CELLS

AS UNIT OF LIFE Johannes Purkinje (1840)

Fluorescence microscopy of fibroblasts in - Coined the term protoplasm to describe
culture reveal cellular detail. cell contents
Blue = nucleus - discovered “Purkinje cells”
Green = microfilaments
Pink = microtubules Rudolf Virchow (1858)
- recognized that all cells come from pre
CELL CONCEPT existing cells
Robert Hooke
- English scientist and inventor HOW CELLS ARE STUDIED
- Viewed slices of cork and leaves using a a. X-ray crystallography
primitive compound microscope b. Light microscopes
- Called the box-like cavities that he c. Electron microscopes
observed “CELLS” Transmission electron microscope
Scanning Electron microscope
Anton van Leeuwenhoek d. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
- Dutch microscopist e. Technological advances in biochemical
- Numerous detailed descriptions of and molecular biology
various cells laid the foundation for the
CELL THEORY Slide 7&8

CELL CONCEPT PROKARYOTIC CELLS
CELL THEORY - Before + nucleus
- All living organisms are composed of - Lacks a nucleus
cells - Bacteria and cyanobacteria
- There is no life without cells - 1st cell type to evolve
- The idea that a cell represents the basic - genetic material located in region called
structural and functional unit of life is an nucleoid
important unifying concept of biology
- binary fission
Cellular level: Atoms – molecule – - no intracellular movement
macromolecule – organelle – cell - not with 9+2 microtubular pattern
- contains disaccharide chains cross-
Organismal level: Tissue – Organ – Organ linked with peptides in bacteria, but not
System - Organism in Archaea (Archeons have ester-linked
membrane lipids)
Matthias Schleiden (1838)
- Announced that all plant tissue was
composed of cells

Theodor Schwann (1839)
- Described animal cells as being similar
to plant cells

EUKARYOTIC CELLS Figure 3.4 Generalized cell with principal
- true + nucleus organelles, as might be seen with the
- DNA in a nuclear membrane electron microscope.
- Animals, plants, fungi, protists
- More recent cell type
- Contain membranous organelles

- Mitosis
- Cytoplasmic streaming, phagocytosis,
pinocytosis
- With 9+2 microtubular pattern
- Cell wall if present, not with
disaccharide polymers linked with
peptides

Plasma Membrane
- selectively permeable structure due to:
a. Phospholipid bilayer has
hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends

b. Increase cholesterol content
decrease membrane flexibility
COMPONENTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS c. Selectively regulates flow of
a. Plasma Membrane molecules into and out of the cell
Fluid-Mosaic Model
- Current model of membrane structure d. Has a variety of receptors,
- Composition: recognition sites, and transport
Phospholipid bilayer vehicles for many cellular activities
Glycoproteins partially or wholly
embedded Nucleus
Various proteins scattered - Storage and processing of genetic
throughout the membrane information
Chromosomes
Chromatin
DNA and DNA-binding proteins
Chromosomal DNA carries the
genetic information encoding cellular RNA
and protein molecules


Nuclear Membrane Endomembrane system
- Separates nuclear contents from - Interacting organelles in eukaryotic cells
cytoplasm that assemble, isolate, and secrete
- Equipped with complex protein pores polypeptides
which allow movement of molecules - Site of protein packaging for export
between the nucleus and cytoplasm outside of the cell
- Lysosomes recycle and digest unwanted
Nucleoli materials
- Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - Some polypeptides are incorporated
into the plasma membrane
Slide 18
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Double membrane organelle
- Network of membranes extending - Inner membrane folded into plate-like
through cytoplasm or finger-like projections called CRISTAE
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Site of the majority of ATP synthesis
- Membranes studded with ribosomes - Self-replicating
- Functions in protein synthesis - Have tiny, circular genome containing
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum DNA that specifies some proteins of a
- No ribosomes mitochondrion
- Functions in lipid synthesis
Cytoskeleton
Ribosomes - Support and maintain cell shape
- Protein synthesis - Movements within cell
- Some attached to ER while others free - Composed of:
in cytoplasm
Microtubules
Golgi Body Intermediate filaments
- Stacks of flattened membranes Microfilaments
- Functions in modification, packaging,
and storage of ER products Microfilaments
- contractile protein filaments
Vesicle - function in muscle contraction and
- Membranous sac for transport and other cellular movements
storage of materials
Microtubules
Lysosomes - composed of the protein tubulin
- Specialized vesicle- think “lysol” - movement chromosomes during cell
- Contains hydrolytic enzymes division
- Functions in digestion of damaged - larger diameter than microfilaments
organelles or pathogens



 Microvilli
Centrioles - Small projections of cell surface
- 9 triplets of microtubules arranged as a produced by invaginations of the plasma
cylinder membrane
- Organization of the spindle apparatus - Increase absorptive and digestive
during animal cell division surface area of cells
- Located in centrosome
- Replicate prior to cell division Specialized Junctional Complexes
Epithelial Cells
Intermediate filaments a) Tight Junctions
- Larger than microfilaments but smaller - Encircle cells and act as seals to prevent
than microtubules passage of molecules between cells
- 6 biochemically distinct sub-types
- Composition and arrangement depend b) Adhesion Junctions
of the cell type in which they are found - Encircle cells and link adjacent cells
- Resist cell stretching and help to hold together
adjacent cells together - Lie below tight junctions
- Type of intermediate filament often Ex: Desmosome, Hemidesmosome
determined in cancerous cells to allow
identification of the original cell type c) Communicating Junctions
- Form tiny canals that allow passage of
Cell Surfaces and Their Specializations small molecules and ions between cells
Cilia and Flagella Ex: Gap Junction
- Motile extension of cell surface
- 9 pairs of microtubules surround a Movements Across Membranes
central pair with basal body found at Membrane Function
foundation - Plasma membranes maintain cellular
- Sweep materials past cell integrity and shape
Used for feeding in protozoans and in - Most cell membranes are selectively
sponges permeable
Propel entire organism in single-celled Permeable to gases like oxygen
Protista and some small multicellular Limited permeability to water
organisms Variably permeable to solutes and ions
- Play an integral role in cell signaling
during embryo development and in the Diffusion
adult organism - Movement of particles or molecules
from an area of higher concentration to
Pseudopodia an area of lower concentration of
- Cytoplasmic streaming extends a lobe particles or molecules– called
(pseudopodium) outward from the cell concentration gradient
surface - Gases, urea, lipid-soluble solutes,
- Movement of cells alcohol easily diffuse across membranes
- Larger molecules need membrane pores
like gated channels
Osmosis Endocytosis (3 Processes)
- Movement of water molecules across a - Ingestion of material by cells
selectively permeable membrane from - Requires energy
an area of higher water concentration
to an area of lower water concentration Phagocytosis
Types of osmotic solutions: - “Cell eating”
a. Hypoosmotic or Hypotonic - Plasma membrane forms a pocket that
- Red blood cells swell and lyse engulfs solid material
- Membrane-enclosed vesicle detaches
b. Isosmotic or Isotonic from cell surface and moves into
- No net water movement so cells are cytoplasm
same - Fuses with lysosomes, contents are
digested by lysosomal enzymes, useful
c. Hyperosmotic or Hypertonic products are absorbed
- Water moves out and the cells shrink. Ex: Cellular debris, microbes

Carrier-Mediated Transport Pinocytosis
Facilitated Diffusion - Small areas of plasma membrane
- Requires special transmembrane invaginate forming tiny vesicles
proteins- transporters - Invaginated pits and vesicles are called
- Enable solute molecules to cross the CALVEOLAE
phospholipid bilayer - Receptors for specific molecules or ions
Ex: Glucose are concentrated in calveolae
- Transport is from higher to lower Ex: Intake of some vitamins, hormones,
concentrations growth factors, and translocation of
- NO METABOLIC ENERGY REQUIRED substances

Active Transport Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
- Requires transporters and channels - Proteins of plasma membrane bind
- Materials are transported against a specific molecules (ligands) present in
concentration gradient low concentration in extracellular fluid
Ex: Na+, K+
- Requires constant source of energy - Inner surface of plasma membrane
- As much as 10% to 40% of all energy coated with proteins called CLATHRINS
produced by cells is consumed by the
Na+- K+ exchange pump - Region invaginates forming clathrin-
coated pits and bringing ligand into cell

- Pit is uncoated, receptor and ligand
dissociate

- Receptor and membrane recycled back
to surface membrane
Ex:Proteins, peptide hormones, cholesterol
Exocytosis In animals that reproduce sexually
- Movement of material out of a cell - Parents produce sex cells-
- Membrane of a vesicle fuses with GAMETOGENESIS- containing HALF the
plasma membrane and extrudes parental number of chromosomes
contents
- Requires energy - Requires a reduction type of nuclear
Ex: Indigestible residues, hormone division- MEIOSIS
secretion
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Cell theory Chromatin
- All cells arise from the division of - DNA and protein
preexisting cells - Not visible in cytoplasm
- Chromatin condenses prior to nuclear
Cell division division
- Division of the nucleus (KARYOKINESIS) - Now visible in cytoplasm as
Mitosis (forms SOMATIC CELLS) chromosomes
Meiosis (forms SEX CELLS)
Centromere
- Division of the cytoplasm (CYTOKINESIS) - Constricted region of a chromosome
- In most multicellular organisms, all cells
originate from the ZYGOTE - Location of kinetochore

- Single cell resulting from union of an egg - Disk of proteins that bind with spindle
and a sperm (GAMETES) microtubules

Mitosis - Each species has a characteristic
- Nuclear division associated with number of chromosomes in the somatic
formation of somatic (body) cells cells
- Humans: 46 chromosomes
- Produces daughter cells genetically
identical to the mother cell Phases in Mitosis
- Artificially divided into four successive
- Important in growth and tissue repair in phases
multicellular organisms Prophase
Metaphase
- Method of transmitting genetic from Anaphase
parent to progeny in animals that Telophase
reproduce asexually- binary fission






Prophase Cytokinesis: Cytoplasmic Division
- Centrosomes (and centrioles) replicate - During the final stages of nuclear
and migrate to opposite poles division, a cleavage furrow appears on
- Nuclear membrane disassembled the cell surface
- Spindle forms
- Chromatin condenses (chromosomes) - Encircles the midline and constricts the
- Chromosome consist of 2 identical plasma membrane as being tightened
sister chromatids by rubber band.
- Nucleolus disappears
- Interaction between actin with myosin
Metaphase and other actin-binding proteins, similar
- The centromere region of each to muscle contraction mechanisms
chromosome is equipped with two draws the furrow inward.
kinetochores
- Kinetochores attached to centrosome - Finally, the folding edges of the plasma
by kinetochore microtubule membrane meet and fuse, completing
- Chromosomes arranged on the cell division.
metaphase plate
Cell Cycle
Anaphase - Interval between one cell division and
- Cohesion proteins that hold sister the next
chromatids together at the centromere
of each chromosome are removed - Nuclear division occupies 5% to 10% of
- Sister chromatids separate to become cell cycle
two independent chromosomes
- Chromosomes are moved to opposite - The remainder (>90%) of the cell’s time
poles of cell is spent in interphase

Telophase - INTERPHASE is the stage between
- Chromosomes complete migration to nuclear divisions
respective centrosomes, or poles
- Spindle fibers disappear
- Chromosomes decondensed
- Chromatin
- Nuclear membranes reappear around
the two daughter nuclei








Interphase Apoptosis
- Divided into 3 phases - Programmed cell death
1. G1 (Gap 1)
- Preparatory stage for DNA replication - Cells shrink, disintegrate, and
- Synthesis of tRNA, ribosomes, mRNA, components absorbed by surrounding
and enzymes cells

2. S (Synthesis) In vertebrates, necessary for health and
- DNA replication development

3. G2 (Gap 2) - Occurs as cells age and accumulate
- Synthesis of spindle and aster proteins damage from oxidizing agents

Embryonic cells
- Divide rapidly
- No cell growth between divisions

Cell cycle lengthens as organisms develop
Some enter a nonproliferative stage called
G0 (Most neurons)

Cell cycle transitions
- Mediated cyclin-dependent kinases,
cdk’s (enzymes) and cyclins (regulatory
protein subunits)

- CYCLINS bind to and activate cdk’s

- CDK’S ACTIVATE OR INACTIVATE other
proteins by the addition of phosphate
groups

Flux of Cells
Cell division
- Rapid at birth

- Slows with age

- Different cell population division rates
vary
- Tissues subject to abrasion must replace
cells constantly
- Humans: 1% to 2% (100 billion)
o replaced daily