflow (groundwater flow that feeds into rivers)
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What does a storm hydrograph show?

A storm hydrograph is a way of displaying how the discharge of a river can change over time in response to a
rainfall event.

What is discharge?

The discharge of a river is the amount of water passing a certain point every second, and is calculated by
multiplying the CROSS SECTIONAL AREA of the river by its VELOCITY. Because the cross section is measured in
metres2 and the velocity is measured in metres per second the discharge is measured in metres 3 per second.
These units are known as CUMECs (CUbic Metres per sECond)

Describe the features of the storm hydrograph (8)

Peak Discharge – highest point on the graph and the point where discharge is greatest

Lag Time – delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge (due to rainwater taking time to flow into a river). This
changes from storm to storm because of a number of factors. A shorter lag time means a higher peak discharge
because more water gets to the river in a shorter period of time

Rising Limb – this is the curve leading up to peak discharge as rainwater flows into the river
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Falling Limb – Part of the graph after peak discharge when less water is flowing into the river. A shallow falling
limb shows that water is flowing in from stores long after the rain has stopped. A steep FL shows that water
either; got soaked up by ground / no stores

What is meant by a flashy hydrograph?

A flashy hydrograph would give a short lag time and high peak discharge. This is because water very quickly gets
into the river – flash flood if it rises above bank full level. This could be because of rapid surface run off due to
importability, temperature and low storage capacity.

Describe the physical factors that affect the shape of a hydrograph (15)

Drainage Basins

Drainage Density* – The higher the drainage density, the more water will falls directly into the river and so
shorter lag times

Large – catch more rain, high peak discharge but longer lag time as it takes a while for water to reach river / Small
- shorter lag time as water takes less time to get to river

Gradient – Steep sided gets water to river quicker  shorter lag time + increase peak discharge (increased peak
as water takes less time to get to river so more can get to the river in the time)

Shape – Circular means that water has equidistance to get to river so all the water will get to the river at the same
time  shorter lag time  high peak discharge

Antecedent rainfall

Ground already water logged  soil can’t absorb any more water  more sro and so shorter lag time (as sro is
much quicker than if the water had to infiltrate and get to the river through Through flow or base flow) and so
high peak discharge

Rock Type

Impermeable means more sro (as there’s less infiltration) and so shorter lag time so higher peak discharge.
Permeable means shorter lag time as water infiltrates and moves by through flow which takes longer. This means
the event is spread over a longer time so the peak discharge will be lower

Pervious – water flows down cracks in rock / Porous – pores for water to flow through

Soil type

Sandy Soils – these soils have a larger pore spaces so there is more infiltration and so water reaches the river
slower as it gets there through Through flow or base flow

Clay Soils - have smaller pores and so there is less infiltration and more sro so shorter lag time and so high peak
discharge
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Land use

Veg – intercepts rain  slows it down  increasing the lag time. Also, with veg, the more leaves there are the
more ET there will be and so the longer the lag time is as more water gets lost (flooding more likely to occur is
deforested areas) which also reduces peak discharge

(Also human factors – urbanization / drains)

Precipitation

Amount – lots  short lag time  high peak discharge / Type – snow falls  takes days to melt  long lag time

Temperature

Extremes of conditions (frozen + baking hot) means less infiltration  more sro  less lag time and higher peak
discharge / High temps, in veg areas, means more ET  so less water will reach the river channels  reducing
peak discharge

*Drainage Density is the number of streams in a particular drainage basin. The higher the drainage density, the
more quickly precipitation drains into a river meaning the likelihood of a flood is raised
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Describe the Human factors affecting the Hydrograph

Urban – concrete convers most of the ground which means water can’t infiltrate so there is lots of surface run off.
This means water gets to a river quicker reducing lag time and increasing peak discharge

Drains – water flows down drains into river before it can evaporate / infiltrate so there is also a shorter lag time
and higher peak discharge

Deforestation

What is meant by the water balance?

It is the balance between inputs to a drainage basin and outputs across a typical year.

What does the water balance tell us?

This tells us how much water is stored in a drainage basin.

How does the water balance of the UK change over a typical year? (6)

Overall in the UK, the levels of precipitation (inputs) usually exceed the levels of evapotranspiration (outputs)
meaning that we have a positive water budget. The water balance changes over a typical year.

In the wet seasons (Jan - April) precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. This means there is more input into the
basin than output so the ground stores fill with water. This is known as soil moisture surplus. This is evident in the
fact that surface run off is usually higher as water can’t infiltrate as stores are already full. This means higher
discharge of rivers in winter

In dry seasons (May - September) precipitation (input) is lower than evapotranspiration (output) meaning that
ground stores become depleted and soil moisture is utilized (by humans / plants). Water flows into rivers (output)
but is not replaced (input) as little precipitation. This means there is a lot less soil moisture.

What is meant by soil moisture recharge? (2)

When the subsequent wet months come again (October – December),

the amount of precipitation (input) will exceed the amount of
evapotranspiration (output) and deficit soil moisture will be
replenished by falling rains. This replenishing of water after a dry
period into the ground stores is known as soil moisture recharge.
Water will then return to its field capacity – the normal amount of
water that can be held by soil.

Soil moisture surplus = Precipitation exceeds ET

Soil moisture deficit = ET exceeds Precipitation
Soil moisture recharge = replacement of water lost during summer
due to ET exceeding precipitation and soil moisture utilization by
plants and humans
Field Capacity = maximum amount of water soil can hold
 Rivers, Floods and Management

How does erosion of a river change downstream?

Upper Vertical and mostly by abrasion

Rough channel causes turbulence meaning more vertical erosion
Middle Vertical and Lateral and mostly by abrasion
Attrition in this stage makes the load smaller e.g. pebbles / silts
Lower Any erosion would be lateral but there is little due to low turbulence (because of smooth
channel) and low sediment size (less abrasion)

How does transportation of a river change downstream?

Upper Large particles (Boulder / cobbles) carried by traction and saltation

Middle Particle size decreases (due to attrition) so some particles carried in solution e.g. silts and
sands and still some saltation of pebbles
Lower Smaller particles still carried by suspension or as a solution

How does deposition of a river change downstream?

Upper Little deposition. Mainly largest particles deposited such as boulder and cobbles
Middle Sand and gravel mainly get deposited
Lower Sands and silts deposited across floodplain when it floods and also when the river
reaches its mouth sediment is deposited (as the sea absorbs the rivers energy) forming
deltas

Describe the characteristics of a rivers upper course.

Channel Uneven / Steep Gradient / High roughness

River Lots of potential energy
Landforms Rapids / Waterfalls
Processes Vertical erosion
Hydraulic action + Abrasion
Mainly larger bedload transported and deposited

Describe the characteristics of a rivers middle course.

Channel Shallower Gradient

River More kinetic energy
Landforms Meanders / Flood plains / Rapids
Processes Lateral + vertical erosion / Attrition + Abrasion / Traction + suspension

Describe the characteristics of a rivers lower course.

Channel Deeper
River Lots of kinetic energy
Landforms Levees / floodplains / meanders
Processes Lateral erosion / Gravels sands and silts / Transported as suspension / More
deposition
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are the types of erosion?

Hydraulic action

The pressure of the water breaks the rock particles away from the bed and banks. Its strongest rapids and
waterfalls and during floods

Abrasion (or corrasion)

Eroded pieces of rock in the water scrape and rub against the bed and banks, removing material. Most erosion of
river bed and banks happens this way

Attrition

Eroded rocks smash into each other and break into smaller fragments, their edges get rounded off as they rub
together. Attrition doesn't erode the bed and banks just the particles in the river

Corrosion (solution)

The dissolving of rock by chemical processes. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak acid, which reacts
with rocks like limestone and chalk, breaking them down

Cavitation

Air bubbles in turbulent stretches if water implodes causing shockwaves that break pieces of rock off the banks
and bed.

What are the other three main types of erosion?

Vertical erosion dominates in the upper reaches of a river, where the land lies high above sea level. This is
because the river is attempting to cut down to its base level. When the river level and velocity are high, it cuts
down into its valley mainly by abrasion and hydraulic action, often producing steep-sided valleys.

Lateral erosion occurs more frequently in the middle and lower courses of the river, where the river possesses
lots of energy. This energy is used to widen the valley as the river meanders. The strongest current on the outside
of the bend often causes the bank to collapse, further widening the channel.

Headword erosion makes the river longer; it happens near river’s source as through flow and surface runoff
causes erosion at the point the water enters the river channel.

What are the main types of transportation?

Solution - substances that can dissolve are carried along in the water e.g. limestone is dissolved into river water
that's slightly acidic

Suspension - very fine material like silt and clay particles, is whipped up by turbulence and carried along in the
water. Most eroded material is transported this way

Saltation - larger particles like pebbles or gravel, are too heavy to be carried in suspension so the force of the
water causes them to bounce along the river bed

Traction - very large particles e.g. boulders, are pushed along the river bed by the force of the water
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are the different types of load a river carries?

The 3 types of loads

Bedload Traction
Saltation
Suspended Suspension – fine muds / clays / silts
Load
Solution Solution – carbonate rocks react with weak acid in the water to dissolve the
Load rocks into a solution e.g. limestone

What is meant by capacity?

The capacity is the total load that a river can transport at a given point.

Total amount of load that can be carried (amount)

What is meant by competence?

The competence describes the maximum particle size that a river is capable of transporting at a given point.

Maximum size of load a river can carry (size)

Give some reasons why deposition may occur (6)

Reduced rainfall = lower discharge = river slows down and has less energy.

Increased evaporation/abstraction = lower discharge = river slows down and has less energy

In shallow areas like inside of a meander = friction = reduces the speed of river reducing its energy

When the river is forced to slow down (e.g. before a narrow section of a channel) it loses energy

Energy is lost when the river meets the sea as the sea absorbs the energy

Increase in the calibre of the load (due to tributaries bringing larger particles) = the same amount of energy but
large load to carry = some material therefore can’t be carried and gets deposited

What does the hjulstrom curve show?

The Hjulstrom curve shows the relationship between the velocity of a river and competence. It also shows the
relationship between erosion, deposition and transportation with velocity.

What is meant by the critical erosion velocity curve?

The critical erosion velocity curve on the graph shows the minimum velocity needed for the river to pick up and
transport particles of different sizes. It takes a higher velocity to erode material than it does to just transport
material

What is meant by the mean settling velocity curve?

The mean settling velocity curve shows the velocities at which particles of different sizes are deposited i.e. it
shows the competence of the river at different velocities
 Rivers, Floods and Management

The graph shows that sand can be eroded at lower velocities than finer particles such as silt and clay. This is
because silt and clay particles stick together more than sand which means that they’re harder to dislodge, so it
requires more energy to erode them. This is called flocculation.

In general, the largest fragments are the first to be deposited, followed by successively smaller particles with
distance downstream. Upland = large boulders, Further downstream = gravels, sands, silts. Some material is never
deposited.

Hjulstrom’s research showed three interesting relationships:

 Sand particles are moved by lower critical erosion velocities than smaller silts and clays or larger gravels.
The small clay and silt particles are difficult to entrain because of the coagulate (adhesive properties).
Much more powerful flows are required to lift them into the water.
 Once entrained, particles can be carried at lower velocities than those required to pick them up.
However, for larger particles, there is a small difference between the critical erosion velocity and the
settling velocity, meaning they will be deposited soon after entrainment.
 Clays and silts (smallest particles) are only deposited at very low velocities. Some clay may never be
deposited, which explains why such deposits occur in river estuaries, where the fresh water of the river
meets the salt water of the sea. This creates extensive areas of mudflats, as chemical settling of the silts
and clays occur (flocculation).
 Rivers, Floods and Management

There are two curves on the Hjulstrom Curve, a critical erosion velocity curve and a mean settling
velocity curve. The critical erosion curve shows the minimum velocity needed to transport and erode
a particle. The mean settling velocity shows the minimum speed that particles of different sizes will
be deposited by the river. The shaded areas between the curves show the different process that will
be taking place for particles that
lie in those shaded areas.

As an example, a river flowing at

10cms-1 will transport clay, silt
and sand particles but will deposit
gravel, pebble and boulder
particles. Conversely, a river
flowing at 100cms-1 will erode
and transport large clay particles,
silt particles, sand particles and
most gravel particles. It will
transport all but the largest of
pebbles and will deposit boulders.

The easiest way to read the curve is to draw a horizontal line from the velocity you’re trying to read
and seeing which shaded area it crosses the particle size you’re interested in in. This will tell you
whether that particle is eroded, transported or deposited at that velocity.

The load of a river can be divided into different categories according to particle size – particle sizes
varies from fine silt and clay to large boulders

Larger particles require more velocity to be lifted off the bed. Larger particles will be deposited at
higher velocities (red^) where smaller particles will remain in transport (yellow^)

Clay Silt Sand Gravel Pebble Cobbles Boulders

Rivers, Floods and Management
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What is the long profile of a river?

It’s a profile that shows how the gradient of the river channel changes from its source to its mouth
by showing the height of the river bed above the base level for the whole length of the river

What is the base level of a river profile?

The lowest point a river can erode to (usually sea level)

What is meant by a graded profile?

In theory, the total amount of erosion and deposition across the full course of a river would be in
equilibrium. However, seeing as there are different rates of erosion and deposition in the three
different courses, we still get waterfalls in the upper course and levees in the lower course (different
features in different courses due to changes in process down the river)

If the river was left for a long time, the amounts of erosion and deposition would balance out to give
a completely smooth channel course – the graded profile.

What are the three main river processes?

Erosion / Transportation / Deposition

What types of energy does a river have?

Potential (how high the water is) and Kinetic (the movement of the water – more kinetic = more
velocity)

How does the energy of a river change down the long profile?

Upper course – Steep gradient + high altitude means there is a lot of potential energy

Middle Course – As gradient and altitude decrease, the potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy (movement) and so the river gain velocity + joining tributaries + more water from sro etc.
means more water so more kinetic energy so more velocity

Lower Course – Shallow gradient + near sea level so lots of kinetic energy (which is one of the
reasons why the river is always fastest in the lower course, along with the hydraulic radius theory)

What is a river kinetic energy used for?

To overcome friction – the rest is used for erosion

What is meant by the efficiency of a river?

The more energy a river has available for erosion and transportation, the more efficient it is.
Therefore an efficient river will have little friction. Efficiency is measured by the Hydraulic radius.

What are the characteristics of an efficient river?

An efficient river will have a high velocity, high discharge (due to Hr) and little friction (due to Cr)
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What will affect the efficiency of a river?

Size of its Hr and channel roughness

What is the velocity of a river?

The amount of kinetic energy it has

What three factors influence the velocity of a river?

- Channel Shape (Hr)

- Channel Roughness
- Channel Slope (Gradient – kinetic energy Vs. Potential Energy)

A channels shape is best described by its hydraulic radius. What is the hydraulic radius?

Is the channels cross-sectional area divided by the length of its wetted perimeter and is a measure of
how efficient a river is

Csa
Hr =
Wp

What is the wetted perimeter of a river?

The portion of the perimeter of a stream channel cross-section that is in contact with the rivers
water. Contact between the water and the wetted perimeter creates friction which increases energy
loss and slows the river down

|-----------------|

| WATER |

|_______|

How it the Hr of a river related to velocity and discharge?

A larger hydraulic radius means that a smaller proportion of water is in contact with the wetted
perimeter, so friction is lower, which reduces energy loss, increasing velocity and discharge. This
increases the rivers efficiency

A small hydraulic radius means that a larger proportion of water is in contact with wetted perimeter,
so friction is higher, which increases energy loss, reducing velocity and discharge. This decreases
river efficiency

What are the characteristics of a channel with a large hydraulic radius?

Smooth / Narrow / Deep (therefore more efficient)

What are the characteristics of a channel with a small hydraulic radius?

 Rivers, Floods and Management

Shallower and Broader (therefore less efficient)

What is channel roughness?

How rough the channel is due to the presence of protruding banks or large angular boulder on the
bed.

How is channel roughness related to river efficiency?

The higher the roughness of a river, the more a river’s water is contact with the sides of a river and
so the higher the wetted perimeter. A higher wetted perimeter means a smaller Hr. This means
more energy is used up overcoming friction than being put into its velocity and so velocity and
discharge decreases and therefore so does the channels efficiency.

Protruding banks and large, angular boulders on the river bed increase the wetted perimeter, so
friction is higher, increasing energy loss and therefore reducing efficiency and therefore velocity and
discharge

As channel roughness increases, so does turbulence, turbulent flow is more effective at picking up
particles from the river bed causing more erosion

What is turbulence and what causes it?

It’s the erratic swirling of water in a river and is caused by a high channel roughness (protruding
banks or large angular boulder on the bed)

How is turbulence related to erosion?

Turbulence has a high erosive power than smooth flowing water in picking up particles from the
river bed as the turbulent water has more kinetic energy and so causes more erosion (hjulstrom
curve – more erosive power, more rocks picked up to be eroded)

How does channel roughness change downstream?

In the upper reaches of a river, there is a higher channel roughness due to large boulders and
cobbles’ not having been eroded as the river has little energy. Even through the gradient is steep,
more energy is used up through friction of trying to get around these large pieces of sediment so
discharge and velocity are lowest here during normal conditions and the river efficiency is low.

Tributaries joining the river in the lower reaches, means the river has more velocity and so more
kinetic energy for erosion. The sediment here has been transported and through increased erosion
(abrasion, attrition and corrosion) has become fine-calibre sediment such as sands and silts. This
means there is a smoother channel and so less friction stopping the river flow so more energy goes
into the rivers velocity meaning the velocity is faster at lower levels than higher levels.

Decreases down stream

 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are the characteristics of a an efficient and inefficient river

Efficient River Inefficient River

High velocity Lower velocity

High discharge Low discharge

Little Friction Lots of Friction

Low channel roughness High channel roughness

Larger hydraulic radius Smaller hydraulic radius

How does erosion of a river change downstream?

Upper Vertical and mostly by abrasion

Rough channel causes turbulence meaning more vertical erosion
Middle Vertical and Lateral and mostly by abrasion
Attrition in this stage makes the load smaller e.g. pebbles / silts
Lower Any erosion would be lateral but there is little due to low turbulence (because of smooth
channel) and low sediment size (less abrasion)

How does transportation of a river change downstream?

Upper Large particles (Boulder / cobbles) carried by traction and saltation

Middle Particle size decreases (due to attrition) so some particles carried in solution e.g. silts and
sands and still some saltation of pebbles
Lower Smaller particles still carried by suspension or as a solution

How does deposition of a river change downstream?

Upper Little deposition. Mainly largest particles deposited such as boulder and cobbles
Middle Sand and gravel mainly get deposited
Lower Sands and silts deposited across floodplain when it floods and also when the river
reaches its mouth sediment is deposited (as the sea absorbs the rivers energy) forming
deltas

Describe the characteristics of a rivers upper course.

Channel Uneven / Steep Gradient / High roughness

River Lots of potential energy
Landforms Rapids / Waterfalls
Processes Vertical erosion
Hydraulic action + Abrasion
Mainly larger bedload transported and deposited
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Describe the characteristics of a rivers middle course.

Channel Shallower Gradient

River More kinetic energy
Landforms Meanders / Flood plains / Rapids
Processes Lateral + vertical erosion / Attrition + Abrasion / Traction + suspension

Describe the characteristics of a rivers lower course.

Channel Deeper
River Lots of kinetic energy
Landforms Levees / floodplains / meanders
Processes Lateral erosion / Gravels sands and silts / Transported as suspension / More
deposition

How does a river cross profile change downstream?

The cross profile of a river shows you what a cross-section of the river channel or the river valley
looks like. The valley cross profile changes during different stages of a river's long profile:

•Upper stage valleys are steep V stage. Vertical erosion creates narrow valley floors and steeply
sloped sides

•Middle stage valleys are wider, caused by lateral erosion. Deposition creates a flood plain on the
valley floor

•Lower stage valleys are wide with gently sloping sides. There's a much wider flood plain caused by
deposition
 Rivers, Floods and Management

How does rivers efficiency change downstream?

In the upper course, where the channel is narrow, shallow and rough due to the presence of large
boulders, there is a larger wetted perimeter meaning that there is a smaller hydraulic radius.
Because of this there is more friction and so lots of energy is lost and so the efficiency and therefore
velocity and discharge are low

As you go down stream, the efficiency increases as increased erosion and higher discharge from
joining tributaries means the velocity is higher so more erosion. The makes the channel smoother so
there is a smaller wetted perimeter and therefore a large HR. This means there is little friction and
so more energy goes into velocity and discharge, increasing efficiency

Increases downstream (Remember HR is a measure of efficiency – the larger the HR, the more efficient a river is)

How do rivers Hydraulic Radius change downstream?

In the upper course, where the channel is narrow and uneven due to the presence of large boulders,
there is a larger amount of water in contact with the wetted perimeter meaning that the is a smaller
hydraulic radius meaning.

The efficiency of a channel can be quantified as the channel’s hydraulic radius. The hydraulic radius
shows you how efficient a channel is. The larger the hydraulic radius, the higher the channel’s
efficiency.

Increase downstream

How does a rivers wetted perimeter change downstream?

A large hydraulic radius is more efficient because it means that a smaller proportion of the river’s
water is in contact with the bed & banks so there is less friction. The ideal channel shape for a large
hydraulic radius would be a narrow and deep channel. Wide and shallow channels are less efficient
and have a smaller hydraulic radius.

The wetted perimeter decrease downstream

Why does the lower course of the river have a much higher velocity than the upper course of a
river?

Upper course has much more channel roughness which reduces the efficiency of a river (more
energy is used up in overcoming the friction caused by larger boulders and cobbles than going into
increasing the rivers velocity). In the lower course, the river is much smoother and so less energy
goes into overcoming friction and more into velocity so the river moves faster

On top of this, a river has more kinetic energy in the lower course than the upper course and so the
water move faster

On top of this, a rivers hydraulic radius is usually lower in the upper courses (due to very shallower
river channels) and so there is lower velocity and therefore less speed whereas in the lower course,
the channel is much deeper so has a higher hydraulic radius meaning it has more velocity and so
more speed.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Explain the Bradshaw model

Characteristic How it changes downstream

Discharge The discharge should therefore increase with increasing distance down Stream as
tributaries swell the amount of water and velocity increases as channels become smoother
and less rough
Velocity Increases downstream as less channel roughness downstream means less friction so higher
velocity
Width + Depth More tributaries joining a river means more width + depth
Hydraulic Radius This measure should increase according to the Bradshaw model as the stream should
increase in size and thus power, and the channel bed should get less rough/turbulent due
to the effect of erosion
Wetted Perimeter This should also increase downstream as water feeds into main streams from tributary
rivers
Gradient Gradient decreases as rivers flow because the river meanders across the land rather than
erode into it and follow a straight path as it does in the source. This changes because the
river changes from eroding vertically at the source, to laterally further downstream
Roughness Decreases downstream due to faster flowing water smooth out sides
Load Size Decrease downstream due to attrition causing particles to break up
Turbulence + Friction
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Explain how a waterfall is formed.

Sheer drops of water due to changes in geology

 These form where a band of hard rock meets a band of soft rock
 The soft rock is eroded (through HA + Abrasion from bed load) quicker than the hard rock
creating a step in the rivers course
 The water flowing over the step speeds up due to the lack of friction as it drops over the
step
 This increase in speed gives more erosive power causing further erosion of the soft rock and
undercutting of the harder
rock
 Eventually this overhang
collapses
 A deep plunge pool is carved
out by abrasion at the foot of
the waterfall as the bits of
collapsed rock are swirled
round by turbulence
 Over time, more undercutting
causes more collapse. the
waterfall will retreat leaving
behind a steep sided gorge

How are potholes formed?

They are small circular holes in the river bed

When flowing water encounters bedload, it is forced

over it and downcuts behind the bedload in swirling
eddie currents. A hollow in the river bed is therefore
formed, by abrasion and hydraulic action. Once the
hollow is large enough, a pebble may fall into it. This
pebble swirls round in a circular motion (known as
eddying), causing it to rub and scrape out the hole via abrasion making the hollow deeper and wider.

Usually found in the upper course as there is more potential energy for vertical erosion in the
ground.

How are rapids formed?

The appearance of water as the colour of white due to turbulence. Formed in the upper course as
this is where it is steeper. Formed where there is a sudden increase in the slope of the river channel
and where there are several sections of gently dipping harder bands of rock. This causes turbulent
flow meaning the water has more erosive power
 Rivers, Floods and Management

How are V – Shaped Valleys formed?

Steep sided valley

 In the upper course of a river there is usually only large sediments such as boulder and
cobbles
 When discharge increases (due to heavy rainfall) these large sediments are transported
(saltation + traction)
 Subsequently, the cause intense vertical erosion (abrasion) due to their size
 This, along with freeze thaw weather on the sides of the valley, produces a steep, V-shapes
valley

How are Interlocking spurs formed?

Protrusions of hard rock into a river that seem to interlock

 When the river is flowing through the upper course, it comes in contact with this alternating
bands of hard and soft rock.
 It can’t erode through the hard rock and so has to flow around it, leaving the protrusion
(spur)
 Lots of these spurs causes a very wiggly river

How are meanders formed?

Large, sweeping curves in the rivers middle course

 Meanders form when you get alternating sections in a river of deep water (known as pools)
and shallow water (known as riffles) equally spaced along the river

 When the river is deeper (pools), it has a larger hydraulic radius which means less of the
water that’s in the river is in contact with the sides of the river (the wetted perimeter). The
higher the hydraulic radius the more efficient it is so the more energy the river has (because
less of the river is in contact with the bed so less friction and so less energy is loss) meaning
the river has more erosive power.

 With riffles, it is shallow and so has a lower hydraulic radius and so more of the water is in
contact with the wetted perimeter meaning there is more friction and so there is less
energy to use for erosion – less efficient

 The water needs to find a way around these areas of higher frictional contact (riffles)
(because a river always tries to find the easiest route to its mouth) so it flows around them,
causing faster flow and eventually the outside bend of a meander.

 While the water is flowing around the riffles, it means there is more water going around the
pool. This increases turbulence and the speed of water in and around the pools. This causes
 Rivers, Floods and Management

the water to start to twist and coil. This causes a corkscrew movement known as helicoidal
flow which spirals outwards from the pool towards the river bank

 Material from the river’s load gets caught in this flow and gets pushed towards the bank,
causing erosion here due to abrasion and hydraulic action creating the outer bend of a
meander – a river cliff. The helicoidal flow also causes the pool to deepen. This material
caught in the flow then gets deposited on the next inner bend – forming a slip-off slope.

 The combination of erosion and deposition exaggerates the bends until large meanders are
formed. The combined processes also create the meanders' distinctive asymmetric cross-
section.

How are Oxbow Lakes formed?

These are horse shoe shaped lakes

 Overtime, the sinuosity (curving nature) of a river becomes ever more exaggerated

 The continued erosion of the inner and out bends (due to pool and riffles and helicoidal
flow) causing a very narrow stretch of land between the end and start of a meander – known
as swans neck

 During a flood, the river breaks through this neck which is subsequently eroded away

 Because the river wants to flow the quickest way possible, it keeps flowing in a straight line
passed the new ox-bow lake

 Overtime deposition dams off the loop. leaving an ox-bow lake

Rivers, Floods and Management
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Channel characteristics of meanders

Curved part of the meander is generally 6-10 times the width of the river channel and/or the
discharge • meandering is more pronounced when the bed load is varied • meander wavelength
increases in streams that carry coarse debris • meandering best develops at or near the bank full
stage

Channel characteristics of ox-bow lakes

Result of erosion and deposition • lateral erosion, caused by centrifugal forces is concentrated on
the outer, deeper bank of a meander • during times of flooding, erosion increases causing the river
to break through and create a new, steeper channel. • In time, the old meander is closed off by
deposition to form and ox-bow Lake

What is channel braiding?

A river becomes braided when the main channel separates into a number of smaller interlocking
channels

 These usually form where climate and geology combine to generate periodically high
sediment loads e.g. near glaciers (The original river has to be carrying a large amount of
eroded sediment)
 If the river velocity drops (glacier – more meltwater in day than night so more velocity in day
than night) or over the sediment load
becomes too heavy to carry, it will be
deposited directly in the path of the
river.
 As the river is no longer able to move
this load (as it couldn’t carry it, it has to
deposit it so can’t move it once it’s been
deposited).
 This causes the river to divide into
separate channels to find the easiest way
around the deposited material.
 Eventually the river will re-join before it
ends.

Explain the formation of levees.

Raised embankment on the side of a river channel

 When a river floods, the wetted perimeter is increased and so the hydraulic radius
decreases, meaning there is more friction so less energy to carry the material so it is
deposited
 The heaviest material (e.g. sand and gravel) is dropped first, closest to the river channel
stratified while the lighter sediment is carried further away from the river to make up the
floodplain
 Overtime this builds up to form a levee
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are flood plains and how are they formed?

The area of which a river floods

The river in the middle course erodes laterally because

of the fastest velocities being on the outside edge of
meanders. This means that the river erodes the valley
and widens the valley floor to create a floodplain

Also, every time the river floods sediment is deposited

as a layer on the floodplain. It’s deposited because the
river’s wetted perimeter increases so its hydraulic
radius decreases meaning there is more friction so less energy to carry the material so it is
deposited. The deposited material is called alluvium. It can help increase soil fertility

As rivers migrate across the floodplain they leave point bars made of alluvium that accumulates on
the inside bend of streams and rivers below the slip-off slope, adding to the extent of the floodplain
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Explain the formation of deltas.

These are areas of land at the mouth of a river

that jut out into the sea.

When a river reaches the sea the energy of the

river is absorbed by the slower moving water of
the sea causing the river to deposit its load

The deposits build up in the sea bed, until the

alluvium rises above sea level, partially blocking
the mouth of the river

For deltas to form the river needs to carry a large

volume of sediment and enter a still body of
water

Deposition is increased if the water is salty as the

salt particles group together becoming heavier –
flocculation

Vegetation also increases the rate of deposition

by slowing down the water

Channels in deltas are called distributary channels

Type of delta

Arcuate or fan-shaped - the land around the river mouth

arches out into the sea at equal distances and the river splits
many times on the way to the sea, creating a fan effect.

Sediment deposited is coarse grained

Cuspate - the land around the mouth of the river juts out
arrow-like into the sea.

Bird's foot - the river splits on the way to the sea with many
distributary channels extending out in a fan shape

Sediment deposited is fine grained

 Rivers, Floods and Management

What is river rejuvenation?

Rejuvenation is when a rivers base level is changed

What is a rivers base level?

The lowest point a river can get too, usually sea level

Base levels are static and do not change

How does potential energy relate to rejuvenation?

Over very long periods of time, large changes in sea level can drastically alter the height of the base
level of a river and therefore can alter a rivers potential energy and can increase the chances of
vertical erosion.

Suggest two reasons why sea levels change?

There are two reasons why sea levels would change

 Isostatic Changes: Local changes where the height of the land rises or sinks relative to sea
levels e.g. during the last ice age the weight of ice on Scotland rose the southern half of the
UK. Now the ice has melted, the southern half of the UK is slowly sinking back down so the
land is said to be changing relative to the sea level

 Eustatic Changes: Global changes in sea levels linked directly to the earth temperature.
Warmer period – ice caps melt + thermal expansion. Colder period – more ice (less water) +
water contracts so takes up less space

Uplift or a fall in sea level will produce a negative change of base level, while coastal submergence
produces a positive change in base level

Explain the formation of waterfalls as a result of Knick points and rejuvenation.

When sea levels fall we get raised beaches and abandoned cliffs at the coast and therefore the
mouth of the river. The rivers graded profile is no longer in balance, and the gradient of the river at
its mouth is now steeper because of the fall in sea level. In effect the water has further to fall on its
journey from source to mouth. This means that there is more potential energy at the mouth and
vertical erosion will occur. This leads to the development of landforms such as Knick points.

 Knick points form as rivers long profile tries to regrade itself (get erosion and deposition
balanced)
 The river tries to cut down to its new base level (which is now lower) through vertical
erosion
 This creates a steep drop in the valley floor known as a Knick point
 Kick points mark the junction between the original long profile and the new one

Seeing as water is constantly flowing down a river and Knick points are part of a river, water flows
over the Knick points to create waterfall
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Explain the formation of river terraces

They are a result of rejuvenation. The rivers graded profile is

no longer in balance and this means the processes along a
river change. River terraces are simply where vertical
erosion occurs in a floodplain that was previously being
formed by the normal conditions of deposition and lateral
erosion. The river cuts downwards and abandons the old
flood plain as a river terrace above the new floodplain. It is
simply a step in the valley. Oxford, Cambridge and London all
developed on the river terraces of the Isis, Cam and Thames
respectively.

Explain the formation of Incised Meanders

Meanders are usually found along the lower

course of a river where lateral erosion is greater
than vertical. However, when rejuvenation occurs
and a rivers base level has fallen, vertical erosion
begins to dominate more so than lateral erosion
and so the meander becomes incised or cut into
the river bed resulting in a steep sided meander
that is deep in the floodplain. The river is left far
below the original floodplain. It may be an entrenched meander (symmetrical steep sides on both
sides of the river as river down cuts particularly quickly) and form a winding gorge like that of the
Grand Canyon or be Ingrown (asymmetrical as river down cuts at less rapid pace, giving the river
opportunity to erode laterally as well as vertically.)
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Magnitude frequency analysis of flood risk

The magnitude frequency analysis of flood risk is how often a flood of a certain Significance will
happen. For example a 100 year flood would be a flood of high significance that would only happen
once every 100 years.

Hydrologists try to forecast the likelihood of future flood events using past records. The data they
use include river discharge in relation to precipitation, and flood recurrence interval graphs. These
graphs calculate statistically the probability of flooding in the future based on past records. The
further back flood records go, the more accurate the prediction.

When the recurrence interval is plotted against discharge as a scatter graph on semi-logarithmic
graph paper, it is possible to use the line of best fit to predict when the next flood of a particular
magnitude might occur- this is called the flood return period. DEFRA and the Environment Agency
are the main organisations responsible for flood management of major rivers such as the Thames
and the Severn, and they use flood recurrence interval graphs to plan flood defence strategies.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

The Recurrence Interval

The recurrence interval is a way of measuring the frequency of a flood of a specific size occurring.
The accuracy of the recurrence interval is dependent on the amount of historical data available
about previous floods. The recurrence interval tells you how many years you’d expect to have
between a flood of a certain size. In general, a large flood has a large recurrence interval so it isn’t
very frequent. A small flood will have a smaller and more frequent recurrence interval.

For example, a flood with a discharge of 200m3s-1 occurred at some point in the river’s past. Out of
a data set spanning 199 years5, this flood was the 2nd largest in terms of discharge. Using the
formula, this means that a flood of this size is expected to occur once every 100 years
(199+12 199+12). We’d describe it as a 1 in 100 year flood.

Of course, this doesn’t mean that a flood of this size won’t occur for another 100 years. It just means
that statistically it won’t. More than anything, the recurrence interval is a nice way of describing a
complicated topic using simple Maths. At the end of the day though, the recurrence interval raises
more questions than it answers because after a big flood all the newspapers say that it was a 1 in
300 hundred year flood and everybody feels safe that a big flood won’t affect them for another 300
years and then the river goes and floods again the next year and everybody’s all “But it wasn’t
supposed to flood for another 300 years” and then somebody explains that that’s just an average
and really the river can flood at any time. People don’t like that sort of unpredictability though, so
they’ll just blame the scientists/statisticians and say they got it wrong.

The point I’m trying to get at is that the recurrence interval isn’t the most useful thing in the world
because it’s just an average and averages can (and often do) have anomalies. There’s nothing to stop
a river having a 1 in 1000 year flood and then doing the same the next day. The other problem with
the recurrence interval is that it’s based on past data. Rivers are dynamic beasts, they change and
when they change, so does how they flood. While the recurrence interval’s accuracy increases as
you add more data, the reliability decreases because the river’s flooding patterns will have changed
over time.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are the social impacts of flooding?

 People and animals can be killed

 Floodwater is often contaminated with sewage which can lead to lack of clean drinking
water
 Contaminated water can also put people at risk of diseases (e.g. Diarrhoea and dysentery)
 Possessions can be damaged by floodwater or washed away
 People can be made homeless as their properties are inundated or damaged

Social impact is usually higher in poorer countries as flood defences are poorer, people are less able
to evacuate, sanitation systems aren't as good and buildings are of poor quality

What are the economic impacts of flooding?

 Businesses often have to shut down as premises are inundated and power supplies are
affected
 Rescue work and repairs are usually costly
 Insurance premiums usually go up after floods
 Unemployment levels often rise as businesses shut down because they can't recover from
the flooding
 Public transport, road and bridges can be destroyed
 Crops can be destroyed which can lead to a rise in the price of food

The absolute economic impact is usually higher in richer countries as they have more high value
buildings and infrastructure; however the relative economic impact is usually higher in poorer
countries- the buildings and crops that are damaged are worth less money but affects the economy
more because they have less money to recover

What are the environmental impacts of flooding?

 Floodwater contaminated with sewage and rubbish can pollute rivers

 River banks are eroded

What are some positive impacts of flooding?

River sediment is deposited on flood plain making the land more fertile // wetlands can be created
e.g. Marshes and ponds which are habitats for many species

What is flooding?

Flooding occurs when the discharge of the river is so high the river spills over its banks onto the
flood plain
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Explain the physical factors that increase the risk of flooding.

Prolonged rainfall - after a long period of ran, the ground becomes saturated, any further rainfall
can't infiltrate increasing surface run off, which increases discharge

Heavy rainfall can lead to rapid surface runoff, if the rainfall is too intense for infiltration to occur it
can lead to a sharp rise in river discharge= flash flood

Melting snow an ice also lead to a huge increase in the rivers discharge

Sparse vegetation or deciduous trees - sparse vegetation in the drainage basin means little rainfall is
intercepted so more rain reaches the ground, increasing the volume of water and therefore
increasing river discharge. Deciduous trees have no leaves in winter so little rain is intercepted.

Circular drainage basins - water draining into the main river channel will all arrive in a short space of
time as all points in the basin are a similar distance from the river- increased discharge

High drainage density - drainage basins with a high drainage density drain quickly, so have short lag
times. Lots of water flows from the streams into the main river in a short time, increasing discharge

Impermeable ground - clay soils and some rocks such as granite and shale are impermeable- they
don't allow infiltration of surface water increasing surface runoff, increasing discharge. If the ground
has been baked hard by the heat of the sun in summer, or it's frozen, the same thing happens- water
can't infiltrate, increasing surface runoff and discharge

Steep slopes - if the drainage basin has steep-sided valleys, water will reach the river channel much
faster because water flows more quickly on steeper slops. This increases discharge.

Many factors here as the same as those that reduce affect a storm hydrograph

Explain the human factors that increase the risk of flooding.

Flood Management Strategies - can actually end up making flooding worse. For example, if dams fail
they release a huge volume of water all at once giving a huge increase in discharge + channel
straitening can increase speed of flow leading to more flooding downstream

Agriculture - overgrazing leaves areas with less vegetation, so it has the same effect as
deforestation. Overgrazing and ploughing also increase soil erosion

Urbanisation - urban areas have large areas of impermeable tarmac and concrete, so when it rains
surface runoff is very rapid. Gutter and drains take runoff to rivers quickly. Both of these things
reduce lag times and so increase discharge

Deforestation - clearing trees and plants reduces interception and evapotranspiration increasing the
volume of water that reaches the channel which decreases discharge. Deforestation leaves the soil
loose so the soil is eroded and carried to the river, which raises the river bed reducing the river
channel capacity so it takes less water for the river to flood

Climate Change - could cause and increase in rainfall and more storms in some areas so increased
flooding
 Rivers, Floods and Management

MEDC Case Study – Carlisle, England

Introduction

Carlisle, and the River Eden which flows through it, are situated in
northwest England - 16 km south of the Scottish border. Carlisle is
on the flood plain of the River Eden with three rivers (Eden,
Caldew and Petteril) meeting in the city. The catchment (drainage
basin) covers approximately 2400km2. Carlisle has a population of
71,773. On the 8th of January 2005, the River Eden flooded
Carlisle

Physical causes of flood

Heavy Rainfall: There was heavy rainfall on the 6th January for 36 hours, 200 mm of rainfall was recorded
which is the equivalent of four months rainfall

Antecedent rainfall: December 2004 had 2 weeks of heavy, continuous rain followed by extreme rainfall
between Thursday 6th and Saturday 8th January where 15% average annual rainfall fell in 36 hours. This meant
the ground was very saturated and so when the heavy rainfall fell on 8th of January, there was a lot of surface
run off straight into the river – 73% of rain that fell became surface run off

Discharge: Due to the heavy and Antecedent rainfall, there were very high peak discharge (over 1,520 cumecs)
compared to an average discharge of 52 cumecs

Gradient: Steep slopes in the upper reaches of the Eden, all the water that fell here was fed into the river
channel. There are much lower gradients around Carlisle meaning the water cannot move out quickly once it
reaches there

Geology: Catchment includes impermeable Skiddaw slate meaning more surface run off and therefore
accounting for the enormous discharge

Drainage Density: There are many streams that drain quickly into the river, making the lag time short

Human causes of flood

Inadequate hard management techniques: Defences (flood walls) not able to withstand 1 in 170 year event.
Flood levels in some areas ended up 1 metre higher than the defences constructed after the last floods in 1968
(when discharge reached 1048 cumecs compared to 1500 cumecs in 2005)

Urbanisation: Carlisle is urban city with lots of impermeable surfaces meaning there was a lack of interception
and increased run off into drains.

Inadequate Drainage System: Drains and sewage systems overflowed in some areas becoming a source of
flooding themselves. This was down to the amount of rainfall and drains becoming blocked with debris
meaning less water could drain away. 25% of the flooding problems were associated with overflowing drains.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Impacts

Social Economic Environmental

3 people died It took about a year to repair the 1,600 homes and over
damage done to the 1,600 homes 325 businesses flooded;
1865 properties flooded, most of which flooded and repairs cost over £100 including magistrates
were residential million. court, police and fire
stations
70,000 people without power for 3 days; 350 businesses had to shut down
3,000 for 5 days as there was no electricity, Roads and bridges closed
telephone service, or transport. for 2 days
All city schools closed for 3 days. 4 Trade activities from Carlisle
flooded completely meaning children lost railway station were suspended. 1,150 trees felled in gales
out on education gusting up to 120mph
United Biscuits, the largest from the storm that
3,000 + people were made homeless for employer in Carlisle, was flooded brought the heavy rain
up to a year and thousands of personal with 3 m of water that caused over
possessions were damaged. Living in £5 million damage. 33 out of 1,100 The flooding increased
temporary accommodation disrupted employees lost their jobs. river bank erosion in
lives in many ways, e.g. travel some areas.
arrangements were disrupted, people 70,000 addresses had no power,
were separated from community the sewage works, police station, Rivers were polluted with
networks and friends, and they had fire station and council offices sewage form
problems receiving post. were severely flooded. overflowing drains and
general litter
Poor soft management choices (not 80 buses were destroyed. Many
accounting for 1 in 170 year flood) roads and bridges were damaged,
Recreational activities built in low-lying e.g. Warwick Road.
areas e.g. golf courses which were lost
under the flood Reappraisal of flood defence needs
for city; works expected to last 3
years and cost £20 million

The physical causes of river flooding at Carlisle suggest that these were the most important. Significantly, the
intense 36 hour period between Thursday 6th and Saturday 8th January 2005 were 15% annual rainfall fell in
the Eden catchment; as well as gales gusting up to 120mph, felling trees and blocking river channels and
drains, reduced the river Eden’s carrying capacity. Likewise, the confluence of three rivers (Eden, Petteril and
Caldew) just outside the city on a generally low-lying floodplain led to discharge levels of 1500 cumecs, making
this a 1 in 170 year event. Therefore, the human causes serve mainly to increase the scale of flooding; in this
instance the inadequacy of flood management strategies; both hard, with flood defences equipped for 1048
cumecs rather than 1500 cumecs; and soft with the zoning of recreational spaces through the city which still
didn’t account for rising groundwater levels exceeding field capacity and increasing runoff.

It could also be argued, however, that the economic consequences of river flooding are more significant here
compared to the physical impacts, given the displacement of 6000 people with the cost of restoring the area at
over £224 million. This was exacerbated given the fact that the cost of new flood defences was re-appraised at
£20 million, taking 3 years to build.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

LEDC Case Study – Bangladesh, India

Introduction

Bangladesh is a country in South Asia and is the seventh most

populated country in the world and also amongst one of the most
densely populated countries with a high poverty rate. Bangladesh
has three of the most powerful rivers passing through it, the
Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna

Physical causes of flood

Topography: Most of the country is a huge floodplain and delta of the rivers Ganges & Brahmaputra, with 70%
of the land less than 1 metre above sea level and therefore very flat. Rivers, lakes and swamps cover 10% of
the land meaning lots of places for flooding

Weather: Heavy monsoon rains (due to land being warmer than the sea making low pressure that brings bring
moist air off the sea), especially over the Himalayas and the Central Indian Plateau from June to September.
80% of their annual rain falls just these four months. Tropical cyclones are common in the region, bringing
heavy rain; particularly from May to November.

Snowmelt: Meltwater from glaciers in the Himalayas in late spring and summer increases discharge.

Monsoons over mountains, heavy rainfall from cyclone and increase discharge from meltwater: The depth of
the Ganges in July was 13m, just below the flood level of 14m but rose to 15m in August.
The Brahmaputra exceeded its flood level of 15m in July and again in August and September.
The Meghna was above its flood level of 6m for the whole of July, August and September.

Human causes of flood

Deforestation: The upper reaches of the Ganges are in Nepal where 50% of the forests have been cut down
since the 1950s for fuel, timber and grazing land; as the population is rapidly expanding. This reduces
interception and increases soil erosion; with an estimated loss of soil 400 times faster in deforested areas,
raising the river bed of the Brahmaputra by 5cms per year meaning the river has less of a capacity to hold
flood waters

Agricultural practices: The extraction of water for irrigation had lowered the water table and caused the land
to subside in places by up to 2.5 metres.

Silt: The use of water upstream for irrigation and storing water in reservoirs has reduced the amount of silt
deposited so the level of the land has not been built up meaning it is more likely to flood as more low lying

Global warming: Increased unpredictability and intensity of weather events e.g. the flood of 1998 was
unusually prolonged at 56 days.
Rivers, Floods and Management
 Rivers, Floods and Management

Impacts

Social Economic Environmental

1040 people killed
31 million people were affected
14,000 schools flooded. Children lost out
on education. Bad in LEDC
Respiratory infections (such as
bronchitis) affected large numbers of
people along with outbreaks of diarrhoea
and cholera.
Short- and long-term risks of serious food (communications lost)
shortages due to millions of hectares of
land under water.
2.5 million farmers affected 75% of the country was
affected with over 1
Floods destroyed a total of 670,000 million km2 of area
hectares of crops = 2 million tonnes flooded.
of rice destroyed
Some areas under water
980,000 houses were destroyed or for more than 2 months
partially damaged
26,500 pieces of livestock were
Infrastructure including 6500 lost
bridges and11000 km of roads
damaged and in need of repair 4528km of flood embankments
were damaged
Overall cost of the flood was
almost $1 billion.

Required international aid and

donations e.g. UK providing steel
bridge materials and 100,000
tonnes of wheat.

Bangladesh export industries

decreased a 20%

The physical causes of river flooding in Bangladesh suggest that these were the most important. Significantly,
the intense monsoon period from July to September which left many areas submerged for up to 56 days;
combined with spring / summer snow melt and increased discharge from the headwaters in the Himalayas
reaching the low-lying floodplain of Bangladesh. Therefore, the human causes serve mainly to increase the
scale of flooding; in this instance the inadequacy of flood management strategies such as the 4528kms of
embankments which were damaged; and increased sedimentation of the Ganges due to deforestation in
Nepal.

It could also be argued, however, that the social consequences of river flooding are more significant here
compared to the physical impacts, given the displacement of over 30 million people with 980,000 houses
destroyed or partially damaged. Acute shortages of food and safe drinking water meant that people were far
more susceptible to water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, compounded by poor access to health care.
However, the frequency of flooding in Bangladesh has meant that people are more resilient and accustomed
to dealing with this challenging situation.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What is the point of flood management strategies?

 Aim off flood management is to protect homes, businesses and the environment from flooding
 This is because flooding can have severe social, economic and environmental impacts
 It is tricky to manage flooding as there is not enough money to protect everywhere
 Large settlements and important industrial sites (like power plants) are more likely to be protection
than small settlements or farmland
 The main approaches to these strategies are: structural methods (dams etc.); River basin
management (land); modifying the burden of loss (insurance) and bearing the cost of flood damage
(do nothing)

How might flood management strategies differ between MEDC’s and LEDC’s?

In LEDC’s, they avoid expensive strategies and rely on bearing loss when it comes. In MEDC’s, preventive
method of floods in the first place prevails. However, realization that structural interventions may not be
sustainable leads to soft engineering strategies taking place.

How does a dam work?

Dams are huge walls built across rivers. A reservoir (artificial lake) is formed behind the dam, which prevents
flooding downstream. Water is released slowly during low-flow conditions, allowing a steady flow of water to
be maintained throughout the year.

What are some advantages of Dams as a flood management strategy?

 Turbines can be built into the dam to generate HEP as water is released
 Steady water release allows irrigation of land below the dam throughout the year
 Can be used recreationally e.g. sailing

What are some disadvantages of Dams as a flood management strategy?

 They’re expensive
 Usable land is flooded (farmland) to build dam/reservoir, often resulting in people being forcibly
moved and habitats being destroyed
 They affect wildlife (e.g. they can prevent salmon migrating upstream for breeding.)
 Sediment that is normally transported will be deposited and trapped. This can cause the damn to fail.
This can cause erosion further downstream as there is less protective material to be deposited.

What is channel straitening?

This is removing meanders and build artificial cut-through. This means the water flows faster and so the
water moves out of an area of risk quicker (water doesn’t get chance to build up and cause a flood)

What are some advantages of channel straitening as a flood management strategy?

 It takes less time to navigate the river because it has been made shorter
 Channelization (the attempt to alter the natural geometry of a river course) improves the rate of flow
and also benefits transportation (more of it can take place)
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are some disadvantages of channel straitening as a flood management strategy?

 The problem is pushed downstream as water is carried there faster meaning a flood is more likely
 More erosion occurs downstream because of increased velocity.
 Building damages wetland and wildlife habitats.

What are relief channels?

Redirects excess water upstream of a settlement via an alternative channel. Water can re-enter the main
channel further downstream. They do this by creating a bypass that can only be accessed at high discharge
levels so the main channel is reduced.

What is channel deepening?

Deepening a channel so that is has a larger capacity for water, reducing risk of flooding

What are wing dykes?

Man-made constructions, usually concrete, that jut out from the sides of a channel. They focus the current in
the middle of the channel to reduce bank erosion.

What is the building up of levees?

The building up of natural embankments on either side of a river channel to increase its capacity. Therefore
the river can hold more water without overflowing so it floods less often,

What are some advantages of the building up of levees as a flood management strategy?

 They allow a flood plain to be built on (houses).

 Means you don’t have to affect the landscape so dramatically such as dams

What are some disadvantages of the building up of levees as a flood management strategy?

 Expensive
 Potentially hazardous if levees are breached – man made embankments would be more reliable
 Unless set back from the channel, levees raise water levels and cause a severe flood risk.

What are diversion spillways?

Diversion spillways divert water if the base level is too high. Water is normally diverted around an important
area. Prevent flooding as river discharge is reduced. Often have sluice gates. During high-flow conditions sluice
gates are opened to allow the excess water to flow along the new channel.

What are some advantages of the building up of levees as a flood management strategy?

 Spillways can have vegetation built on them, which has a positive impact on the environment –
creating new wetlands.
 Popular for recreational activities, like walking or fishing.

What are some disadvantages of the building up of levees as a flood management strategy?
 Rivers, Floods and Management

 An increase in discharge when the diverted water joins another river (or re-joins with the same one)
could cause flooding further downstream of that point.
 If spillways are over-whelmed, water will flood areas that are not used to flooding, which could cause
even bigger impacts/problems

What is soft engineering?

Soft engineering defences use knowledge of the whole river basin and its processes, to try to work with
nature.

What are the general advantages of soft engineering?

 They’re cheaper to maintain than hard engineering defences- especially important in poorer
countries
 Flooding is more predictable, reducing the risk of an unexpected disaster
 They can improve opportunities for recreation, such as fishing
 Some people think they're more attractive than hard engineering schemes

Soft engineering is more sustainable than hard engineering. Discuss.

Hard engineering is often expensive and disrupts natural process. Soft engineering tends to be cheaper and
requires much less time and money to maintain than hard engineering. Soft engineering is designed to
integrate with the natural environment and creates areas like wetlands which are important habitats.
Therefore soft engineering is more sustainable because it has lower economic cost and environmental
impact.

What is land-use management?

Planning restrictions prevent buildings or

roads being constructed on flood plain. Use
of the flood plain is restricted to things like
playing fields, allotments or parks. More
water can infiltrate so there's less surface
runoff, which reduces discharge and flooding

Zone A: Prohibitive – essential water front

buildings allows but future development not
allowed

Zone B: Restrictive – Anything built here should be well flood proofed. Best suited for low value uses e.g.
pasture / playing fields / parks

Zone C: Warning – Further away from river on higher ground. Usually houses and businesses that are aware
of a flood possibility and are aware how to react accordingly

What are some advantages of land-use management as a flood management strategy?

 There are no new buildings or roads on the flood plain to be damaged so the impact of flooding is
reduced
 Rivers, Floods and Management

 It provides recreational opportunities e.g. Football fields

What are some disadvantages of land-use management as a flood management strategy?

 Restricts development, is especially a problem where there's a shortage of housing

 It can't be used in areas which are already urbanised

What is river restoration?

River restoration involves restoring a river that has undergone hard engineering back to its original course. .
Means the flood plain can flood naturally. As the water spreads out over the flood plain, the river's discharge
is reduced which reduces flooding downstream. If this land is no longer valuable, river restoration can help
reduce the risk of flooding downstream

What are some advantages of river restoration as a flood management strategy?

 Little maintenance is required as the river is left in its natural state

 The river provides a better habitat for wildlife

What are some disadvantages of river restoration as a flood management strategy?

 Local flood risk can increase, especially if nothing's done to prevent major flooding
 When it comes to building over land that isn’t valuable the decision comes down to the local
environmental agency. A wrong decision can be made – therefore it can cause a lot more damage

What is wetland and river bank conservation?

Wetlands store flood water and slow it down, reducing flooding downstream. So conserving or re-
establishing wetlands gives natural protection. Planting trees and shrubs along the river bank increases
interception and lag time, reducing flooding and decreases flooding

What are some advantages of wetland and river bank conservation as a flood management strategy?

 Vegetation protects the surface from soil erosion

 The vegetation provides habitats for wildlife
 Provides area for recreational activity (football)

What are some disadvantages of wetland and river bank conservation as a flood management strategy?

 Less land is available for farming

What are forecasts and warnings?

Forecasting a possible flood event and warning people is a behavioural responce to flood risk. There are
three levels of warning: flood alert, flood warning and severe flood warning. The system encourages
people and organisations at risk to take action to mitigate the worst effects.

What are some advantages of forecasts and warnings as a flood management strategy?

 This means that people can evacuate before the flood happens, saving lives.
 People can also move possessions and use sandbags to help reduce damage if flooding occurs.
 Rivers, Floods and Management

What are some disadvantages of forecasts and warnings as a flood management strategy?

 Flash floods may happen too fast for warnings

 Some people might not be able to access the communication network
 People’s perception of flooding may cause them to ignore warnings if they were in inaccurate in the
past

What is the alteration of urban surfaces?

Building porous pavements or soakaways increases infiltration which reduces rapid surface run off to the
river channel which increases lag time which reduces discharge and flooding

What are some advantages of the alteration of urban surfaces as a flood management strategy?

 Any pollutants in the water are filtered out by the soil before the water reaches the channel

What are some disadvantages of the alteration of urban surfaces as a flood management strategy?

 It’s expensive

Using a case study, explain the use of soft engineering is a UK town?