Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and
mercial applications of thermoelectric devices, the
Power Generations With No Moving Parts
In a solid that conducts both heat and electricity, the
thermal and electrical currents are coupled together.
This thermoelectric coupling can be used to construct
devices that act as refrigerators, power generators, or
temperature sensors. The devices work because the
electrons or holes in a conducting solid also carry heat
as well as electrical charge. Therefore, the electrical
carriers are the ‘‘working fluid’’ in a thermoelectric
refrigerator. Thermoelectric devices are attractive for
many applications as they have no moving parts
(except electrons and holes), use no liquid refrigerant,
and last indefinitely. The major disadvantage of these
devices is poor efficiency.
Thermoelectrics is an old field. In 1823 Thomas
Seebeck discovered that a voltage drop appears across
a sample that has a temperature gradient. This
phenomenon provided the basis for thermocouples
used for measuring temperature and for thermoelectric
power generators. In 1838 Henrich Lenz placed a drop
of water on the junction of metal wires made of
bismuth and antimony. Passing an electric current
through the junction in one direction caused the water
to freeze, and reversing the current caused the ice to
quickly melt: thus thermoelectric refrigeration was
demonstrated.
These thermoelectric effects remained little more
than a curiosity until the 1950s when Abram Ioffe
found that doped semiconductors had a much larger
thermoelectric effect than did other materials (metals
or insulators). He suggested that domestic refriger-
ation could be accomplished with semiconductors
thereby igniting a worldwide frenzy of research and
development activity. The early days of semiconductor
physics were not driven by the prospect of micro-
electronics, but were motivated by thermoelectric
refrigeration. This focus lasted only a few years, during
which virtually every known semiconductor, semi-
metal, and alloy was investigated. It was found
that the best materials at room temperature were
Bi Te –Sb Te alloys.
#Thermoelectric
$ # $ (also called Peltier) refrigerators
with bismuth telluride alloys, however, produce only
moderate amounts of cooling, and have poor effi-
ciencies compared to compressor-based refrigerators.
As a result thermoelectric refrigerators are used mainly
in applications in which reliability or convenience is
more important than economy. Thermoelectric
coolers can be powered by a car battery for portable
beverage storage, or by a power supply to provide
active cooling for computer central processing units or
for infrared detectors. Thermoelectric generators,
usually made with silicon–germanium alloys, are used
as power sources for many of NASA’s deep-space
probes and also are used to convert waste heat into
electricity.
This article reviews the basic physics and com-
properties of state-of-the-art thermoelectric materials,
and approaches to the atomic-level design of new
thermoelectric materials with improved efficiencies.
1. Basic Thermoelectric Science
The basic thermodynamics of these devices was
worked out in the mid-nineteenth century by William
Thompson (Lord Kelvin) who showed the mathe-
matical connection between heat and electrical curr-
ents in a conducting solid:
J l σ(EkS]T) and Q l (σTS)Ekκ]T (1)
where J is the electrical current density, σ the electrical
conductivity, E the electric field, S the Seebeck
coefficient, T the temperature, Q the heat current
density, and κ the thermal conductivity. Only S causes
any conceptual difficulty. It is the average entropy per
charge carrier divided by the electron charge. A small
temperature difference, ∆T, across any electrical cond-
uctor will generate a corresponding voltage, ∆V. If
there is no electrical current passing through the
sample, the ratio ∆V\∆T is the experimental definition
of S. Solving these equations in one dimension, with
the appropriate boundary conditions, leads to expr-
essions that describe the efficiency of an idealized
device in terms of the electrical and thermal transport
coefficients that characterize the thermoelectric mate-
rial (see Thermal ConductiŠity and Thermoelectric
Power : Theoretical Concepts).
The efficiency of a thermoelectric solid is found
to depend on material properties through the
dimensionless parameter ZT:
ZT l TS#\κρ (2)
where the electrical resistivity is ρ l 1\σ. Z is defined
as the figure of merit and ZT is often referred to as the
dimensionless figure of merit. For power generation
the efficiency is defined as heat in divided by work out
and is given by:
(ThkTc)(γk1)
Efficiency l (3)
TcjγTh
where Tc(Th) is the temperature of the cold (hot) end
and γ l (1jZT)"/# varies with the average temp-
erature T. For refrigeration, efficiency is defined as the
work in divided by the heat pumped out and is called
the coefficient of performance (COP). The COP can be
greater than unity and is given by:
γTckTh
COP l (4)
(ThkTc)(1jγ)
1
Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts

For ZT  1, Carnot efficiency is obtained for power 1000

generation and the Carnot limit to the COP is obtained (a)
for refrigeration. Materials used in thermoelectric 100

Resistivity, q (mX cm–1)

devices have ZT values between 0.4 and 1.0.
All thermoelectric materials used in refrigeration or 10

Insulator
power generation devices are heavily doped semi-

Metal
conductors. Their physical features are illustrated by a
1
calculation of the figure of merit (ZT) as a function of
the carrier concentration at room temperature (Fig. 1)
using an idealized model of a semiconductor (Golds- 0.1
mid 1986). One parabolic band is used (i.e., an electron
energy proportional to the square of momentum), the 0.01
carriers have an effective mass of 0.72 times that of the
free electron value, a mobility of 625 cm# VV" sV" at 700
low carrier concentrations, and their scattering is due (b)
600
to acoustic phonons. The lattice contribution to the

Thermopower, S (lV K–1)

thermal conductivity is taken to be 1 W mV" KV" 500
(10 mW cmV" KV"), a value near the lower limit for

Insulator
good thermoelectric materials. Within the framework 400

Metal
of this simple model, metals are poor thermoelectric 300
materials because of a low Seebeck coefficient and a
large electronic contribution to the thermal conduc- 200
tivity. Insulators (or lightly doped semiconductors)
100
have large Seebeck coefficients and a small electronic
contribution to the thermal conductivity, but have too 0
few carriers, which results in a large electrical res-
istivity. For this example, the largest value for ZT is 100
obtained midway between these two extremes (metal jTotal = jElec + jLat (c)
Thermal cond., j (mW cm–1 K–1)

or insulator) at a carrier concentration of about 80

10"* carriers cmV$. For optimum thermoelectric per-
formance the energy gap of the semiconductor must be 60
Insulator

at least 10kBTmax (Tmax l maximum operating tem-

Metal
jTotal
perature), otherwise the simultaneous excitation of
40
intrinsic electrons and holes lowers S and ZT.
Another important observation from Fig. 1 is that jLattice
while it is possible to change some of the electrical and 20
thermal properties of a thermoelectric material by
varying the carrier concentration, the ability of the 0
lattice to conduct heat is only slightly affected by
1
changes in the carrier concentration. Hence, if the
lattice thermal conductivity is high, ZT will always be (d)
low. 0.8
Figure of merit, ZT

0.6
Insulator

2. Thermoelectric Devices
Metal

All thermoelectric devices are composed of thermo- 0.4

electric couples such as those illustrated in Fig. 2. Each
leg of the couple is a doped semiconductor (or
0.2
semimetal) with one p-type and one n-type leg. p-Type
(n-type) means that the dominant charge carriers are
positive (negative). One side of the couple is thermally 0
1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022
and electrically shorted together using a metal like n (cm–3)
copper (dark gray region). Electrical and thermal
contact to a heat sink and the battery or load is made
Figure 1
through copper pads at the open end of the couple
Room temperature transport properties calculated for an
(dark gray regions). Since the electrons and holes in a idealized semiconductor vs. carrier concentration. For this
material carry heat, a battery can be used to force the example, optimum thermoelectric performance is attained
hot electrons and holes away from the cold end of at a carrier concentration, n, of about 10"* cmV$.
the device resulting in cooling of the cold end. If the

2
 Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts
Active Cooling Heat Source
P N P N
Heat Rejection Heat Sink
I available since the early 1960s, and they are used in
I
Refrigeration Power Generation
Figure 2
A single thermoelectric couple that has been configured for
refrigeration or power generation. ‘‘P’’ (positive) and
‘‘N’’ (negative) refer to the sign of the charge carriers in
each leg (open circles correspond to holes and filled circles
to electrons). Refrigeration is possible in these devices
because electrons (or holes) carry heat, and hot electrons
(holes) can be forced away from the cold end of the device
by the battery. If a temperature difference is externally
imposed on the device, useful power can be extracted.
direction of the current is reversed, the hot and cold
ends are also reversed. If a temperature gradient is
imposed across the thermoelectric couple, useful
power can be extracted. In an actual thermoelectric
device, typically several tens of these couples are
connected together in series. Figure 3 shows a com-
mercial multistage thermoelectric refrigerator com-
posed of approximately 50 thermoelectric couples of
n- and p-type Bi Te –Sb Te . The small copper plate at
# $ # $can reach temperatures as
the top of the refrigerator
low as 160 K (k113 mC). There are a variety of
applications (or proposed applications) that use
either thermoelectric refrigerators or thermoelectric
generators and a few are listed in Table 1.
NASA has used thermoelectric generators for many
of their space probes such as Pioneer, Viking, Galileo,
Table 1
Current and proposed applications for thermoelectric devices (proposed applications in italics).
Refrigeration
Spot cooling of electronics: infrared detectors, computer CPUs, X-ray detectors, fiber optic laser packages
Picnic coolers (powered by car battery)
Air conditioning in submarines and railway coaches
Water coolers
Superconducting electronics
Domestic refrigerators
Power generation
Power for deep-space probes (Pioneer, Viking, Voyager, Galileo)
Remote weather stations
Remote navigational systems
Submarines
Undersea power generation (for petroleum wellhead valves)
ConŠersion of waste heat into useful electrical power: large diesel trucks, steel industry, chemical industry
Apollo, and Ulysses. A radioactive module, typically
containing #$)Pu, is used as the source of heat.
Thermoelectric couples are used to convert the heat
directly into electricity. The couples are typically made
using p- and n-type PbTe alloys for maximum tem-
peratures of less than 900 K and p- and n-type GeSi
alloys for temperatures less than 1300 K. The genera-
tors used by NASA have maximum power outputs
between 3 W and 300 W.
Commercial thermoelectric generators have been
industrial applications all over the world. Over 20
different models of thermoelectric generators are
currently available with power outputs ranging from
10 W to 550 W. Most of the generators use natural gas
as the heat source, but a few use kerosene or diesel.
The main advantage of these generators is that they
can operate continuously in remote locations and only
need minimal maintenance.
There has been increasing interest in the conversion
of low-temperature ( 100–200 mC) ‘‘waste’’ heat
sources into useful electrical power. A variety of heat
sources are considered such as geothermal, ocean
thermal energy, peat deposits, solar ponds, and waste
cooling water associated with power stations and
other large utilities. Although the efficiency of thermo-
electric generators is not very high for weak heat
sources, the heat source is free and efficiency is not a
main concern.
Most thermoelectric refrigerators are used for spot
cooling of electronics or in specialized laboratory
equipment. A wide variety of infrared detectors can be
reliably cooled using thermoelectric refrigerators with-
out having to continually replace a liquid cryogen.
Laser modules of various types are used as the
transmitters in fiber optic networks. Thermoelectric
refrigerators are used to maintain the laser chip at a
constant temperature. If the chip temperature drops
too low, the direction of the current through the
thermoelectric module is reversed which results in
warming of the chip. A constant laser chip temperature
3
Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts

Figure 3
A multistage thermoelectric cooling module capable of reaching temperatures as low as 160 K at the small copper pad on
the final (highest) stage. The large copper pad at the bottom of the first stage is normally attached to a heat sink. The
cooling module is composed of about 50 thermoelectric couples similar to those shown in Fig. 2 (courtesy of Marlow
Industries, Dallas, TX).

is important since both the laser output power and
output wavelength are sensitive to small temperature
changes. There are a large number of low cooling
power ( 100 W) uses for thermoelectric modules in
laboratory equipment in the semiconductor, biotech-
nology, and medical industries. For example, sample
tissue can easily be sliced to a thin specimen for
microscopy by freezing using a thermoelectric cooling
stage. There have been a few uses of thermoelectric
coolers in consumer products. The most familiar is the
portable picnic box that can keep food and beverages
cool using the power available from the cigarette
lighter socket in cars. There have been several large-
scale thermoelectric air-conditioner units developed
for military applications. For example, RCA made a
30 kW air-conditioning unit for the US Navy. There is
one company (TECA of Chicago, IL) that manu-
factures air-conditioning systems based on thermo-
electric modules. A typical unit from this company has
a cooling power of 400 W. A more complete discussion
of the details of thermoelectric devices and their design
is given in Rowe (1995).
3. Thermoelectric Materials
All thermoelectric generators and refrigerators use
materials that were discovered in the early 1960s. For
refrigeration and the conversion of low-temperature
waste heat into electricity, materials based on Bi Te
–Sb Te alloys are used. Higher temperature thermo-# $
# $
electric generators employ either SiGe or PbTe alloys
depending on the temperature range. The major
disadvantage of thermoelectric devices containing

4
 Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts
these materials is their efficiency. Improving the
efficiency of these devices requires the development of
materials with higher values of the figure of merit, ZT
(Eqn. (2)). Although many materials have been in-
vestigated since 1965, the maximum value for the
dimensionless figure of merit has remained near ZT l
1. It has been shown theoretically that there is not an
upper limit on the maximum value of ZT (Mahan
1998). Using reasonable extrapolations of the proper-
ties of known materials, however, it is unlikely that
bulk materials exist with ZT values greater than 4.
A ZT value of 3 would make solid-state dom-
estic refrigerators economically competitive with
compressor-based refrigeration.
The remainder of this article discusses four different
approaches to the development of thermoelectric
materials: (i) binary and ternary covalently bonded
semiconductors, (ii) semiconductors with ‘‘rattling’’
atoms or molecules, (iii) ‘‘correlated’’ metals or
semiconductors, and (iv) superlattices and low-
dimensional systems.
3.1 ‘‘Normal’’ Broad-band Semiconductors
This class of materials includes the thermoelectric
compounds and alloys used in state-of-the-art thermo-
electric power generators and refrigerators. Histori-
cally, ‘‘normal’’ semiconductors have received most
attention in the search to find more efficient thermo-
electric compounds. They are well approximated by
parabolic conduction and valence bands, with the
energy dependence of the carrier scattering time
described by a power law of the form τ l τ Er. The
!
exponent r is used to parametrize the type of scattering,
and typically r l V1\2 when the scattering of the
carriers is primarily due to acoustic phonons. Within
this approximation it can be shown that maximizing
ZT is equivalent to maximizing Nm*$/#µ\klattice, where
m* is the effective mass of the holes (p-type material)
or electrons (n-type material), N is the number of
equivalent parabolic bands, and µ is the carrier
mobility. It is physically plausible— although by no
means proved—that compounds composed of ele-
ments that are covalently bonded should have high
mobilities. If the elements in a particular compound
are ionically bonded it has been argued that the charge
fluctuations from atom to atom in the compound will
tend to reduce carrier mobility.
All of the known good thermoelectric materials
have electronic band structures that are ‘‘multi-
valleyed.’’ This means that the maximum in the valence
band and the minimum in the conduction band occur
away from the center of the Brillouin zone. The
conduction bands of silicon, for example, are com-
posed of six equivalent bands located along f100g
axes. Therefore, the conduction band of silicon is
‘‘multivalleyed’’ with a degeneracy of 6, implying that
N l 6. It can be shown that the maximum possible
value of N depends on the symmetry of the crystal
structure, with higher symmetry crystal structures
having larger values of N. In the search for new
thermoelectric materials, this implies that the crystal
structure of the compound should be cubic, hexagonal,
or possibly tetragonal. The thermoelectric properties
of many broad-band semiconductors (including the
ternary compounds that have been investigated) have
been reviewed by Wood (1988) and Slack (1995).
Taken together, phenomenological rules suggest
that within this class of materials, high ZT semi-
conducting compounds should be composed of co-
valently bonded heavy elements, with a large number
of atoms in a unit cell of high symmetry. These rules
provide some guidelines in the search for high ZT
materials and certainly most of the known ‘‘good’’
thermoelectric materials tend to follow these guide-
lines. For normal broad-band semiconductors these
rules suggest compounds made from elements found
in the lower right-hand corner of the periodic table
(groups 3B to 6B). Using these rules, a ternary
thermoelectric compound with the composition
Tl SnTe has been reported to have thermoelectric
# & similar to Bi Te (Sharp et al. 1999).
properties
It seems unlikely that#the$next generation of thermo-
electric materials will be binary compounds or alloys,
most of which have been evaluated. This is much like
superconductivity research before high Tc materials
were found: binary compositions had been essentially
exhausted and ternaries were being evaluated. The
simplest high Tc materials discovered are ternary alloys
(La VxSrxCuO ) or quaternary compounds (YBa Cu
O ).# % # $
(
3.2 ‘‘Rattling’’ Semiconductors: Phonon Glasses
and Electron Crystals
The maximum thermoelectric efficiency is achieved
when the lattice contribution to the flow of heat is as
low as possible (Z l S#\ρκ, where κ l κelectronicj
κlattice). It has been suggested that for a particular
crystal the minimum lattice thermal conductivity, κmin,
corresponds to that of an amorphous solid (or glass)
with the same composition. κmin is reached when the
mean free path of the heat-carrying phonons is of the
order of the phonon wavelength (Slack 1995). In a
beautiful set of experiments it has been demonstrated
that κmin can be attained in crystalline compounds
with specific types of controlled disorder (Cahill et al.
1992). It is found that localized vibrational or
rotational modes (Einstein oscillators) provide a par-
ticularly effective way of reducing the thermal con-
ductivity of a crystalline solid to within 50% of κmin at
room temperature. For example, in (KBr) Vx(KCN)x
"
single crystals κlattice values near κmin are obtained for
x values as small as 0.19. The rotation of the CN
molecule about its lattice site effectively scatters the
heat-carrying phonons at temperatures greater than
5
Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts
10 K. By way of contrast, simple mass fluctuation
scattering, such as occurs in KCl VxBrx mixed crystals,
only reduces κlattice to 4κmin. " in the carrier energy but is closer to resonant scattering.
The ultimate thermoelectric material should con-
duct electricity like a crystal but heat like a glass.
Crystal structures that contain weakly bound atoms or
molecules that ‘‘rattle’’ within an atomic cage will
likely have a low lattice thermal conductivity. Since
good electrical properties must be maintained, there
should be at least three distinct crystallographic sites
in the structure, i.e., a true ternary compound. Two of
the sites would form the basic framework of the struc-
ture, and this framework would dominate the band
structure and therefore electronic transport. The third
cage-like site would be occupied by the ‘‘rattling’’
atom that scatters the heat-carrying phonons, thus
greatly reducing the lattice portion of the thermal
conductivity.
These ideas have been demonstrated for two classes
of materials, the filled skutterudite antimonides and
semiconducting analogues of the ice clathrate struc-
ture. The filled skutterudite antimonides are cubic
compounds with typical composition LaFe Sb . This
structure can be described as consisting %of "#square
planar rings of four antimony atoms with the rings
lying in the (100), (010), or (001) crystallographic
planes. The iron atoms form a simple cubic sublattice
and the lanthanum atoms are positioned in the two
remaining ‘‘cages’’ in the unit cell. X-ray and neutron
structure refinements indicate that the lanthanum
atoms tend to exhibit exceptionally large thermal
parameters corresponding to the ‘‘rattling’’ of these
atoms in an oversized atomic cage. The rattling
lanthanum atoms result in a large reduction of the
lattice thermal conductivity. The values obtained for
ZT at elevated temperatures for these materials are
comparable to the best values reported for any
material (ZT l 1.4) (Sales et al. 1996). The semi-
conducting clathrates have typical composition Sr
Ga Ge (Nolas et al. 1998). In these compounds the)
"' $! atoms rattle in an oversized atomic cage
strontium
resulting in a glass-like thermal conductivity. Good
electronic transport is achieved through the Ge–Ga
tetrahedral network. These materials also appear to
have large values of ZT at elevated temperature.
3.3 Correlated Metals and Semiconductors
As is shown in Fig. 1, ‘‘normal’’ metals are poor
thermoelectrics owing to a low Seebeck coefficient and
a large electronic contribution to the total thermal
conductivity. The approximations used to generate
Fig. 1, however, are not valid for many rare earth
intermetallic compounds (usually containing cerium
or ytterbium) in which the 4f level is near the Fermi
energy. For these materials, the 4f ‘‘bands’’ are very
narrow (resulting in a very high density of states near
6
the Fermi level) and nonparabolic, and the carrier
scattering time is not described by a simple power law
Theoretical support for these types of materials has
been demonstrated (Mahan and Sofo 1996). In a very
general theoretical analysis it was shown that the best
electronic structure for thermoelectric materials is a
delta function in the transport distribution centered
about 2kBT to 3kBT from the Fermi energy. The
transport distribution is defined to include the density
of states and the energy-dependent scattering time. It
is noted, however, that if there is a parallel ‘‘normal’’
channel for carrier conduction (a broad metallic
band), then the values of ZT rapidly drop with only a
small contribution from this ‘‘normal’’ density of
states. Unusual correlated semiconductors (also
termed hybridization gap or Kondo insulators) may
represent a closer approximation to the ideal electronic
structure suggested by Mahan and Sofo (1996). In a
correlated semiconductor the electron states near the
gap retain much of their free-atom character. Several
of these correlated metals and semiconductors have
been investigated but ZT values are below 0.25.
A very general and simple analysis shows that for a
correlated metal to be a viable thermoelectric material
(defined as ZT l 1), the Seebeck coefficient must be
greater than 156 µV KV". Recall that ZT l TS#\κρ,
where κ l κelectronicjκlattice. The largest value of ZT
occurs when the lattice contribution can be ignored so
that κ l κelectronic. ZT is then equal to TS#\ρκelectronic.
For a metal, the Wiedemann–Franz law states that
ρκelectronic\T l L , where L is a constant (2.44i
10V) VV# KV#). The ! !
Wiedemann–Franz law is sur-
prisingly general, and theory shows that it even applies
for correlated metals. Therefore, ZT  S#\L , which
implies that for ZT l 1 the minimum value! of S is
156 µV KV". The correlated metal with the highest
reported Seebeck coefficient is CePd , which has a
maximum value of 115 µV KV" at 125 K. $
3.4 Superlattices and Low-dimensional Materials
Theoretical calculations indicate that semiconductor
quantum wells should have an improved figure of
merit. This conjecture has been confirmed experimen-
tally (Hicks et al. 1996), and it is found that ZT for a
single quantum well increases as the well width
decreases. The enhancement of ZT arises from an
increase of the electronic density of states. The model
has been tested using PbTe quantum wells confined by
Pb . Eu . Te barrier layers. The electrons are con-
! *#(to quantum
fined ! !($ wells with thicknesses ranging from
17 A to 55 AH . An increase by a factor of five is found
H
in S#σ relative to bulk PbTe of the same volume. Using
the thermal conductivity of bulk PbTe as a con-
servative estimate for the quantum well, a value of ZT
l 2 can be estimated within a single well. This novel
 Thermoelectric Devices: Refrigeration and Power Generations With No Moving Parts
approach has spurred new activity into these types of
devices. Research has extended these ideas to the
investigation of quantum wires and other low-dimen-
sional structures as possible advanced thermoelectric
materials.
4. Thermionic Refrigeration
A solid-state refrigeration device based on thermionic
emission has been proposed (Mahan and Woods
1998). Although technically these are not thermo-
electric devices, there are many similarities between a
thermoelectric and a thermionic refrigerator—par-
ticularly with regard to the material properties needed.
Thermionic refrigeration is a solid-state process based
on evaporative cooling. A barrier is imposed to the
flow of electrons (or holes). Those electrons (holes)
that have sufficient kinetic energy to surmount the
barrier are swept away by a small voltage. A system
cools if its most energetic particles are removed from
the system. A practical thermionic refrigerator is
envisioned to consist of a metal–semiconductor supe-
rlattice. A Schottky barrier at the metal–semicon-
ductor interface of about 0.05 eV is required for
efficient operation near room temperature. Electrons
from the metal with sufficient kinetic energy to
surmount the small barrier are ballistically transported
across the thin semiconducting layer using a small
voltage. As is the case for a thermoelectric refrigerator,
the thermal conductivity of the semiconductor mate-
rial must be low to prevent substantial backflow of
heat. Calculations indicate that if these devices can be
fabricated, they should have effective ZT values
greater than 2. There has been no experimental
Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means : electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the publishers.
confirmation of these intriguing calculations (see
Magnetocaloric Effect : From Theory to Practice).
See also: Demagnetization : Nuclear and Adiabatic;
Magnetocaloric Effect : From Theory to Practice
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