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FATIGUE: A COMPLEX SUBJECT -

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SOME SIMPLE APPROXIMATIONS Microfiche (MF)

by S. S. Manson
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

WILLIAM M. MURRAY LECTURE

Presented to Society for Emerimental Stress Analysis
Cleveland, Ohio, October 30, 1964

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON, D.C. - 1965

 FATIGUE: A COMPLEX SUBJECT - SOME SIMPLE APPROXIMATIONS

by S. S. Manson

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio

WILLIAM M. MURRAY LECTURE

.
Presented to the Society for Experimental Stress Analysis
Cleveland, Ohio, October 30, 1964

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

 FOREWORD

It was my p r i v i l e g e t o serve on t h e Executive Committee of t h e

S o c i e t y f o r Experimental S t r e s s Analysis i n 1951 when t h i s l e c t u r e s h i p

was f i r s t inaugurated. Normally our concern was l a r g e l y with f i n a n c i a l

matters, b u t a t t h i s meeting our subject of d i s c u s s i o n was much more

pleasureable - how could w e be of g r e a t e r s e r v i c e t o t h e membership of

t h e S o c i e t y and t o t h e t e c h n i c a l community a t l a r g e ? One of t h e members

of t h e committee suggested t h a t it was about time - we were then 8 years

old - t o i n s t i t u t e an honorary l e c t u r e s h i p w i t h i n t h e Society. This

sounded l i k e a v e r y good idea, and we were about t o embark on a d i s -

cussion as t o how it would be designated. Frankly my thoughts turned

i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of some e l d e r l y hero of t h e p a s t i n t h e f i e l d of s t r e s s

analysis. I d i d n o t t h i n k a t a l l along t h e l i n e s of one of t h e o t h e r mem-

b e r s who s a t next t o me and said, "How about B i l l Murray?". B i l l was not

i n t h e room a t t h e time. A f t e r t h e suggestion was made, however, it

seemed l i k e t h e only p o s s i b l e idea. I wondered how I could ever have

thought i n any d i r e c t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h a t . B i l l w a s a founder, he w a s

our f i r s t p r e s i d e n t , he w a s t h e Executive S e c r e t a r y , and our Treasurer.

Between meetings he was t h e e n t i r e Society and d i d a l l of t h e work, i n -

cluding e d i t i n g of t h e Journal. He d i d t h i s on donated time without

remuneration. So t h e suggestion not only made sense, b u t it r e a l l y w a s

t h e only r i g h t t h i n g t o do. By t h e time B i l l came back, t h e r e was no

need f o r discussion. I d i d n o t need t o be convinced and n e i t h e r d i d

anyone e l s e . The d e c i s i o n was unanimous; it was t o be t h e W i l l i a m M.

Murray Lecture. We asked B i l l i f he would give t h e f i r s t l e c t u r e , and,

i ii
of course, he did. I n s o doing he s e t a standard of excellence t h a t has

been followed ever s i n c e . The twelve Murray l e c t u r e s t h a t have been

given i n t h e ensuing years have a l l been a t r u e c r e d i t t o t h e Society.

It i s indeed a p r i v i l e g e t o t a k e a p l a c e among those honoring B i l l , and

it i s my hope t h a t t h e l e c t u r e t h a t I s h a l l p r e s e n t t o you w i l l i n small

measure, a t l e a s t , follow t h e high standards t h a t have a l r e a d y been s e t .

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TABU OF CONTENTS

FORENARD .............................. iii

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTAL TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PHENOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR I N STRAIN CYCLING . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

S t r a i n Cycling Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Prediction of Axial Fatigue Life from Tensile Cetta . . . . . . . 12
Four-point c o r r e l a t i o n method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
Method of u n i v e r s a l slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Comparison of Prediction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7
Alternate Relation f o r Predicting Axial Fatigue L i f e i n Terms
of Endurance L i m i t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
EFFECT OF YIELD STRESS AND NOTCH SENSITIVITY ON FATIGUE LIFE
I N STRAIN CYCLING......................... 21

CONSIDERATION OF UNIVERSAL SLOPE FOR PLASTIC STRAIN LINE . . . . . 27

CRACK PROPAGATION AND ITS RELATION TO THX POWER LAW FOR

CYCLIC LIFE ............................ 29

CUMULATIVEFATIGUE DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Cyclic Hardening and Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Aspects Relating t o Crack Propagation .............. 41

APPLICATIONS INVOLVING STRAIN CYCLING DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Relation Between Axial and Bending Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Rule of Thumb Relating S t r a i n Range t o Cyclic L i f e . . . . . . . . 53

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF FATIGUE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Cyclic S t r a i n Hardening and Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Microstructural Events i n Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Development of Microcracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Stage I1 Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
F i n a l F r a c t u r e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

ACKN0WL;EDGMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
 W i l l i a m M. Murray Lecture

FATIGUE: A COMPLEX SUBJECT - SOME SIMPLE APPROXIMATIONS

by S. S. Manson

L e w i s Research Center

INTRODUCTION

I have chosen as t h e s u b j e c t of t h i s l e c t u r e : Fatigue - some of i t s

complexities, some s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . This s u b j e c t i s not a neglected one;

f i g u r e 1 shows, f o r example, a p l o t of t h e number of r e p o r t s t h a t have

appeared s i n c e 1950 r e l a t i n g t o f a t i g u e . Actually, t h e l i t e r a t u r e goes

back 100 years, b u t even i f we s t a r t i n 1950, we s e e how v a s t it is. The

r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d here a r e s e l e c t e d papers l i s t e d by t h e ASTM; it i s n o t

a complete compilation of a l l publications. Since t h e l a s t l i s t i n g was

i n 1962, I have e x t r a p o l a t e d t h e curve f o r a few ensuing years based on

t h e " r u l e of thumb" given m e by t h e ASTM t h a t , on t h e average, t h e papers

i n c r e a s e a t a r a t e of 15 percent p e r year. This method of p r e s e n t a t i o n

i s fashioned a f t e r an approach suggested i n a p r i v a t e communication by

Professors Burns and Morrison of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of London, and, I b e l i e v e ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r students of f a t i g u e . It i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t

i f a person wished t o keep up w i t h the l i t e r a t u r e and read one r e p o r t per

working day, he would f a l l behind on t h e order of 1 year f o r every year

t h a t he read. This would be t r u e i f he s t a r t e d w i t h a knowledge of t h e

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e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e ; catching up on the backlog would be almost impossible.

I n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fashion of f a t i g u e , we seem t o be approaching an

endurance l i m i t - a time a f t e r which keeping a b r e a s t w i l l be v i r t u a l l y

impossible .
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J u s t why t h e r e a r e s o many r e p o r t s on t h i s s u b j e c t i s i n d i c a t e d i n

f i g u r e 2. W e s e e t h e tremendous number of f a c e t s it p r e s e n t s , some i n -

dependent of each o t h e r , some i n t e r r e l a t e d , and some being merely a l t e r -

nate expressions i d e n t i f y i n g t h e same f a c t o r . Despite t h e many i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n s that have been made, g e n e r a l i t i e s seem q u i t e e l u s i v e , and s t u d i e s

of t h e b a s i c f a t i g u e mechanism, i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e many phenomena i n -

volving engineering data, and f i n a l component t e s t i n g , w i l l continue t o

a t t r a c t the a t t e n t i o n of many i n v e s t i g a t o r s , and r e s u l t i n many r e p o r t s .

When I undertook t o prepare t h i s l e c t u r e , it w a s my i n t e n t i o n t o provide

a t least a "thumb-nail" d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t regarding

t h e b a s i c phenomenon. I had intended t o show f i r s t how complex it was,

and t h e n proceed t o i n d i c a t e some simple b u t u s e f u l approximations t h a t

were evolved i n r e c e n t years. I found, however, t h a t even a cursory s u r -

vey would involve such lengthy d i s c u s s i o n t h a t it would be i n a p p r o p r i a t e

f o r t h e l i m i t e d time a v a i l a b l e . Furthermore, so many e x c e l l e n t r e f e r -

ences have appeared i n r e c e n t years o u t l i n i n g our s t a t e of understanding

on t h e fundamental a s p e c t s of f a t i g u e , t h a t I would, i n t h e main, be r e -

peating, l a r g e l y with l e s s q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h e words of t h e s e e x c e l l e n t

authors ( r e f s . 1 t o 4 ) . My d i s c u s s i o n w i l l l i m i t i t s e l f , t h e r e f o r e , t o

those fundamental a s p e c t s t h a t r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t

have been conducted i n our l a b o r a t o r y , or those which e l u c i d a t e some de-

t a i l s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e discussion of o w r e s u l t s . For t h i s reason t h e

r e s u l t s of our experiments w i l l be described f i r s t , and t h e fundamental

a s p e c t s reserved u n t i l t h e t e r m i n a l s e c t i o n .

Before proceeding, however, t o a ' d i s c u s s i o n of experimental r e s u l t s

and t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e , it i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o mention several of t h e new

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t o o l s t h a t have r e c e n t l y been arrayed toward o b t a i n i n g an understanding

of t h e f a t i g u e phenomenon. This i s a p p r o p r i a t e because t h i s S o c i e t y i s ,

a f t e r a l l , devoted t o experimental matters.

SOME RECENT EXPERIMENTAL TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

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Since/ f a t i g u e i s s o i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e question of g e n e r a t i n g
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and propagating a crack, and s i n c e the p h o t o e l a s t i c technique' r e a l l y

comes i n t o i t s own when studying s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y of

a crack, it i s very l o g i c a l t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h t o o l should have c o n t r i b -

uted t o our understanding of f a t i g u e . Figure 3 shows some r e s u l t s t h a t

have been presented by Gerberich ( r e f . 5) showing t h e s t r a i n d i s t r i b u -

t i o n a t t h e t i p of a notch. The p h o t o e l a s t i c c o a t i n g method i s espe-

c i a l l y valuable here because it enables us t o s t u d y t h e s t r a i n d i s t r i b u -

t i o n i n metallic materials.

The i phase i n t e r f e r e n c e method has a l s o been a p p l i e d t o study s t r e s s

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d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a notch t i p . Figure 4 i s taken from an

SESA p u b l i c a t i o n i n which Oppel and H i l l ( r e f . 6) have presented t h e i r

r e s u l t s u s i n g t h i s technique. B r i e f l y , l i g h t i s d i r e c t e d through an

o p t i c a l system onto an i n i t i a l l y f l a t s u r f a c e of t h e specimen. In the

undeformed condition of t h e specimen, t h e p l a t e g l a s s i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e

specimen surface. Deformation of the specimen by loading causes a v a r i a -

t i o n i n t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e p l a t e g l a s s and t h e specimen a t d i f f e r -

e n t p o i n t s , and r e s u l t s i n a p a t t e r n very similar t o Newton's r i n g s , such

as t h a t shown on t h e r i g h t i n t h e figure.

Figure 5 shows another technique t h a t has been used i n our own

laboratory. It makes use of a polycarbonate r e s i n , a p l a s t i c material,

which, when f a t i g u e d , c l e a r l y shows s t r i a t i o n s . Each of t h e s e s t r i a t i o n s

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provides an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e d i s t a n c e t h a t t h e crack has progressed

from one cycle t o t h e next. Most s p e c i f i c a l l y our i n t e r e s t i s i n how

t h e f a t i g u e crack g e t s s t a r t e d and how it grows during t h e very e a r l y

stages. The use of t h i s m a t e r i a l permits t h e v i s u a l observations of

t h e progression of cracks without a microscope. We s h a l l r e f e r l a t e r

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t o some r e s u l t s obtained i n our l a b o r a t o r y making use of t h i s technique.

Figure 6 r e f e r s t o another very valuable t o o l t h a t has been adopted

by i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n f a t i g u e within t h e l a s t decade. This t o o l i s t h e

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e l e c t r o n microscope, whereby very high magnifications can be accom-

p l i s h e d , making it p o s s i b l e t o observe t h e c l o s e l y spaced i n d i v i d u a l

s t r i a t i o n s during f a t i g u e crack growth of l o n g - l i f e specimens. This

f i g u r e shows t h e s t r i a t i o n s t h a t have been observed by Bedesem and

H a r r e l l of our l a b o r a t o r y i n a study of t h e aluminum a l l o y 7075-T6.

Every r i p p l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e growth of t h e crack during a cycle of

loading. I n t h i s case t h e crack per cycle i s of t h e order of 30 micro-

inches. Such p a t t e r n s are made by covering t h e s u r f a c e w i t h a p l a s t i c

r e p l i c a t i n g m a t e r i a l , as shown i n t h e upper l e f t of t h e f i g u r e . The

p l a s t i c material i s t h e n s t r i p p e d o f f t h e specimen, l e a v i n g an exact

r e p l i c a of t h e s u r f a c e topography. This s u r f a c e i s t h e n shadowed by

t h e use of carbon, or o t h e r m a t e r i a l s such as germanium, which forms

an extremely t h i n f i l m having t h e shape of t h e s u r f a c e . Shadowing a t

an angle produces h i g h l i g h t s t h a t m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h

regions of s u r f a c e depression from t h o s e of e l e v a t i o n . The p l a s t i c

r e p l i c a i s then removed and t h e t h i n carbon or m e t a l l i c f i l m i s s t u d i e d

i n t h e e l e c t r o n microscope.

Figure 7 shows another approach i n v o l v i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n

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microscopy ( r e f . 7 ) . Here t h e specimen i t s e l f , r a t h e r t h a n a r e p l i c a of

t h e s u r f a c e , i s placed i n t h e microscope. To be penetrated by t h e e l e c t r o n

beam, however, t h e specimen must be very t h i n . The l a y e r s of atoms a c t as

a d i f f r a c t i o n g r a t i n g , and any d i s a r r a y i n t h e l a t t i c e i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e

. p a t t e r n generated b y t h e e l e c t r o n beam on t h e screen. A typical pattern

i s shown i n f i g u r e 8 taken from t h e work of Grosskreutz ( r e f . 8 ) . The

dark regions a r e d i s l o c a t i o n s - regions of atomic d i s a r r a y - and it i s

seen from t h e photographs how t h e grains break up i n t o a number of smaller

regions c a l l e d subgrains, separated from each o t h e r by d i s l o c a t i o n n e t -

works. Since t h i s method involves the use of very t h i n f i l m s of t h e

specimen i t s e l f , it i s sometimes questioned whether t h e behavior of such

f i l m s i s t y p i c a l of t h e behavior of bulk material. Much needs t o be done

t o r e s o l v e t h e questions t h a t have been r a i s e d regarding t h e a p p l i c a -

b i l i t y of t h e r e s u l t s obtained by these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . It i s c l e a r ,

however, t h a t t h i s technique can be extremely useful.

A combination of t h e technique involving t h e use of t h e e l e c t r o n

microscope and t h e Moir6 method i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 9 ( r e f . 9 ) . Here

a v e r y t h i n l a y e r o f a s i n g l e c r y s t a l of palladium was deposited on a

correspondingly t h i n s i n g l e c r y s t a l of gold. The a r r a y of atoms i n each

of t h e s e c r y s t a l s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e grids t h a t combined t o form a Moirg

pattern. The i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n produced by t h e g r i d s w a s observed

w i t h an e l e c t r o n microscope. I n t h i s f i g u r e , one of t h e g r i d s i s assumed

t o be p e r f e c t and t h e o t h e r t o contain a d i s l o c a t i o n . The Moir6 p a t t e r n

t h a t r e s u l t s i s d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e by means of t h e e l e c t r o n microscope,

whereas t h e a c t u a l atomic a r r a y of the m a t e r i a l s themselves i s t o o f i n e

t o be resolved i n t h i s manner. Thus, by t h i s method, it i s p o s s i b l e t o

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observe d i s a r r a y s i n t h e atomic s t r u c t u r e such as t h e edge d i s l o c a t i o n

shown a t t h e r i g h t of t h e f i g u r e .

X-rays are an a l t e r n a t e means of d e t e c t i n g d i s a r r a y i n a c r y s t a l

l a t t i c e , s i n c e t h e l a t t i c e w i l l d i f f r a c t t h e X-rays i n much t h e same

manner as an e l e c t r o n beam. Thus, using very t h i n f i l m s of c r y s t a l l i n e

m a t e r i a l s i n which t h e l a t t i c e arrangements a r e n o t p e r f e c t and bom-

b a r d i n g t h e s e w i t h an X-ray beam, r e s u l t i n photographs similar t o those

shown i n f i g u r e 10 ( r e f . 10). This f i g u r e shows a very complicated

a r r a y of d i s l o c a t i o n s i n s i l i c o n , as brought out by t h e use of X-ray

diffraction.

Decoration and e t c h i n g techniques have been used t o provide photo-

graphic evidence of t h e e x i s t e n c e of d i s l o c a t i o n s and t h e i r geometric

properties. Figure 11 shows a c l a s s i c photograph obtained by Dash

( r e f . 11) of a Frank-Read source using copper decoration. The develop-

ment of e t c h p i t s i s now a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d technique. Recently, a

very i n t e r e s t i n g innovation has been developed by Hahn and Rosenfeld

( r e f . 1 2 ) ; b y using a s i l i c o n s t e e l and a s p e c i a l e t c h a n t , t h e y were

a b l e t o b r i n g out i n bold c o n t r a s t t h e regions of p l a s t i c flow i n t h e

v i c i n i t y of a notch. Figure 1 2 shows some of t h e i r r e s u l t s . A sheet

with a notch w a s subjected t o loading, and t h e region of p l a s t i c flow

w a s f i r s t observed by t h i s technique a t t h e surface. By machining away

h a l f of the specimen and then e t c h i n g t h e midsection t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

of p l a s t i c flow i n t h e midsection of t h e p l a t e w a s made apparent. Note

t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n appearance of t h e s e regions. Such s t u d i e s can be

extremely u s e f u l i n understanding t h e r o l e of p l a s t i c flow and t h e e f f e c t

of c o n s t r a i n t of such p l a s t i c flow on t h e g e n e r a t i o n of cracks.

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Another technique t h a t has been q u i t e u s e f u l i n studying t h e cracks

generated by f a t i g u e i s c a l l e d "taper s e c t i o n i n g , " and it i s i l l u s t r a t e d

i n f i g u r e 13. Here t h e attempt i s made t o observe a v e r y shallow crack

by t a k i n g advantage of t h e geometric f a c t t h a t , i f t h e s u r f a c e i s c u t by

a plane t h a t makes a very small angle with it, t h e shallow crack w i l l be

elongated i n accordance with t h e cosecant r e l a t i o n of t h e angle between

t h e c u t t i n g plane and t h e surface. Although t h e f i g u r e shows t h i s

angle 8 t o be of appreciable magnitude, so as t o be geometrically

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , t h e angle i s made very small i n p r a c t i c e s o t h a t t h e

magnification achieved i s q u i t e large, of t h e order of 20. I n t h i s way,

cracks that a r e h a r d l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e become evident when t a p e r s e c t i o n -

i n g i s applied. It i s evident t h a t a d i s t o r t i o n of t h e geometry r e s u l t s

because t h e magnification occurs only i n t h e depth of crack, b u t n o t i n

t h e width; t h u s , c a r e must be exercised i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of

such s t u d i e s . A t a p e r s e c t i o n o f a b r a s s specimen t e s t e d i n t o r s i o n i s

shown on t h e r i g h t of f i g u r e 13 ( r e f . 13).

Another approach t h a t can be used i n t h e study of crack propagation

i s shown i n f i g u r e 14; it makes use of u l t r a s o n i c techniques and has been

under i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n our laboratory b y K l i m a , Lesco, and Freche. By

t h i s technique, it has been possible t o d e t e c t cracks l e s s than 0.003 inch

long i n notched s h e e t specimens. As a matter of i n t e r e s t , it should be

noted t h a t cracks were d e t e c t e d w e l l w i t h i n t h e f i r s t 10 percent of t h e

l i f e of a notched specimen. The question of crack i n i t i a t i o n i n smooth

specimens w i l l be taken up l a t e r .

The foregoing techniques are c e r t a i n l y not t h e only ones t h a t have

been brought t o b e a r on t h i s problem of f a t i g u e . Among o t h e r s a r e

 8

a c o u s t i c emission, exo-electron emission, vacuum s t u d i e s , magnetic

e f f e c t s , r e s i s t a n c e e f f e c t s , damping, h e a t conduction, thermographic

s t u d i e s , o p t i c a l microscopes, cinematography, and many others. By far,

t h e most powerful t o o l i s t h e process of human reasoning. Within t h e

l a s t 15 years many new concepts have been generated, and t h e e v a l u a t i o n

of t h e s e concepts has produced immense s t r i d e s i n t h e understanding of

t h e f a t i g u e phenomenon and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l a b o r a t o r y d a t a toward

c o n t r o l of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e .

PHE3TOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR I N STRAIN CYCLING

Although t h e techniques j u s t o u t l i n e d f o r studying t h e fundamental

mechanism of f a t i g u e have produced some v e r y u s e f u l r e s u l t s l e a d i n g t o

a b e t t e r understanding of t h e mechanism, we are as y e t f a r from being

a b l e t o apply our fundamental understanding t o solve t h e f a t i g u e problem

i n the field. P r a c t i c a l approaches s t i l l involve t h e d i r e c t measurement

of f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s . Some of t h e s e r e s u l t s may be u s e f u l

as a f i r s t s t e p i n design and may a l s o provide some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e

f a t i g u e mechanism. We s h a l l now d i s c u s s some r e c e n t r e s u l t s t h a t have

been obtained i n OUT l a b o r a t o r y ( r e f s . 1 4 t o 15).

S t r a i n Cycling Concepts

Consider a specimen t h a t i s subjected t o axial reversed s t r a i n cycling.

F i r s t a p o s i t i v e s t r a i n (+E) i s a p p l i e d t o t h e specimen; by r e v e r s i n g t h e

load, a negative s t r a i n (-E) i s obtained r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l s t r a i n range

of Z E . ~ Note t h a t t h i s type of loading i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from what

has conventionally been done i n f a t i g u e t e s t i n g wherein t h e load i s t h e

primary v a r i a b l e t h a t i s c o n t r o l l e d .

The f i r s t observation made when a specimen i s s t r a i n e d i n t h i s

 9

manner is that it requires different loads to accomplish a desired amount

of strain, depending on the number of prior applications of the strain.

This fact is illustrated in figure 15. Here, for reference purposes, a

continuous curve is plotted to illustrate static stress-strain behavior

. of the material. The stress is plotted, however, as a range, indicating

the total range in stress including both the compression and the tension

halves of the cycle. Some manipulation is required to transform a con-

ventional stress-strain curve to one involving stress range and strain

range, but.it is essentially the stress-strain curve of the material.

In the first cycle of loading, the stress range required to produce a

fixed strain range, for example 0.018, is at point A in figure 15(a). It

lies on the static stress-strain curve, because, by definition, the static

stress-strain curve provides the stress required to produce a given strain

in the first quarter cycle of loading. However, if an attempt is made to

apply the same strain in successive cycles, it takes a greater stress

range to maintain the strain range. This fact is illustrated in fig-

ure 15(b) along the line A'PA. In this case, after about 600 cycles of

loading, however, the stress stabilizes and for the remainder of the test,

out to about 1400 cycles, the stress range remains approximately constant.
I

This achievement of an asymptotic stress range is sometimes referred to

-
as "saturation hardening." If the asymptotic stress range that is reached
is plotted against the applied strain range, this point falls on A" in

figure 15(a). In a similar manner, if the strain range is raised to 0.036,

the variation B'% is obtained, resulting in the point B" in fig-

ure 15(a) as the asymptotic stress range associated with the strain

range 0.036. The curve joining A" and B" represents what is known as

the "cyclic stress-strain curve." In this case it lies considerably above

 10

t h e s t a t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve; t h i s material i s t h u s r e f e r r e d t o as a

c y c l i c strain-hardening m a t e r i a l . Of additional interest i s the plot

i n f i g u r e 1 5 ( c ) , which i s merely a r e p l o t of f i g u r e 1 5 ( b ) with t h e c y c l i c

l i f e s c a l e made l i n e a r . It i s apparent from f i g u r e 1 5 ( c ) t h a t s a t u r a t i o n

hardening i s achieved during t h e e a r l y c y c l e s of loading, u s u a l l y w e l l

.
before half t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e have been applied.

Figure 1 6 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e behavior of another c l a s s of m a t e r i a l

described as c y c l i c s t r a i n softening. I n t h i s case, f o r a s t r a i n range

of 0.015, t h e s t r e s s range required i s i n i t i a l l y a t p o i n t A, b u t it

quickly diminishes u n t i l , a f t e r a r e l a t i v e l y f e w cycles, t h e s t r e s s

range i s only about h a l f t h a t a t p o i n t A'. The c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n

curve here i s AI'B'' and f a l l s considerably below t h e s t a t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n

curve. The degree of hardening o r s o f t e n i n g v a r i e s considerably among

m a t e r i a l s , and some m a t e r i a l s even show hardening and s o f t e n i n g i n t h e

same t e s t .

Before p r e s e n t i n g an a n a l y s i s of t h e data, it i s important t o d i s -

cuss some d e t a i l s of procedure used i n our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Some of t h e

c o n f l i c t i n g r e p o r t s t h a t have appeared i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e regarding

s t r a i n - c y c l i n g data a r e due i n part t o a l a c k of c l e a r d e s c r i p t i o n of

t h e procedure t h a t i s followed i n o b t a i n i n g t h e data.

A s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , t h e t e s t s r e f e r r e d t o here (ref. 15) a r e f o r

s t r a i n cycling about zero mean s t r a i n . I n most of t h e s e t e s t s t h e

t r a n s v e r s e s t r a i n range ( d i a m e t r a l ) r a t h e r t h a n t h e a x i a l s t r a i n range

w a s maintained constant. This w a s done i n order t o produce known values

of t r u e s t r a i n i n t h e r e g i o n when f a i l u r e occurs. A specimen of hour-

g l a s s shape w a s found most convenient f o r t h e s e tests. When analyzing

 L

11

t h e data, t h e l i f e was taken as t h e number of cycles r e q u i r e d t o cause

complete r u p t u r e of t h e specimen. It i s important t o make a d i s t i n c t i o n

h e r e because some i n v e s t i g a t o r s regard t h e l i f e of a specimen as t h e

p o i n t a t which cracks begin t o appear on t h e surface. Later t h e d i f f e r -

ence between t h e s e two concepts w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d .

When s a t u r a t i o n hardening o r s o f t e n i n g a c t u a l l y occurs, t h e value of

s t r e s s range i n t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve i s unambiguous. I n some

cases, where hardening or s o f t e n i n g continues throughout t h e t e s t , t h e

value of s t r e s s range used i s t h a t a t t h e h a l f - l i f e of t h e specimen.

When a t o t a l s t r a i n range A€ ( = 2 ~ i) s applied t o a specimen ( i n

our t e s t s t h e a x i a l s t r a i n range i s deduced from a knowledge of s t r e s s

range, d i a m e t r a l s t r a i n range, and t h e e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s ) , t h a t part

of t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range, which i s e l a s t i c , can be s e p a r a t e d from t h a t

which i s p l a s t i c by a knowledge of the s t r e s s range. The e l a s t i c s t r a i n

range i s simply t h e s t r e s s range divided by t h e e l a s t i c modulus. The

p l a s t i c s t r a i n range i s obtained b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e e l a s t i c s t r a i n range

from t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range. Figure 1 7 shows i d e a l i z e d r e s u l t s t h a t are

obtained when f a t i g u e l i f e i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t e i t h e r t h e e l a s t i c or

p l a s t i c s t r a i n range. S t r a i g h t l i n e s r e s u l t when both s c a l e s a r e loga-

rithmic. The curve d e p i c t i n g t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range, which i s t h e sum

of t h e s e two components, i s a l s o shown i n t h e f i g u r e .

The concept t h a t c y c l i c l i f e i s r e l a t e d t o t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n range

w a s f i r s t proposed by us i n 1952 ( r e f . 1 6 ) . This r e s u l t e d from our

e f f o r t t o e s t i m a t e t h e importance of temperature on t h e thermal s t r e s s

f a t i g u e of t u r b i n e buckets. Since then, a considerable number of s t u d i e s

have been made by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o v e r i f y t h e r e l a t i o n . The l i n e a r -

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12

i t y of e l a s t i c range with l i f e has been proposed more r e c e n t l y ( r e f . 1 7 )

i n an e f f o r t t o overcome t h e d i f f i c u l t y , from a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of view,

of determining l i f e from t h e p l a s t i c range only. It i s u s u a l l y t h e t o t a l

s t r a i n that i s known r a t h e r than t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n , and t h e r e f o r e it i s

d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e how much of t h i s s t r a i n i s p l a s t i c u n t i l t h e

e l a s t i c component i s known. For t h i s reason, it i s much more u s e f u l ,

i n p r a c t i c e , t o r e l a t e l i f e t o t h e t o t a l s t r a i n , which i s t h e sum of t h e

e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c components.

It w i l l be noted t h a t t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range i s n o t a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

Because of t h e logarithmic s c a l e involved, t h e curve of t o t a l s t r a i n

range a g a i n s t l i f e i s asymptotic t o t h e p l a s t i c l i n e i n t h e lower c y c l i c -

l i f e range, and t o t h e e l a s t i c l i n e i n t h e higher c y c l i c - l i f e range.

P r e d i c t i o n of Axial Fatigue L i f e from T e n s i l e Data

From a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of view, merely knowing t h a t t h e e l a s t i c and

p l a s t i c components a r e approximately s t r a i g h t l i n e s i s extremely u s e f u l

because it means t h a t only a few t e s t s a r e needed t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e

lines. There a r e , however, many a p p l i c a t i o n s when it i s d e s i r a b l e t o

avoid any f a t i g u e t e s t i n g whatsoever and t o e s t i m a t e t h e s e s t r a i g h t l i n e s

from a knowledge of more r e a d i l y obtained m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . There-

f o r e , an attempt has been made t o e s t a b l i s h a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e

l i n e s and t h e p r o p e r t i e s of m a t e r i a l s obtained i n simple t e n s i l e t e s t s .

Four-point-correlation method. - Figure 18 shows one method of anal-

y s i s t h a t w e have i n v e s t i g a t e d . It may be r e f e r r e d t o as a f o u r - p o i n t

method because t h e two s t r a i g h t l i n e s a r e obtained by l o c a t i n g two p o i n t s

on each of them. Every p o i n t i s determined from a knowledge of t h e

t e n s i l e behavior of t h e m a t e r i a l . A p o i n t i s l o c a t e d on t h e e l a s t i c l i n e
 13

a t 1/4 cycle with a n ordinate ( 2 . 5 ur)/E, where of is the true fracture

s t r e s s of t h e m a t e r i a l obtained by d i v i d i n g t h e load a t t h e time of f a i l -

ure i n t h e t e n s i l e t e s t by t h e a c t u a l a r e a measured a f t e r f a i l u r e has

occurred. Another p o i n t on t h i s l i n e i s obtained a t lo5 cycles. At this

p o i n t , t h e o r d i n a t e i s (0.9 uu)/E, where uu i s t h e conventional u l t i m a t e

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e material. On t h e p l a s t i c l i n e , a p o i n t a t

10 cycles i s determined t h a t has an ordinate of D3/4 , where D is the

logarithmic d u c t i l i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l defined as t h e n a t u r a l logarithm

of t h e o r i g i n a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of t h e specimen divided by t h e f i n a l

cross-sectional area. The second point on t h e p l a s t i c l i n e i s obtained

at lo4 cycles as i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 18. The p o i n t shown by t h e s t a r a t

lo4 cycles i s f i r s t l o c a t e d on t h e e l a s t i c l i n e and t h e o r d i n a t e observed.

This o r d i n a t e i s t h e n s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e simple equation shown i n t h e

f i g u r e t o o b t a i n a corresponding ordinate value a t lo4 cycles f o r t h e

plastic strain. This formula i s derived from t h e observation t h a t t h e

p l a s t i c and t h e e l a s t i c s t r a i n s a t lo4 c y c l e s a r e approximately r e l a t e d

t o each other. The r e l a t i o n i s almost ( b u t n o t q u i t e , s e e r e f . 15) equiva-

l e n t t o t h e assumption t h a t t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range a t lo4 cycles i s

approximately 1 percent f o r a l l materials. Thus, from a knowledge of t h e

t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s , two p o i n t s on each of t h e l i n e s can be determined

and t h e p l a s t i c and e l a s t i c components p l o t t e d as i n f i g u r e 18. The curve

of t o t a l s t r a i n range may be obtained by simple a d d i t i o n , as i n d i c a t e d b y

t h e curved l i n e , which i s asymptotic t o t h e p l a s t i c l i n e i n t h e l o w - l i f e

range and t o t h e e l a s t i c l i n e i n t h e h i g h - l i f e range. This curved l i n e

t h u s r e p r e s e n t s t h e estimated r e l a t i o n between t o t a l s t r a i n range and

l i f e f o r t h e material.
 14

I n order t o o b t a i n t h e f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s i n t h i s way, t h e t r u e

f r a c t u r e s t r e s s must be known; however, t h i s p r o p e r t y i s not always

given i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e r e f o r e an a d d i t i o n a l approximation i s

sometimes required. A very good approximation has been suggested by

M r . John O'Brien of San Diego, C a l i f o r n i a , who, under c o n t r a c t with

NASA, recommended t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e s t r e s s could be obtained by multi-

p l y i n g the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h by t h e f a c t o r 1 + D. Thus,

u f = uu (1+ D) (1)

That t h i s r e l a t i o n i s v a l i d i s seen i n f i g u r e 19, where f r a c t u r e s t r e s s

i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e product of u u ( l + D). Each data p o i n t r e p r e -

s e n t s a d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l , and t h e data g e n e r a l l y f a l l c l o s e t o a

45O l i n e . By using t h i s approximation, only t h e e l a s t i c modulus and

two t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s , uu and reduction i n a r e a (which e s t a b l i s h e s D)

a r e needed t o p r e d i c t a x i a l f a t i g u e l i f e f o r a s p e c i f i e d s t r a i n range.

This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 20. One simply l o c a t e s t h e value of uu/E

and t h e value of percent reduction i n a r e a on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , and

then determines t h e i n t e r c e p t s a t P1 and P4 from t h e dashed and

s o l i d f a m i l i e s of curves. The l o c a t i o n of p o i n t s P2 and Pg are ob-

t a i n e d from t h e a u x i l i a r y v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e s i n t h e f i g u r e .

The procedure described for determining t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c

l i n e s was f i r s t developed by s t u d y of r e l a t i v e l y few m a t e r i a l s . Sub-

sequently, t h e v a l i d i t y of t h i s procedure w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d by examining

'.
a l a r g e r number of m a t e r i a l s . Those m a t e r i a l s t h a t have been s t u d i e d i n

a x i a l low cycle f a t i g u e t e s t s t o d a t e a r e shown i n t a b l e I. Alloys of

n e a r l y a l l t h e important c l a s s e s of s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s a r e included.
 15

TABLJI I. - MATERIALS FOR AXIAL LOW FATIGUE INVESTIGATION

~

4130 S o f t Titanium 6A1-4V

4130 Hard Titanium 5A1-2.5Sn

4130 X-hard Magnesium AZ3lB-F

4340 Annealed Aluminum 1100

4340 Hard Aluminum 5456 H 3 1 1

304 Annealed Aluminum 2014 T6

304 Hard Aluminum 2024 T4

52100 Hard Aluminum 7075 T6

52100 X-hard S i l v e r 0.99995 pure

AM 350 Annealed Beryllium

AM 350 Hard Inconel X

310 S t a i n l e s s A286 Aged

Vascomax 300 CVM A286 34 Percent cold reduced and aged

Yascojet MA D979

Vascojet 1000

These m a t e r i a l s cover q u i t e a range i n v a r i a b l e s t h a t might a f f e c t

f a t i g u e behavior such as those shown i n t a b l e 11. Among them a r e crys-

t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e s wherein body-centered-cubic, face-centered-cubic, and

hexagonal-close-packed arrangements a r e represented; reductions i n a r e a

covering t h e range from 1 t o 9 4 percent; t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s from 1 6 000 t o

over 400 000 pounds per square inch; high and low notch s e n s i t i v i t i e s ;

c y c l i c hardening and s o f t e n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; high and low s t a c k i n g

f a u l t energy; e t c . Thus, any conclusion t h a t might be reached regarding

 16

TABLE 11. - MATERIAL VARIABLES I N AXIAL L O W CYCLE

FATIGUE INTTESTIGATION

Crystalline structure Body centered cubic

Face centered cubic

Close packed hexagonal

Methods of s t r e n g t h e n i n g P r e c i p i t a t i o n hardening

Hot and cold worked

Reduction i n a r e a 1 To 9 4 p e r c e n t

Tensile s t r e n g t h 1 6 000 To 411 000 p s i

True f r a c t u r e stress 48 000 t o 500 000 p s i

E l a s t i c modulus 6 . 2 ~ 1 0To
~ 4 2 . 0 ~ 1 0p~s i

Notch s e n s i t i v i t y Notch d u c t i l e t o very notch s e n s i t i v e

Stacking f a u l t energy Low ( s t e e l s ) t o high (aluminum)

Cyc1i c be havi o r 3 t r a i n s o f t e n i n g t o s t r a i n hardening

t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e r e l a t i o n s involving a l l of t h e s e materials cannot be

regarded as 'being l i m i t e d t o a very small c l a s s of materials.

Method of u n i v e r s a l slopes. - An a l t e r n a t e approach i s t o assume t h a t I

t h e slopes of t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c l i n e s are t h e same f o r a l l materials.

I n reference 1 7 t h e u n i v e r s a l s l o p e f o r t h e p l a s t i c l i n e was assumed t o

b e -0.5 and for t h e e l a s t i c l i n e -0.12. Data obtained more r e c e n t l y have

permitted t h e s e l e c t i o n of more r e f i n e d values, as i n d i c a t e d i n f i g -

u r e s 2 1 and 22. Here t h e r e s u l t s of t e s t s on 29 materials are shown.

For t h e p l a s t i c l i n e ( f i g . 2 1 ) a l l t h e data can be r e p r e s e n t e d reason-

a b l y w e l l b y a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h a s l o p e of -0.6. For t h e e l a s t i c l i n e

a l l t h e d a t a can be r e p r e s e n t e d reasonably w e l l by a s i n g l e s t r a i g h t
 ,

17

l i n e of slope -0.12. The l i n e s of f i g u r e s 2 1 and 22 a l s o permit t h e

determination of a s i n g l e p o i n t through which t h e l i n e s of t h e known

slopes may be drawn. Thus, l e t t i n g % = 1 i n each of t h e equations

i n t h e two f i g u r e s shows t h e i n t e r c e p t of t h e p l a s t i c l i n e a t I!@=
1

is N.6, and t h e i n t e r c e p t of t h e e l a s t i c l i n e i s 3.5 au/E. The b a s i c

c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e l i n e s of u n i v e r s a l s l o p e i s shown i n f i g u r e 23,

where it i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t , s t a r t i n g a t I@= 1 and o r d i n a t e s of D O g 6

3.5 au
and ., E ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r t h e p l a s t i c and e l a s t i c l i n e s , t h e s e

l i n e s a r e then completed by drawing slopes of -0.6 and -0.12, respec-

tively. The equation f o r t o t a l s t r a i n range AE then becomes

where

a
, ultimate t e n s i l e strength, p s i

D ductility, In
1
1 - R A
RA r e d u c t i o n i n a r e a , percent

Nf number of cycles t o f a i l u r e

Figure 24 provides an a d d i t i o n a l a i d t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e e l a s t i c

and p l a s t i c l i n e s based on equation ( 2 ) using two p o i n t s on each l i n e

( a t 10 and a t lo4 cycles). The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p o i n t s P1 to P4'

and t h e determination of t h e ordinates from a knowledge of only FiA

and a,/E may be obtained from t h e f i g u r e . The arrows on each curve

i n d i c a t e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e s t o be used.

Comparison of Prediction Methods

Figures 25 t o 27 p r e s e n t t h e a c t u a l comparisons between t h e e x p e r i -

ments and t h e p r e d i c t i o n s for each of t h e 29 m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d when ana-

 18

lyzed on the b a s i s of each of t h e methods indicated. The i n d i v i d u a l d a t a

p o i n t s f o r t o t a l s t r a i n range ( i . e . , t h e sum of t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c

components) are shown as c i r c l e s . The p r e d i c t i o n s by t h e four-point

c o r r e l a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g t h e knowledge of t h e f r a c t u r e s t r e s s ) a r e shown

by t h e dashed l i n e s . Predictions based on t h e method of u n i v e r s a l

slopes a r e shown by t h e s o l i d l i n e s . I n most cases t h e agreement i s

remarkably good. For AM 350 annealed ( f i g . 26), and beryllium ( f i g . 2 7 ) ,

t h e agreement i s not as s a t i s f a c t o r y .

An o v e r a l l evaluation of t h e four-point method i s shown i n f i g -

ure 28. Here t h e measured l i f e f o r each of t h e t e s t p o i n t s i s p l o t t e d

a g a i n s t the predicted l i f e from a knowledge of t h e f r a c t u r e s t r e s s ,

u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , and d u c t i l i t y . The r e l a t i o n between t h e

d a t a points and t h e l i n e i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e t a b l e a t t h e lower r i g h t .

Thirty-five percent of t h e d a t a points f a l l within a f a c t o r or 1.5 i n

l i f e from t h e predicted value. Almost 90 percent f a l l within a l i f e

f a c t o r of 5. Since some s c a t t e r i n l i f e i s expected i n f a t i g u e d a t a ,

it can be seen that t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n must b e regarded as s a t i s f a c t o r y .

A few data points, notably those a s s o c i a t e d with poorly behaved mate-

r i a l s l i k e beryllium, a r e f a i r l y remote from t h e c o r r e l a t i o n l i n e ,

thus r e s u l t i n g i n t h e conclusion i n d i c a t e d by t h e t a b l e t h a t , with an

allowable e r r o r of a f a c t o r of 2 0 i n l i f e , only 9 7 percent of t h e d a t a

points w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y . S i m i l a r l y , f i g u r e 29 compares t h e d a t a on

t h e b a s i s of measured and predicted s t r a i n range r a t h e r than on t h e

b a s i s of l i f e . The t o t a l s t r a i n range predicted t o produce t h e l i f e

observed i n each t e s t i s p l o t t e d on t h e ordinate. The measured t o t a l

s t r a i n range i s p l o t t e d on t h e abscissa. The c o r r e l a t i o n i s , as might

 19

be expected, considerably b e t t e r . Ninety percent of t h e d a t a p o i n t s

f a l l w i t h i n a s t r a i n f a c t o r of 1.5.

Figure 30 shows a corresponding o v e r a l l comparison on a l i f e b a s i s

f o r t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes. S i m i l a r l y , f i g u r e 31 shows t h e

comparison on t h e b a s i s of predicted s t r a i n f o r t h e same 29 materials

as obtained by t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes. The agreement w i t h

experiment i s , i n both cases, approximately t h e same as t h a t obtained

by t h e four-point method.

A l t e r n a t e Relation f o r P r e d i c t i n g Axial Fatigue

L i f e i n Terms of Endurance L i m i t

I n t h e preceding d i s c u s s i o n s , s t r a i n has been expressed i n terms

of t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c components, both of which were l i n e a r when

p l o t t e d a g a i n s t l i f e on log-log coordinates. This approximation i s

extremely u s e f u l i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . When one attempts t o

express l i f e d i r e c t l y i n terms o f s t r a i n , however, t h e r e s u l t i n g

equation does not r e a d i l y lend i t s e l f t o a closed-form expression.

There i s a l s o another minor objection t o t h e manner of r e l a t i n g s t r a i n

and l i f e t h u s f a r discussed. This i s t h e f a c t t h a t it does not provide

f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e existence of an endurance l i m i t s t r a i n , a

s t r a i n below which t h e l i f e i s e s s e n t i a l l y i n f i n i t e . Figure 32 i n d i -

c a t e s an a l t e r n a t e r e l a t i o n , which, i n a sense, overcomes both of

t h e s e objections. Cyclic l i f e Nf i s expressed i n terms of t h e a p p l i e d

t o t a l s t r a i n range A€, without regard t o what percentage i s e l a s t i c o r

plastic. This equation i s

Nf = A(Ac - DE^)^ (3)

Included i n t h e equation i s a constant, Ace, which i s an endurance l i m i t

 20

strain. Below Ago, l i f e i s taken as i n f i n i t e . This expression w i l l

obviously coincide with t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n equation when AE i s l a r g e ,

as i s t h e case i n t h e very l o w - c y c l i c - l i f e range. That i s , f o r l a r g e

values of A€ t h e value of Ago becomes n e g l i g i b l e , and a power l a w

r e l a t i o n between l i f e and p l a s t i c s t r a i n r e s u l t s , Thus, t h e term A

would b e expected t o be of t h e order of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e p l a s t i c

s t r a i n r e l a t i o n and v t o be of t h e order of t h e exponent of t h e

plastic strain relation.

For t h e purpose of determining whether a r e l a t i o n of t h e type shown

i n f i g u r e 32 i s v a l i d f o r t h e 29 m a t e r i a l s , an attempt was made t o d e t e r -

mine t h e t h r e e constants A, Ago, and v b y s a t i s f y i n g t h e equation a t

three points: c y c l i c l i v e s of 10, 1000, and 100 000 cycles. One ap-

proach involved t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h r e e p o i n t s on t h e experimental curve

determined from a c t u a l data. I n a second approach, t h r e e p o i n t s were

s e l e c t e d from t h e curve p r e d i c t e d by t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes and

t h e constants subsequently obtained. Both t h e s e methods a r e i l l u s t r a t e d

i n f i g u r e 32. The degree of discrepancy shown i n t h i s f i g u r e between t h e

experimental data and t h e curve of u n i v e r s a l s l o p e s has been emphasized

for t h e sake of c l a r i t y . Figures 33 t o 35 show t h e a c t u a l comparison

between the experimental and p r e d i c t e d curves f o r a l l 29 m a t e r i a l s by

using equation ( 3 ) .

Since t h e s t r a i n values a t t h e lives i n d i c a t e d by t h e stars on t h e

dot-dash curve ( f i g . 3 2 ) can b e expressed e x p l i c i t l y i n terms of duc-

t i l i t y and u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h , it i s apparent t h a t A, Ae0, and v can

a l s o be determined e x p l i c i t l y i n terms of t h e s e two simple measurable

properties. The a l g e b r a i c r e l a t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t , however, are q u i t e

 .
21

complicated and w i l l not be described here. The important p o i n t t o be

made i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s 33 t o 35. In these figures the solid

l i n e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e agreement between t h e d a t a and t h e curves obtained

by means of t h e equation shown a t the t o p of t h e f i g u r e s when t h e con-

s t a n t s a r e determined from a knowledge of t h e experimental d a t a a t t h r e e

values of l i f e . The dash-dot curves provide a similar comparison when

t h e constants were determined from curves drawn by t h e method of uni-

v e r s a l slopes. Obviously, corresponding curves could be drawn t o r e p r e -

s e n t t h e p o i n t s as p r e d i c t e d by t h e four-point approximation method. In

each case, t h e f i t coincides almost e x a c t l y w i t h t h e corresponding f i t

a s s o c i a t e d with t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes, and i s t h e r e f o r e n o t

shown. The m a i n f e a b r e t h a t i s demonstrated i s t h a t t h e equation f o r

l i f e i n terms of s t r a i n range can be represented by an equation of t h e

type shown i n equation ( 3 ) and t h a t , where a p p r o p r i a t e , t h i s equation

may be used i n s t e a d of t h e ones discussed previously.

EFFECT OF YIELD STRESS AND NOTCH SENSITIVITY

ON FATIGUE LIFE IN STFAIN CYCLING

The previous d i s c u s s i o n emphasized t h e importance of u l t i m a t e t e n -

s i l e s t r e n g t h and r e d u c t i o n i n a r e a as p r i n c i p a l v a r i a b l e s governing

s t r a i n c y c l i n g f a t i g u e behavior. Before drawing any f i n a l conclusions,

however, it i s important t o consider t h e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e of o t h e r

properties - f o r example, y i e l d s t r e s s and notch s e n s i t i v i t y . That

y i e l d s t r e s s cannot be a property of primary i n f l u e n c e on t h e f a t i g u e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be seen from f i g u r e s 15 and 16, which have a l r e a d y

been discussed i n connection with the c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n .

Since only a very few cycles can d r a s t i c a l l y change t h e s t r e s s r e q u i r e d

 22

t o produce -a given s t r a i n , it can be seen t h a t t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d stress

i s of l i t t l e meaning i n t h e major number of cycles w i t h i n a given f a t i g u e

test. The yield s t r e s s as determined i n a v i r g i n m a t e r i a l can thus b e

dismissed as a property of primary importance i n governing f a t i g u e l i f e

i n t h e low-cycle range.

The second v a r i a b l e , notch s e n s i t i v i t y , r e q u i r e s more extensive

consideration b e f o r e i t s proper r o l e can b e assessed. That materials

vary appreciably i n t h e i r notch c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h a t notch s e n s i -

t i v i t y i s c l a s s i c a l l y linked t o f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d .

Since t h i s property has not entered i n t o t h e c o r r e l a t i o n t h u s far d i s -

cussed, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o question t h e appropriateness of t h e omission,

and i f appropriate, then why?

I n order t o a s c e r t a i n whether t h e f a t i g u e r e s u l t s a r e a f f e c t e d b y

notch s e n s i t i v i t y , a series of t e s t s w a s conducted i n which t h e same

m a t e r i a l w a s heat t r e a t e d t o achieve d i f f e r e n t degrees of notch s e n s i -

t i v i t y while maintaining t h e same t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and d u c t i l i t y . The

b a s i s of t h e t e s t s i s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 36. Here published d a t a f o r

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l 410 a r e shown. The c e n t e r curve shows t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h

as a function of tempering temperature. It can be seen t h a t tempering

a t e i t h e r 400° or 850° F produces approximately t h e same t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h .

Correspondingly, t h e reductions i n area f o r t h e s e two heat treatments

a r e almost i d e n t i c a l . The impact r e s i s t a n c e as i n d i c a t e d by t h e lowest

curve, however, i s very s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by t h e tempering temperature.

Tempering a t 850' F produces a m a t e r i a l of much lower impact r e s i s t a n c e

than t h e one tempered a t 400' F. From t h i s it might be i n f e r r e d t h a t

t h e 850' F temper produces a notch s e n s i t i v e material. We have con-

 23

ducted notch t e s t s on s h e e t a t our l a b o r a t o r y with t h i s s t e e l t h a t v e r i -

f i e d t h i s conclusion. The 850° F temper w a s extremely notch s e n s i t i v e .

As a r e s u l t , w e had t h e opportunity of t e s t i n g two m a t e r i a l s w i t h i d e n t i c a l

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s and d u c t i l i t y b u t f a r d i f f e r e n t notch s e n s i t i v i t y values.

"he a x i a l s t r a i n c y c l i n g f a t i g u e 'behavior of t h i s material i n t h e s e

two conditions of temper i s shown i n f i g u r e 37. Open data p o i n t s r e f e r

t o t h e 400' F temper and closed d a t a p o i n t s r e f e r t o t h e 850° F temper

condition. Although t h e r e i s a small amount of s c a t t e r , it can be seen

t h a t t h e two m a t e r i a l s produced approximately the same f a t i g u e r e s i s t -

ance; t h e r e was q u i t e a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e appearance o f t h e f r a c t u r e

s u r f a c e , however. The 850° F tempered material f r e q u e n t l y showed very

b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e surfaces, while i n many cases t h e 400' F tempered mate-

r i a l showed very d u c t i l e f r a c t u r e surfaces. Nevertheless, as f a r as

c y c l i c l i f e i s concerned, t h e two r e s u l t s were q u i t e similar.

I n order t o understand t h e s e r e s u l t s , it i s necessary t o undertake con-

s i d e r a t i o n of crack occurrence i n a f a t i g u e t e s t of t h e kind t h a t i s being

considered here. I n our laboratory, we have attempted t o observe t h e

i n i t i a t i o n of a crack by s e v e r a l methods. One of t h e more i n t e r e s t i n g

approaches has been by t h e use of a polycarbonate r e s i n m a t e r i a l . Ad-

m i t t e d l y , because t h i s m a t e r i a l i s a p l a s t i c , it does n o t quite f i t

i n w i t h t h e f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s t h a t has been presented. Nevertheless, it

has been q u i t e u s e f u l i n gaining an understanding of crack growth. We

s h a l l f i r s t p r e s e n t t h e data obtained with t h i s m a t e r i a l because it has

a visual attractiveness. A t t h e same time it should be recognized t h a t

t h e conclusions drawn w i l l not be i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e behavior of

metallic materials. Figure 5 has already been used t o show why poly-
 24

carbonate m a t e r i a l s a r e s o u s e f u l i n t h e study of crack growth. Stria-

t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y evident on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e o n a macroscopic s c a l e .

Each cycle i s c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d and can r e a d i l y be determined. The par-

t i c u l a r specimen of f i g u r e 5 had a l i f e of 115 cycles. By counting back

from t h e l a s t cycle, it i s p o s s i b l e t o determine e x a c t l y where crack

growth stopped a t each cycle of loading. Figure 38 shows t h e a n a l y s i s

of t h e data f o r t h i s specimen and f o r one which had a l i f e of 1300 cycles.

The crack depth i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t percent of f a t i g u e l i f e . The l i m i t of

r e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e cracks w a s of t h e order of a depth of 0.002 t o 0.003

inch. It i s c l e a r from t h i s f i g u r e , however, t h a t a crack depth of t h e

order of t h i s magnitude s t a r t s q u i t e l a t e i n t h e l i f e of t h e specimen,

approximately 65 percent of t h e l i f e f o r t h e low-cycle t e s t and 85 per-

cent f o r t h e high-cycle t e s t . Figure 39 provides a summary of t h e r e -

s u l t s of a number of t e s t s conducted t o determine approximately when,

i n t h e l i f e of an a x i a l l y cycled specimen, t h e crack reaches a s i z e of

0.002 t o 0.003 inch. S e v e r a l types of data a r e shown i n t h i s f i g u r e .

The d a t a represented by open c i r c l e s a r e taken from Laird and Smith

( r e f . 18). They obtained t h e i r r e s u l t s by counting s t r i a t i o n s on s p e c i -

mens of pure aluminum and nickel. The closed c i r c l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e

polycarbonate data a l r e a d y discussed. The t r i a n g l e s r e p r e s e n t d a t a

obtained a t our l a b o r a t o r y with 2024-T4 aluminum from s u r f a c e observa-

tions. The d a t a correspond t o t h e percent of t o t a l l i f e r e q u i r e d t o

produce surface crack lengths of t h e order of 0.010 inch, which were

v i s i b l e without magnification. Also shown a r e r e s u l t s f o r 4130 s t e e l

and 4 1 0 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . These data were a l s o obtained from s u r f a c e

observations. For l a t e r use, it w i l l b e d e s i r e a b l e t o express t h e

 25

d a t a i n f i g u r e 39 by an a n a l y t i c a l expression. A p l o t of 1 - (No/Nf)

against Nf on log-log coordinates r e s u l t s i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e defined

by t h e equation

1 - (No/Nf) = 2.5 NP1I3 (4)

where

No number of cycles t o v i s i b l e cracking

Nf number of cycles t o complete f r a c t u r e

This equation i s obviously v a l i d only f o r values of Nf higher

t h a n 15 cycles. For values of Nf below 15 cycles, t h e equations would

imply t h a t N,/Nf i s negative. Equation ( 4 ) i s p l o t t e d i n f i g u r e 39

and i s seen t o f i t t h e data q u i t e w e l l , although data a r e , of course,

inadequate t o ensure t h a t a l l materials can be represented by a s i n g l e

curve. An important p o i n t t o be observed from t h i s curve i s t h a t only

f o r t h e very l o w - c y c l i c - l i f e t e s t s does a crack of any appreciable s i z e

occur e a r l y i n t h e l i f e of a specimen. For c y c l i c l i v e s f o r t h e order

of 1000 or more, d e t e c t a b l e cracking does not occur u n t i l n e a r l y 70 per-

c e n t or more of t h e c y c l i c l i f e has been used up.

Now it i s axiomatic t h a t a m a t e r i a l , which i s s e n s i t i v e t o notches

or cracks, w i l l not manifest i t s s e n s i t i v i t y u n t i l t h e crack a c t u a l l y

develops. I f t h e crack does not occur u n t i l q u i t e l a t e i n t h e l i f e of

t h e specimen, t h e m a t e r i a l cannot be s e n s i t i v e t o it u n t i l most of t h e

l i f e has a l r e a d y been used up. Since t h e type of t e s t under considera-

t i o n here, namely, a small specimen subJected t o a x i a l c y c l i c s t r a i n

loading, does not involve cracking until v e r y l a t e i n i t s l i f e , it might

be expected t h a t t h e behavior of the m a t e r i a l i n t h e presence of a crack

w i l l not significantly affect the result. Even i f t h e material were t o

 .
26

f a i l immediately on t h e development of a small crack, t h e l i f e would be

reduced on t h e order of 50 percent a t a l i f e of 100 c y c l e s , and much

l e s s f o r the higher c y c l i c l i v e s . Considering normal d a t a s c a t t e r , t h i s

reduction might be d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t i n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e data. It

i s concluded, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e important f e a t u r e of a x i a l s t r a i n

c y c l i n g t e s t s i s t h e very l a t e development of s i g n i f i c a n t cracking and,

t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l reason why t e s t s of t h i s kind do n o t r e -

f l e c t notch s e n s i t i v i t y i s t h a t cracks simply a r e n o t present i n t h e s e

m a t e r i a l s during t h e major p o r t i o n of t h e i r l i f e .

One might ask whether t,hese t e s t s a r e t h e r e f o r e r e a l i s t i c s i n c e

many component p a r t s a r e indeed operated i n t h e presence of cracks.

Furthermore, i n many cases, t h e r e a r e l a r g e bodies i n which crack

propagation c o n s t i t u t e s a g r e a t p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e . This question

w i l i be touched on l a t e r i n t h e s e c t i o n on cumulative f a t i g u e damage.

A t t h i s point, i t i s important t o recognize t h a t t h e t a s k we have s e t

f o r ourselves w a s t o e s t i m a t e t h e a x i a l f a t i g u e l i f e of a p a r t i c u l a r

specimen in a p a r t t c u l a r type of t e s t , one t h a t i s f r e q u e n t l y used,

and t h e one t h a t w a s used t o o b t a i n t h e d a t a shown i n t h e previous

figures. !!%e problem we s e t about t o d i s c u s s w a s how t o estimate t h e

r e s u l t s of t h e s e a x i a l f a t i g u e t e s t s from t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s of

t h e materials and whether notch s e n s i t i v i t y should b e considered a

primary variable. What we have shown i s t h a t t h e answer i s negative

for t h e type of specimen employed i n t h e t e s t s , and t h a t t h e r e s u l t s

of t h e s e t e s t s can b e s t b e estimated by u s i n g only t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h

and d u c t i l i t y measured on smooth specimens. Whether t h e r e s u l t s a r e

meaningful i n terms of component o p e r a t i o n i s a q u e s t i o n e q u a l l y t o be

 27

asked of any d a t a obtained on small, nonnotched specimens, e i t h e r by

experiment o r by e s t i m a t i o n by t h e procedures indicated. The f a c t t h a t

t h e e s t i m a t e s of f a t i g u e l i f e of small, smooth specimens must b e c a r e -

f u l l y i n t e r p r e t e d before they can be a p p l i e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e l i f e of a

s t r u c t u r e i s an important consideration t h a t w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n

conjunction w i t h cumulative f a t i g u e damage.

CONSIDERATION OF UNIVERSAL SLOPE FOR PLASTIC STRAIN LINE

While we a r e on t h e s u b j e c t of when, during t h e course of t h e

l i f e of a f a t i g u e specimen, d e t e c t a b l e cracking f i r s t occurs, it i s

a p p r o p r i a t e t o r e v e r t t o t h e i n t e r e s t i n g question of t h e magnitude of

t h e s l o p e of t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n l i n e . When we f i r s t proposed i n 1952

t h a t t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n l i n e i s l i n e a r on log-log coordinates, t h e pro-

p o s a l w a s based on very l i m i t e d experimental data a v a i l a b l e a t t h a t

time. C e r t a i n l y t h e r e were n o t enough data t o j u s t i f y t h e assumption

of a u n i v e r s a l slope f o r a l l materials. We suggested t h a t t h e exponent,

or slope, would be a m a t e r i a l constant. I n l a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s Coffin

( r e f . 1 9 ) suggested t h a t t h e exponent has a u n i v e r s a l value of -0.5 f o r

a l l m a t e r i a l s , and f o r many materials i n v e s t i g a t e d s i n c e then, he has

concluded t h e value of -0.5 t o be the a p p l i c a b l e exponent. On t h e o t h e r

hand, t h e t e s t s t h a t have been conducted i n our s t u d i e s of many m a t e r i a l s

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e slopes a r e indeed d i f f e r e n t from m a t e r i a l t o material,

b u t t h a t i f a u n i v e r s a l slope i s t o be assumed, then a value of -0.6

would b e more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a l l m a t e r i a l s . It i s important, t h e r e -

f o r e , t o r e c o n c i l e t h e various observations by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s .

Before f u r t h e r discussion of t h i s s u b j e c t can be undertaken, it i s

important t o consider what i s meant by t h e f a i l u r e l i f e of a specimen. In

 28

some of h i s t e s t s , Coffin observed t h e specimen surface, and when v i s u a l

cracking occurred, he regarded t h e t e s t complete. Other i n v e s t i g a t o r s

may a l s o have used i n i t i a l cracking as t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r f a i l u r e . In a l l

of t h e t e s t s on t h e 29 m a t e r i a l s i n our program, f a i l u r e was taken as

t h e a c t u a l s e p a r a t i o n of t h e two halves of t h e specimen. We can now,

t h e r e f o r e , examine t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e s e two c r i t e r i a f o r f a i l u r e

by t h e use of f i g u r e 40. This f i g u r e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n between

p l a s t i c s t r a i n range and l i f e f o r an i d e a l i z e d m a t e r i a l i n which t h e two

cases of specimen s e p a r a t i o n and of cracking a r e considered. The con-

tinuous l i n e shown i n t h i s f i g u r e i s an i d e a l i z e d l i n e , t y p i c a l of

s e v e r a l of t h e materials i n v e s t i g a t e d showing a slope of -0.6. Since

t h i s l i n e presumably c o n s t i t u t e s specimen separation, and s i n c e we have

a l r e a d y indicated i n f i g u r e 39 a r e l a t i o n between cracking and separa-

t i o n , we may now apply t h e curve of f i g u r e 39 t o e s t i m a t e when i n i t i a l

cracking might have occurred for t h i s i d e a l i z e d material. Thus, by

s e l e c t i n g s e v e r a l l i f e values on t h e s o l i d l i n e , it may be determined

from f i g u r e 39 when i n i t i a l cracking probably occurred. These l i v e s

a r e r e p l o t t e d as t h e c i r c l e s shown i n f i g u r e 40, It can be seen t h a t ,

when one passes a n approximate s t r a i g h t l i n e through t h e s e c i r c l e s , it

has a slope of -0.5. A l s o of i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s s t r a i g h t

l i n e can be e x t r a p o l a t e d back t o an i n t e r c e p t a t 1 / 4 c y c l e , which i s

lower than t h e continuous l i n e . A discrepancy i n i n t e r c e p t has a l s o

been noted i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e when cracking i s considered as i n d i c a t i v e

of c y c l i c l i f e compared w i t h specimen s e p a r a t i o n . It i s not, of course,

c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s i s t h e complete explanation f o r t h e discrepancy. Such

a wide v a r i a t i o n i n slopes e x i s t s among various m a t e r i a l s t h a t many

 29

o t h e r f a c t o r s probably c o n t r i b u t e t o it. Nevertheless , this idealized

a n a l y s i s i s i n t e r e s t i n g and provides some i n s i g h t as t o t h e p o s s i b l e

reason f o r d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n published r e s u l t s .

CRACK PROPAGATION AND I T S RELATION TO POWER LAW

FOR CYCLIC LIFE

Many attempts have been made t o e x p l a i n t h e power l a w r e l a t i o n be-

tween p l a s t i c s t r a i n range ( o r s t r e s s range) and l i f e , b u t no completely

s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t i o n a l explanation has as y e t been offered. One type of

a n a l y s i s may b e made by examining t h e r e l a t i o n f o r crack growth. In the

following d i s c u s s i o n an attempt w i l l b e made t o provide a very approxi-

mate r e l a t i o n b y u s i n g a crack growth concept. It i s recognized t h a t

t h i s approach i s n o t a t a l l rigorous b u t may s e r v e as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t

from which a more v a l i d a n a l y s i s may be made. A t l e a s t it p o i n t s t o

some of t h e f e a t u r e s required of an a n a l y s i s of t h i s type i n order t o be

c o n s i s t e n t with experimental observations.

We s t a r t with an analogy t o observations of crack growth i n s t r e s s

cycling. It has been observed t h a t t h e r a t e of crack growth per cycle

i n s t r e s s c y c l i n g i s a power l a w of s t r e s s and crack length. S t u d i e s of

crack growth i n reversed s t r a i n c y c l i n g a r e very l i m i t e d , b u t i n g e n e r a l

we may observe from t h e l i m i t e d information a v a i l a b l e t h a t t h e parameter

(where i s t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n range and 1 i s t h e crack

l e n g t h ) i s about as fundamental i n s t r a i n c y c l i n g as A a d is in stress

cycling. Thus, we assume a power l a w r e l a t i o n between crack growth r a t e

and
 30

where s i s a constant as y e t t o be determined. If t h e crack growth

rate i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o Aep or t o $, then s = 1, which

w i l l l a t e r be seen t o be a d e s i r a b l e assumption i n order t o s a t i s f y t h e

q u a n t i t a t i v e observations of t h e p l a s t i c power l a w exponent.

From equation ( 5 )

*d Z = C(AcP)' dN

I n t e g r a t i n g equation ( 6 ) between ( Z0,N0) and ( 2 f , N f ) , where 2, and No

a r e any corresponding values of 2 and N during which t h e crack growth

l a w , equation ( 6 ) , i s v a l i d , and where 2f i s t h e crack l e n g t h a t t h e

cyclic l i f e a t fracture Nf, results in

-
2 kF
2-s

2 - s
- ZT)
2 -s
= C(Acp)s(Nf - No) = C(AcP)'Nf(1 - 2) (7)

The f i r s t problem i s t o s e l e c t values of 2, and No. As already

any corresponding values of

i n d i c a t e d , t h e s e could be - 2 and N during

which equation (6) is valid. Frequently, (e.g., ref. 20) t h i s d e t a i l i s

overcome by t a k i n g No t o be small i n comparison with Nf, while 2,

i s small compared with Zf; thus, such an a n a l y s i s proceeds by omitting

both t h e 2, and No terms i n equation ( 7 ) , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e l a t i o n

By f u r t h e r assuming t h a t t h e crack length a t f r a c t u r e i s approximately

c o n s t a n t , t h e p l a s t i c power l a w r e l a t i o n follows immediately from equa-

t i o n (8). In fact, if s i s taken as 2, w e g e t t h e u n i v e r s a l slope of

-1/2 on a p l o t of l o g Aep a g a i n s t log Nf, although f o r a value of s = 2

t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of equation ( 6 ) i s n o t v a l i d as shown s i n c e it r e q u i r e s
 31

a logarithmic i n t e g r a l of dl/l. T h i s does n o t change t h e e s s e n t i a l

f e a t u r e s of t h e argument, and t h e same conclusion i s reached by t r e a t i n g

t h e equation from t h e very beginning f o r s = 2 and i n t e g r a t i n g properly.

While t h e preceding approach l e a d s t o a power l a w r e l a t i o n as sought,

t h e r e are some u n s a t i s f y i n g f e a t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d with it. F i r s t , although

any set of corresponding values of lo and No can be chosen as con-

s t a n t s of i n t e g r a t i o n , it must be ensured t h a t t h e s e values apply w i t h i n

t h e range i n which t h e crack growth l a w (eq. ( 5 ) ) i s v a l i d . The question

then develops i n t o one of e s t a b l i s h i n g whether t h i s r e l a t i o n i s indeed

v a l i d i n t h e very e a r l y s t a g e s of cycling when t h e crack i s t o o small

t o be d e t e c t e d and i s perhaps confined t o i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s w i t h i n an

i n i t i a l l y smooth specimen. For, i f t h e crack growth equation i s not

v a l i d i n these e a r l y stages, No cannot be taken as n e g l i g i b l e i n com-

parison with Nf w i t h i n t h e range of v a l i d i t y of equation ( 5 ) .

T o avoid t h i s complication, a refinement i s introduced whereby we

choose, i n s t e a d , t h e values of No and lo corresponding t o t h e l i f e

a t which r i p p l e s or s t r i a t i o n s a r e f i r s t formed on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e ,

or a t which v i s i b l e s u r f a c e cracking can be observed. Then we can be

reasonably c e r t a i n t h a t t h e specimen i s i n t h e crack growth s t a g e f o r

which equation ( 5 ) w a s assumed t o be v a l i d , while a t t h e same time n

- ot

denying t h a t equation ( 5 ) could p o s s i b l y have been v a l i d a t an e a r l i e r

s t a g e of t h e l i f e . Choosing such a small value of lo permits us t o

omit t h e lo term on t h e l e f t s i d e of equation ( 7 ) , compared w i t h t h e

2f term (provided t h a t s < 2; i f s > 2 it might, i n f a c t , be per-

m i s s i b l e t o omit t h e 2f term). We cannot, however, n e g l e c t t h e No

term on t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e equation. Since we have a l r e a d y d e t e r -

 32

mined, i n equation (4), t h e value of 1 - (No/Nf) as 2.5 Nf1l3, we may

s u b s t i t u t e t h i s value i n equation ( 7 ) , l e a v i n g us with t h e expression

2.5C(Acp) s Nf2 / 3 on t h e r i g h t s i d e of equation ( 7 ) .

A second refinement i s t o consider t h e crack l e n g t h a t f r a c t u r e .

I n t h e consideration of b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , t h e G r i f f i t h equation MJZ' =

constant has been amply v e r i f i e d . How t h i s equation i s t o be modified

f o r a d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l i n s t r a i n c y c l i n g has not been e s t a b l i s h e d , b u t

a f i r s t approach i s as follows: Using t h e conventional s t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g

expression fbr t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve

t h e assumption of an expression similar t o t h e G r i f f i t h equation would

result i n

AU& = AU,(AE~)~& = B (10)

I n order t o allow f o r some d i f f e r e n c e between t h e f r a c t u r e l a w i n t h e

e l a s t i c range and t h a t i n t h e p l a s t i c range, we w i l l assume t h a t t h e

r e l a t i o n i n t h e p l a s t i c range i s (Ao)q& = const where q is a

constant y e t t o be determined. Thus, equation (10) becomes

( A U ) q G= (AU,)~(A~,)~~* = B

Thus, s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r lf from equation (11) i n t o equation

neglecting l o , and applying equation ( 4 ) , y i e l d

2 [ B ( A U ~ ) - ~ ( A ~ ~ )=- 2~. 5~ ]C(Acp)

~ - ~ sNf2/3
2 - s

Combining terms involving AeP, w e a r r i v e a t

 33

where w = 2
s < 2
31s + qn(2 - s)]

and where

s power l a w exponent for crack growth l a w ; 1 i f crack growth r a t e i s

proportional t o A E ~or ,fi

n s t r a i n hardening exponent of c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve; between

approximately 0.1 and 0.3

q modification f a c t o r f o r p l a s t i c f r a c t u r e derived from G r i f f i t h

equation f o r e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e ; 1 if same r e l a t i o n i s followed

p l a s t i c a l l y as e l a s t i c a l l y

A p l o t of w against nq f o r s e v e r a l values of s i s shown i n

f i g u r e 41. It can be seen t h a t , f o r n = 0.2 ( a n average value obtained

from experimental d a t a ) and q = 1 (assuming an equation of t h e G r i f f i t h

form t o be v a l i d ) , a value of s z 1 i s r e q u i r e d i n order t o make w =

0.5. It can a l s o b e seen t h a t high values of s, f o r i n s t a n c e , above

1.5, would r e s u l t i n values of w well below t h e experimentally ob-

served range, whereas values of s = 1.0 would produce very reasonable

values. Thus, i f t h i s t h e o r y i s c o r r e c t , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t , i n

t h e crack growth r a t e l a w (eq. (5)), t h e crack growth r a t e i s more n e a r l y

proportional t o nep+ than it i s t o ( A G , ) ~ ~ .

It has a l r e a d y been observed t h a t t h e case s = 2 cannot be t r e a t e d

i n t h e manner j u s t described, because of t h e logarithmic r e l a t i o n t h a t

develops during t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of equation ( 6 ) . The procedure can,

however, be r e a d i l y c a r r i e d out, and computations show t h a t t h e value

of w i s very c l o s e t o 1/3 f o r a l l values of nq, as would be implied

by f i g u r e 41 f o r values of s t h a t approach 2.0.

 34

The preceding a n a l y s i s introduces an i n t e r e s t i n g question regarding

t h e crack growth exponent. If t h e a n a l y s i s i s v a l i d , it would appear

t h a t a value of s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 1.0 would b e s t e x p l a i n t h e r e l a -

t i o n between p l a s t i c s t r a i n and c y c l i c l i f e . Experimental determina-

t i o n s would seem t o p o i n t , however, t o values of s = 2 as t h e more

reasonable assumption, as noted, f o r example, i n f i g u r e 38(b) where t h e

logarithm of crack depth i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t percent l i f e t o o b t a i n very

nearly linear relations. The implication, then, i s t h a t t h e i n t e g r a -

t i o n should involve a term l o g 2 , as would be obtained i f s were

equal t o 2. The question revolves, however, about t h e meaning of t h e

parameter, p l a s t i c s t r a i n range, when t h e crack i s growing deep enough

t o b e measurable. I n our t e s t s , we measure t h e d i a m e t r a l s t r a i n and

maintain it constant even a f t e r t h e crack s t a r t s ; i n t h e l a s t s t a g e s

of t h e t e s t we maintain a x i a l displacement constant. Thus, t h e r e i s

r e a l l y no uniform p l a s t i c s t r a i n a c r o s s t h e s e c t i o n when t h e crack i s

of appreciable measurable depth. If w e consider only t h e l i m i t e d region

of 2 , f o r i n s t a n c e , l e s s than 0.01, we have t o question whether l i n e a r -

i t y i n t h i s range on a logarithmic s c a l e ( i n f i g . 3 8 ( b ) ) has any r e a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e , and whether e q u l l y good l i n e a r i t y would not be obtained

on o t h e r s c a l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h other values of s. Thus, w e must con-

clude t h a t t h e i n d i r e c t method of determining s f o r t h i s geometry by

examining t h e exponent w might have some merit over t h e method of

d i r e c t measurement. Since t h e r e a r e so many unanswered questions regard-

ing t h e v a l i d i t y of a l l a v a i l a b l e analyses of t h e problem, it must be

concluded t h a t considerably more r e s e a r c h i s needed t o c l a r i f y them.

An a l t e r n a t e approach t h a t leads t o a c c e p t a b l e values of t h e

 35

exponent i n t h e power l a w r e l a t i o n is t o s e p a r a t e t h e exponents of cP

and 2 i n equation ( 5 ) . For example, we could assume t h a t

-
dl =
dN
C(AEP) t 1s / 2

and proceed i n t h e same manner a s before t o i n t e g r a t e t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation. The f i n a l r e s u l t , analogous t o equation (13) i s

AEPNw = const

where

w = 2
3[t + qn(2 - s)]

On t h i s b a s i s , t h e r e a r e a l a r g e number of admissible combinations of s

and t t h a t produce values of w i n t h e d e s i r e d range of 2 / 3 . Specif-

i c a l l y , f o r example, t h e s i m p l e s t combination i s f o r s = 2, t = 1. For

t h e s e values, a logarithmic i n t e g r a t i o n i s required, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e -

l a t i on
2f
In - = 2 05 C A E ~ N ~ / ~
20

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of a f r a c t u r e r e l a t i o n f o r of analogous t o

equation (10) d e s t r o y s t h e exact l i n e a r i t y of t h e logarithmic p l o t of

Acp against N f J b u t t h e curvature involved i s r e l a t i v e l y small. In

f a c t , t h e s i m p l e s t procedure f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g equation (15) i s t o

recognize t h a t , f o r t h i s combination of values of s and t, t h e curve

of crack growth a g a i n s t number of cycles i n c r e a s e s v e r y r a p i d l y i n t h e

r e g i o n of f a i l u r e . Thus, r a t h e r than introducing a f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n

based on s t r e s s or AcPJ we can s a y t h a t f a i l u r e w i l l occur a t t h e same

value of 2f f o r a l l values of AcP; because of t h e s t e e p slope of t h e

2 - N curve, l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e t r u e and assumed values of

lf w i l l have a small e f f e c t on Nf. With lf and lo having f i x e d

 36

values of a given m a t e r i a l f o r a l l values of AcP, equation (15) s t a t e s

essentially that A E ~ N =~ const.

~ / ~

The purpose of t h e foregoing d e r i v a t i o n s i s , of course, not t o o f f e r

an a c c u r a t e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e power l a w r e l a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r t o i n d i c a t e

some of t h e component considerations t h a t must be taken i n t o account i n

such a d e r i v a t i o n i f it i s based on t h e process of crack growth. The

most important f a c t o r i s t h e establishment of an a c c u r a t e crack growth

l a w ( p r e f e r a b l y on a physical basis, b u t here a r b i t r a r i l y hypothesized

f o r s i m p l i c i t y ) ; accounting f o r t h e n u c l e a t i o n period (i.e., n o t simply

neglecting No, b u t somehow accounting f o r it); and f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g

some b a s i s f o r f r a c t u r e ( i . e . , a c r i t e r i o n f o r choosing 2f). A s long

as a l l of t h e s e s t e p s involve power l a w r e l a t i o n s , t h e f i n a l equation i s

i n t h e form of a power l a w r e l a t i o n between hep and Nf. By i n t r o -

ducing equation (9), a corresponding power l a w r e l a t i o n develops between

s t r e s s range and c y c l i c l i f e . Thus, t h e model hypothesized i n figure 17,

r e l a t i n g both e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c components t o c y c l i c l i f e becomes

v a l i d a t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e s e power l a w r e l a t i o n s .

CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE

The t e s t s described s o far r e l a t e t o t h e behavior of m a t e r i a l i n

which t h e independent v a r i a b l e , s t r a i n range, i s maintained constant

throughout t h e l i f e of t h e specimen. When considering t h e behavior of

a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e s , we must t a k e i n t o account o p e r a t i o n under a spectrum

of loading. This i s normally r e f e r r e d t o as cumulative f a t i g u e . The

c l a s s i c a l l i n e a r damage r u l e f i r s t propcsed by F’almgren ( r e f . 21) and

l a t e r again by Langer ( r e f . 2 2 ) and by Miner ( r e f . 23) i s now w e l l known.

It assumes t h a t a t any s t a g e of t h e l o a d i n g h i s t o r y of t h e m a t e r i a l , t h e
 .
37

percentage of l i f e used up i s proportional t o t h e cycle r a t i o a t t h a t

loading condition. Thus, i f a s t r e s s range or s t r a i n range i s a p p l i e d

for, n l cycles a t a condition where failure would occur i f N1 cycles

a r e applied, t h e percentage of l i f e used up i s nl/N1. That t h i s i s j u s t

an approximation and may often r e s u l t i n erroneous p r e d i c t i o n s of f a t i g u e

l i f e i s w e l l known. Perhaps it would be a p p r o p r i a t e t o o u t l i n e some of

t h e f a c t o r s t h a t govern m a t e r i a l behavior under cumulative f a t i g u e load-

i n g and s e e wherein t h i s r u l e tends t o f a l l down, and t o determine t h e

requirements of a r u l e t h a t would be more accurate.

Cyclic Hardening and Softening

L e t us consider f i r s t t h e behavior of a m a t e r i a l under cumulative

f a t i g u e loading as manifested by observation by i t s c y c l i c hardening

and s o f t e n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Figure 42 shows some r e s u l t s obtained

with 2024-T4 aluminum under an i n t e r r u p t e d loading spectrum. The

curve AB r e p r e s e n t s t h e load range p l o t t e d a g a i n s t c y c l e s f o r a

t e s t i n which t h e s t r a i n range i s maintained constant a t 0.070, and f o r

which t h e l i f e i s 27 cycles. The curve CD r e p r e s e n t s a corresponding

behavior when t h e s t r a i n range i s maintained a t 0.021 and t h e l i f e i s

657 cycles. Now i f t h e t e s t i s conducted s o t h a t t h e s t r a i n range

of 0.070 i s a p p l i e d f o r only 2 5 percent of t h e expected l i f e f o r t h i s

s t r a i n l e v e l , it w i l l b e noted t h a t , during t h i s period, t h e v a r i a t i o n

of load range follows t h e curve AE. If a t t h i s t i m e t h e s t r a i n range

i s changed t o 0.021 and t h i s l a t t e r s t r a i n range i s maintained u n t i l

f a i l u r e occurs, t h e r e s u l t i n g load range curve i s E'F. When examined

i n t h e type of p l o t shown i n f i g u r e 4 2 ( a ) , t h e curve E'F appears some-

what complicated because, during the l a t t e r 75 percent of t h e t e s t when

 38

t h e s t r a i n range i s 0.021, t h e m a t e r i a l f i r s t s o f t e n s and then hardens.

When viewed on t h e type of p l o t such as f i g u r e 4 2 ( b ) , however, t h i s be-

havior becomes more understandable. Here, t h e h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e i s taken

t o be percent of l i f e r a t h e r t h a n c y c l i c l i f e , otherwise t h e curves i n

both p l o t s r e p r e s e n t t h e same phenomena. It i s seen t h a t , i n i t i a l l y t h e

hardening from A to E follows t h e b a s i c curve AB, as would be ex-

pected. When t h e strain range changes t o 0,021, t h e stress range tends

t o f a l l within a r e l a t i v e l y few cycles t o t h e curve CD t h a t corresponds

t o t h e same percentage of l i f e t h a t was a l r e a d y used up on curve AB.

Thus, t h e curve E'F f a l l s r a p i d l y a t f i r s t t o curve CD, b u t s i n c e a t

25 percent of t h e expected l i f e t h e curve CD i n d i c a t e s t h e material i s

s t i l l undergoing considerable hardening, t h e curve E'F proceeds i n a

manner t o i n d i c a t e f u r t h e r hardening.

A similar r e s u l t i s obtained i f one s t a r t s f i r s t with t h e low s t r a i n

range and then continues t h e t e s t a t t h e higher s t r a i n l e v e l . To keep

t h e curves separated we have chosen t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e case i n which h a l f

of t h e l i f e i s used up a t t h e lower s t r a i n l e v e l , followed by s t r a i n i n g

a t t h e higher l e v e l . The f i r s t p o r t i o n of t h e t e s t i s represented by CG,

which f a i t h f u l l y follows CD; t h e second follows t h e curve G'H. In

f i g u r e 42(a), t h i s segment i s disconnnected from t h e o t h e r curves and

seems t o bear l i t t l e a s s o c i a t i o n t o them. When p l o t t e d a g a i n s t percent

l i f e , however, ( f i g . 4Z(b)), t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of G'H i s made c l e a r . It

r i s e s r a p i d l y t o t h e v i c i n i t y of curve AB, and follows it c l o s e l y t h e r e -

a f t e r , i n d i c a t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y of a l i n e a r cumulative l i f e r u l e when con-

s i d e r i n g t h e degree of hardening achieved a t any p o i n t i n t h e h i s t o r y of

loading.
 39

More extensive t e s t s are shown i n f i g u r e 43 f o r t h e same material.

I n f i g u r e 4 3 ( a ) , t h e r e s u l t s a r e shown f o r a change of s t r a i n l e v e l a t

approximately 2 5 percent of l i f e f o r b o t h a high- and a l o w - s t r a i n - l e v e l

test. I n f i g u r e 43(b), t h e change is made a t approximately 50 percent

of l i f e and i n f i g u r e 43(c) two changes a r e introduced - one a t approxi-

mately 25 percent and t h e o t h e r a t approximately 50 percent of l i f e . It

i s seen t h a t i n a l l cases t h e tendency i s almost i d e n t i c a l . Very s h o r t l y

a f t e r t h e s t r a i n range i s changed, t h e curve tends t o seek a s t r e s l e v e l

corresponding t o t h e curve f o r t h e new s t r a i n range a t t h e percentage of

l i f e used up, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s t r a i n l e v e l a t which t h e l i f e f r a c t i o n

was consumed. Thus, t h e m a t e r i a l may r e q u i r e i n i t i a l s o f t e n i n g t o ap-

proach t h e necessary curve followed by hardening as it r i s e s along t h a t

curve, o r it may r e q u i r e i n i t i a l hardening followed by subsequent s o f t e n -

i n g f o r t h e same reason. mese r e s u l t s a r e remarkably i n t e r e s t i n g be-

cause t h e y imply t h a t a t any condition of consumed l i f e based on t h e

l i n e a r damage r u l e , t h e m a t e r i a l seeks a s p e c i f i c s t r e s s l e v e l a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h t h e c y c l i c hardening or s o f t e n i n g curve connected w i t h i t s c u r r e n t

s t r a i n value and consumed l i f e f r a c t i o n . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o observe

from f i g u r e s 42 and 43 t h a t , a t f r a c t u r e , t h e summation of t h e r a t i o s

i s q u i t e c l o s e t o u n i t y , as indicated by t h e end p o i n t s of t h e t e s t

curves r e g a r d l e s s of t h e sequence of loading.

Figure 44 shows t h e r e s u l t s of t e s t s of t h i s kind f o r a d i f f e r e n t

material - a titanium a l l o y - which i s b a s i c a l l y s t r a i n softening. Here

again, t h e curves can be followed through f o r t h e various t e s t s i n d i -

cated. The b a s i c behavior i s q u i t e similar t o t h a t of a s t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g

m a t e r i a l p r e v i o u s l y discussed, b u t it w i l l b e seen t h a t , when t h e change

 40

i s made i n s t r a i n l e v e l , t h e new s t r e s s sought by t h e material does n o t

q u i t e reach t h e curve a s s o c i a t e d with t h e new s t r a i n l e v e l . For example,

i n f i g u r e 4 4 ( a ) , i f t h e high s t r a i n i s a p p l i e d f o r t h e f i r s t 24 percent of

l i f e , t h e curve follows segment AE. Changing t o t h e lower s t r a i n l e v e l

produces a p o i n t E' considerably below t h e curve CD a t t h e 25-percent-

l i f e level. Further c y c l i n g a t t h e lower s t r a i n l e v e l produces t h e

curve E'F, which never q u i t e reaches t h e curve CD. This behavior i s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l t h e t e s t s shown i n t h i s curve and r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r

investigation.

A summary of a l l of t h e s e t e s t s on t h e b a s i s of t h e l i n e a r damage

r u l e i s indicated i n f i g u r e 45. Each s e t of h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s r e p r e s e n t s

one of t h e t e s t s conducted. A s t e p i n t h e l i n e i n d i c a t e s whether t h e

high s t r e s s was a p p l i e d f i r s t o r last. Thus, f o r example, along t h e l i n e

f o r specimen L26, it i s seen t h a t t h e f i r s t 25 percent of l i f e w a s a t a

higher s t r a i n l e v e l because t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e curve i s higher t h a n t h e

remaining portion. F r a c t u r e i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e end p o i n t of each of

these lines. It can be seen t h a t , f o r a l l t h e t e s t s summarized, t h e cycle

r a t i o l i e s between approximately 0.8 and 1.3 and i s very c l o s e t o u n i t y

f o r most of t h e t e s t s . Even t h e extremes a r e w i t h i n t h e s c a t t e r band of

expected behavior i n t h i s type of test.

These t e s t s , t h e r e f o r e , would imply t h a t t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e i s

q u i t e accurate f o r t h e s e materials under t h e types of loading used. The

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e observations i n t h e l i g h t of w h a t has a l r e a d y been

said regarding t h e development and propagation of a crack i s extremely

interesting. I n t h e s e t e s t s t h e main p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e w a s used UP i n

developing a very small crack r a t h e r than i n propagating t h e crack. It

~ 41

would appear, t h e r e f o r e , that a s long as t h e major p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e

~

i s devoted t o crack development t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e might be a p p l i a b l e .

It may be noted t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e of assuming t h e v a l i d i t y of a l i n e a r

damage r u l e w i t h i n t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n s t a g e i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e method

developed by Grover ( r e f . 24) f o r the a n a l y s i s of cumulative f a t i g u e

damage.

Aspects Relating t o Crack Propagation

I n t h e f a t i g u e behavior of a x i a l l y cycled small specimens, t h e

propagation of a crack of engineering s i g n i f i c a n c e (ice., longer t h a n

0.003 i n . ) does not c o n s t i t u t e a major p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e . I n other

cases, however, crack propagation might be much more s i g n i f i c a n t . Let

us consider, t h e r e f o r e , what t h e crack growth curves should look l i k e

i f t h e y are t o comply with t h e concept of t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e .

Figure 46 shows t h e i d e a l i z e d crack growth behavior i f t h e crack l e n g t h

i s regarded as t h e only measure of m a t e r i a l damage during cumulative

fatigue tests. On t h e l e f t of t h e f i g u r e i s shown t h e i d e a l i z e d crack

growth f o r two conditions of t e s t , assuming l i v e s of 100 and 1000

cycles. Curves OABC and OA'B'C' a r e t h e i d e a l i z e d curves f o r crack

growth when t h e h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e i s p l o t t e d i n a c t u a l cycles. If t h e

curves a r e p l o t t e d on t h e b a s i s of percent of l i f e , as on t h e r i g h t of

t h e f i g u r e , t h e assumption of a l i n e a r damage r u l e , t o g e t h e r with t h e

assumption t h a t crack l e n g t h i s t h e only measure of f a t i g u e damage,

implies t h a t b o t h curves become coincident. Thus, p o i n t A w i l l be a t

7 5 percent of t h e hundred-cycle-life curve, OABC, while p o i n t A ' w i l l be

a t t h e 75 percent p o i n t of t h e thousand-cycle curve of OAsBIC. Simi-

l a r l y p o i n t s B and B' must coincide, and C and C ' must coincide. Since
 42

t h e crack growth curves a r e of such a n a t u r e t h a t t h e y coincide when

p l o t t e d on t h e b a s i s of percent of l i f e , t h e n it does n o t matter whether

one follows along t h e l i n e OA and then moves t o A ' a t a constant crack

length, continuing t h e t e s t from A' t o C', o r whether one follows from

OA to AC along t h e same curve. Each piece of curve t r a v e r s e d between

any two of t h e l e t t e r s i n d i c a t e d r e p r e s e n t s t h e same f r a c t i o n of l i f e

c onsume d .
It can be seen, however, t h a t t h i s i d e a l i z e d behavior of t h e crack

propagation behavior i s n o t possible. A t least one reason i s i n d i c a t e d

i n f i g u r e 47. The permissible crack l e n g t h i n a specimen b e f o r e f r a c t u r e

occurs depends a t least t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t on t h e stress o r s t r a i n t h a t

i s being applied. Obviously, f o r a low stress range o r s t r a i n range, a

g r e a t e r crack l e n g t h w i l l be permitted b e f o r e f r a c t u r e occurs. Thus, as

seen i n f i g u r e 47, t h e specimen w i t h t h e 100-cycle l i f e , implying a high

s t r a i n range, w i l l f a i l a t , f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e l a t i v e crack l e n g t h of 4

a t p o i n t B, while t h e high l i f e specimen, implying a low a p p l i e d strain

range, w i l l f a i l a t a l a r g e r crack l e n g t h of 6 a t C'. When p l o t t e d on

t h e b a s i s of percent l i f e t o f r a c t u r e , it becomes impossible f o r t h e two

curves t o coincide a t a l l crack l e n g t h l e v e l s because t h e r e i s a region

of crack length t h a t corresponds t o one of t h e curves t h a t does n o t even

e x i s t i n the other curve. A t b e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e kind of r e s u l t t h a t

can be obtained i s shown i n f i g u r e 47(b). It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a small

region of t h e curve - perhaps from 0 to A,A' - can correspond t o b o t h

t h e curves OA and OA' of t h e c y c l i c - l i f e p o r t i o n of f i g u r e 47; beyond

t h i s point, however, some d e v i a t i o n between t h e two curves must Occur.

Once t h e two curves a r e not longer coincident, t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e

 43

cannot apply because, a t a given crack length, d i f f e r e n t percentages of

l i f e a r e used up depending on t h e s t r a i n l e v e l a t which t h e crack w a s

generated.

I n r e a l i t y t h e problem i s much more complicated t h a n i n d i c a t e d i n

f i g u r e 47. The main problem i s t h a t crack l e n g t h cannot be regarded as

t h e s o l e measure of cumulative f a t i g u e damage. Among o t h e r important

f a c t o r s a r e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s ( e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a propagating

c r a c k ) ; m e t a l l u r g i c a l changes, p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y ; t h e

number of cracks present and t h e i r s t a t e of coalescence, e t c . But even

i f we s t i l l continue t o analyze cumulative f a t i g u e damage on t h e s o l e

b a s i s of crack length, t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e i s i n v a l i d a t e d by f a i l u r e

of t h e crack-propagating curves t o coincide, as shown i n f i g u r e 48, when

p l o t t e d on a basis of percent l i f e . The b a s i s f o r t h i s lack of coin-

cidence has a l r e a d y been i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r when d i s c u s s i n g t h e crack

growth curves f o r t h e polycarbonate r e s i n i n f i g u r e 38. It w i l l be

r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e s e curves were indeed p l o t t e d on t h e b a s i s of percent

of l i f e and d i d n o t coincide. The curve f o r t h e low s t r e s s l e v e l i n d i -

c a t e s t h a t t h e crack does not develop u n t i l much l a t e r i n l i f e , on a

percentage b a s i s . Uhce developed, the crack grows more r a p i d l y when t h e

p l o t i s made on t h e basis of percent of l i f e . This f a c t i s i l l u s t r a t e d

i n f i g u r e 48(b). The curves OAB and OA'B'C' are r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n s of crack growth behavior f o r two s t r a i n l e v e l s . The crack growth

curve OAB f o r t h e high s t r a i n i s s t e e p e r a t t h e lower percentages of

l i f e , b u t t e r m i n a t e s a t a lower f r a c t u r e crack length. The low s t r a i n

curve i s f l a t t e r i n t h e early percentages of l i f e b u t becomes very s t e e p

i n t h e t e r m i n a l stages.
 44

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of such behavior when viewed i n t h e l i g h t of t h e

l i n e a r damage r u l e can now be analyzed. Suppose, f o r example, t h e high

s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d f i r s t along OA f o r a l i f e of 50 percent. A t this

p o i n t a change i s made t o t h e low s t r a i n range. If crack l e n g t h i s used

as t h e only c r i t e r i o n of f a t i g u e damage, assuming t h a t a crack of a given

l e n g t h corresponds t o a given amount of damage r e g a r d l e s s of what s t r a i n

l e v e l was used t o induce t h e crack, then changing t o t h e lower s t r a i n

l e v e l implies a move t o p o i n t A ' and completion of t h e t e s t t o f a i l u r e

along l i n e A'B'C'. At A', however, 75 percent of l i f e has a l r e a d y

been used up; t h e r e f o r e , t h e l i n e A'B'C' c o n s t i t u t e s only 2 5 percent of

life. The t o t a l l i f e f r a c t i o n used i s t h u s 0.5 p l u s 0.25 as i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e t a b l e i n f i g u r e 4 8 ( b ) , r e s u l t i n g i n a cycle r a t i o of 0.75.

Reversing t h e procedure and applying t h e low s t r a i n range f i r s t

t o point A ' produces a l i f e f r a c t i o n of 0.75. Changing t o t h e high

s t r a i n range implies a move back t o p o i n t A, l e a v i n g 50 percent of

life. Thus, a cumulative l i f e f r a c t i o n of 1 . 2 5 may be obtained as again

indicated i n the table. We see, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e order of a p p l i c a -

t i o n of the s t r a i n s may s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t t h e summation of t h e cycle

ratios. Applying t h e high s t r a i n range f i r s t followed by t h e low s t r a i n

range produces a cycle r a t i o l e s s than u n i t y ; applying t h e low s t r a i n

range f i r s t followed by t h e high s t r a i n range produces a c y c l e r a t i o

g r e a t e r than unity.

Experience has v e r i f i e d t h i s conclusion. Many t e s t s have been con-

ducted i n which s t e p functions i n s t r e s s or s t r a i n have been applied.

Two-step t e s t s have been t h e most common. These t e s t s , i n general,

have v e r i f i e d t h e conclusion t h a t t h e o r d e r of a p p l i c a t i o n i s important

 45

and t h a t when a low s t r a i n range i s applied f i r s t l e s s damage i s i n -

curred than when t h e high s t r a i n range i s f i r s t applied. We have con-

ducted many such t e s t s i n o w own l a b o r a t o r y and t h i s s u b j e c t has been

touched upon i n some of our e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n s ( r e f s . 25 and 2 6 ) .

An important d e v i a t i o n from t h i s conclusion has, however, been

observed i n t h e t e s t i n g of notched specimens. It has, i n f a c t , been

found t h a t applying t h e high s t r e s s range f i r s t t o such a specimen

r e s u l t s i n a higher cycle r a t i o summation t h a n applying t h e low s t r e s s

range f i r s t . There a r e s e v e r a l reasons f o r t h i s observation. Perhaps

t h e most important i s t h e f a c t t h a t when a notch o r a crack i s p r e s e n t ,

important r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s are r e t a i n e d when t h e c y c l i c load range i s

reduced from an i n i t i a l high value t o a low value. For example, f o r

c y c l i c t e s t s run from zero t o tension only, wnen applying t h e high s t r e s s

range f i r s t , a r e s i d u a l compressive s t r e s s i s produced a t t h e crack t i p

on unloading. A considerable number of cycles a t a lower s t r e s s o r

s t r a i n range would t h e n be required t o overcome t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s

f i e l d produced by t h e p r i o r h i s t o r y . This behavior has been s t u d i e d by

Weibull ( r e f . 2 7 ) and o t h e r s , and the d e l a y time i n continued cracking

has been s u b s t a n t i a l when t h e high s t r e s s i s f i r s t applied. This observa-

1 - t i o n makes it c l e a r why crack length i t s e l f cannot be considered as t h e

only c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e of damage. A t l e a s t t h e question of

r e s i d u a l s t r e s s f i e l d a t t h e crack t i p must be included.

There i s , i n a d d i t i o n , another reason f o r t h e ordering e f f e c t of

load a p p l i c a t i o n observed i n notched specimens. This reason w i l l be

i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h t h e use of f i g u r e 49. It w i l l a l s o be shown t h a t , i n

two-level cumulative damage t e s t s , one may reach a d i f f e r e n t conclusion

 46

as t o t h e r e l a t i v e damage done by applying t h e high or low s t r e s s f i r s t ,

depending on whether a notched or unnotched specimen i s being considered.

This d i f f e r e n c e i n behavior becomes obvious a f t e r a comparison i s made

of f i g u r e s 48(b) and 49(b).

Consider, f o r example, t h e crack growth behavior of a specimen with

an i n i t i a l crack l e n g t h of one u n i t . This crack may have been generated

by machining o r by p r i o r load cycling. Figure 49(a) shows how t h i s u n i t

crack length could be produced i n an i n i t i a l l y unnotched specimen under

two a r b i t r a r y conditions of s t r a i n cycling. These growth curves are t h e

same as those shown i n f i g u r e 48(a) f o r t h e crack growth of unnotched

specimens. Let us assume t h a t t h e remaining l i v e s of t h e s e two s p e c i -

mens w i t h t h e u n i t l e n g t h crack a r e 50 and 250 cycles, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

These may now be regarded as notched specimens having known f a t i g u e

l i v e s (when cycled a t t h e same s t r a i n used t o produce t h e notch) of

50 and 250 cycles. What i s important t o t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of cumulative

damage i s t h e remaining crack growth behavior of t h e s e specimens r e p r e -

sented as a f u n c t i o n of percent of l i f e t o f a i l u r e , or percent of l i f e

remaining a f t e r t h e crack has been generated. This behavior i s shown

i n figure 49('b). The crack growth curves a r e shown as AB and A'B'C',

i n which AB now l i e s e n t i r e l y below A'B'C'. If an a n a l y s i s were made

of t h e e f f e c t of order of a p p l i c a t i o n of s t r a i n i n a manner analogous t o

t h a t discussed i n connection with f i g u r e 48, it would be seen t h a t t h e

summation of t h e cycle r a t i o s would be g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y i f t h e high

s t r a i n were applied f i r s t i n notched specimens. This r e s u l t i s not r e -

l a t e d t o any aspect of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s b u t i s simply t h e consequence

of t h e crack growth behavior of a notched specimen ( i . e . , using t h e

 47

remaining l i f e a f t e r t h e crack has reached an appreciable s i z e i n an

i n i t i a l l y unnotched specimen as t h e basis f o r c a l c u l a t i n g cycle r a t i o s ) .

Obviously t h i s e f f e c t may a l s o be due t o r e s i d u a l stresses and m e t a l l u r -

i c a l e f f e c t s , b u t it i s of i n t e r e s t i n understanding apparent i n c o n s i s -

t e n c i e s i n observations regarding t h e e f f e c t of o r d e r i n t h e a p p l i c a t l o n of

stresses or S t r a i n s .

The s u b j e c t or cumulative damage i s covered by a v a s t l i t e r a t u r e .

F u r t h e r information on t h i s s u b j e c t may b e found i n r e f e r e n c e s 2 1 t o 36.

APPLICATIONS INVOLVING STRAIN CYCLING DATA

Relation Between Axial and Bending Fatigue

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s t u d i e s of m a t e r i a l s i n s t r a i n c y c l i n g

w i l l now be i l l u s t r a t e d by a very simple a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t can a l s o be

extended t o more complicated problems. I n t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n w e have

concerned ourselves with t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e a x i a l f a t i g u e be-

havior of m a t e r i a l s and t h e i r bending f a t i g u e behavior.

It i s well known t h a t metals have longer l i v e s when t e s t e d i n

bending f a t i g u e f o r t h e same nominal stress l e v e l t h a n t h e y have i n

axial fatigue. This f a c t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 50. Here t h e

f a t i g u e l i v e s of specimens of 4130 s t e e l a r e shown obtained by two

d i f f e r e n t methods. The lower curve i s t h e s a t u r a t i o n s t r e s s range

p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e c y c l i c l i f e when t h e s t r a i n range i s a x i a l l y applied

and, t h e r e f o r e , approximately uniform over t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n .

The upper curve r e f e r s t o r o t a t i n g beam specimens. The s t r e s s p l o t t e d

i s t h e nominal value obtained from the e l a s t i c bending moment formula

S = Mc/I. Obviously t h e r e i s a considerable d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e

two curves.
 48

A question a r i s e s as t o t h e reason f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e . One reason

obviously i s t h a t t h e formula, which assumes e l a s t i c i t y , i s n o t a c c u r a t e ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l o w - c y c l i c - l i f e range where t h e s t r a i n s a r e w e l l i n t o

t h e p l a s t i c range. Thus, i n t h i s example we s h a l l i n v e s t i g a t e whether

t h e a x i a l and bending f a t i g u e r e s u l t s would be t h e same i f t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s

or s t r a i n i n t h e r o t a t i n g beam specimen were known.

A s s h a l l be i n d i c a t e d l a t e r , t h e question of r o t a t i n g beam bending

i s much more complicated than appears upon f i r s t examination, and we

s h a l l t h e r e f o r e look f i r s t a t a similar problem which i s i n t r o d u c t o r y t o

t h e study of r o t a t i n g beams. I n s t e a d of considering a specimen which i s

f l e x e d during r o t a t i o n , l e t us consider f i r s t a round specimen subjected

t o simple r e v e r s e f l e x u r e . Imagine t h e specimen t o be b e n t back and f o r t h

about a f i x e d a x i s . The b a s i s for t h e a n a l y s i s i s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 51.

I f we t r y t o solve t h e problem by s e l e c t i n g a bending moment and d e t e r -

mining the corresponding s u r f a c e s t r a i n range, we encounter d i f f i c u l t i e s

i n solving t h e complicated nonlinear equation t h a t r e s u l t s . To avoid

t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s we s e l e c t i n s t e a d t h e s u r f a c e s t r a i n (which, i n t u r n ,

e s t a b l i s h e s t h e l i f e ) and seek t o determine t h e bending moment t h a t w i l l

produce t h e s e l e c t e d s u r f a c e s t r a i n . This can r e a d i l y be done as i l l u s -

t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 51. For example, if w e s e l e c t a s u r f a c e s t r a i n of 0.0105

and make t h e assumption, commonly made i n bending a n a l y s i s , t h a t plane

s e c t i o n s remain plane, t h e s t r a i n i s known a t every p o i n t i n t h e specimen

cross section. A t any v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e x from t h e c e n t e r of t h e s p e c i -

men, t h e s t r a i n i s x/R (0.0105), as shown i n f i g u r e 51(a). Knowing t h e

s t r a i n range a t each l o c a t i o n , and having a v a i l a b l e a c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n

curve t h a t r e l a t e s t h e s t r a i n range t o t h e s t r e s s range, we may t h e n

 49

determine t h e s t r e s s range a t each location i n t h e cross s e c t i o n . This

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 51(b). For t h e materials s e l e c t e d t h e s u r f a c e

s t r e s s i s 9 4 800 p s i and t h e s t r e s s e s a t a l l o t h e r d i s t a n c e s from t h e

a x i s toward t h e c e n t e r a r e displayed by t h e curve shown. The c o n t r i b u t i o n

t o t h e bending moment associated with each stress can be determined from

t h e product of t h e area over which the s t r e s s a c t s and t h e d i s t a n c e from

t h e bending a x i s . This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5 1 ( c ) . On c a r r y i n g out

t h e i n d i c a t e d i n t e g r a t i o n , we conclude f o r t h e example shown that t h e

bending moment i s 113 000 inch-pounds. Once t h e bending moment i s known,

we can then determine from t h e equation S = Mc/I what t h e nominal bend-

i n g s t r e s s would have been f o r t h i s bending moment. I n t h i s way it i s

p o s s i b l e t o make a p l o t of t h e applied nominal s t r e s s a g a i n s t p r e d i c t e d

l i f e and compare it with t h e experimental data.

Results f o r s e v e r a l m a t e r i a l s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 52. The continu-

ous l i n e s r e f e r t o p r e d i c t i o n s determined by t h e described procedure,

and t h e experimental data points a r e f o r t e s t s conducted t o determine

t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e predictions. It can be seen t h a t t h e agreement f o r

t h e two s t e e l s and two aluminum a l l o y s i s q u i t e good. I n general, t h e

p r e d i c t i o n s a r e somewhat conservative. The reason f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e

p r e d i c t i o n s a r e based on a x i a l f a t i g u e data i n which t h e crack growth

s t a g e i s , as a l r e a d y discussed, a r e l a t i v e l y small part of t h e t o t a l

life. I n t h e bending t e s t s t h e crack growth s t a g e i s longer. Therefore,

t h e assumption t h a t failure occurs soon a f t e r t h e crack s t a r t s i s some-

what conservative f o r t h e bending t e s t s , and t h e p r e d i c t i o n s a r e a l s o

conservative. Another reason f o r thediscrepancy, perhaps a minor f a c t o r ,

i s t h e assumption t h a t , throughout the l i f e , each point i s a t t h e satura-

 50

t i o n s t r e s s l e v e l a s s o c i a t e d with i t s s t r a i n value. This i s a reasonable

assumption f o r t h e outermost f i b e r where t h e s t r a i n i s a maximum ( r e c a l l -

i n g that s a t u r a t i o n i s achieved e a r l y i n t h e c y c l i c l i f e when t h e e n t i r e

s e c t i o n i s subjected t o t h e same s t r e s s and recognizing a l s o that t h e l i f e

i s t o be governed by t h e s t r a i n a t t h e outermost f i b e r ) . The assumption

i s not v a l i d , however, a t p o i n t s of l e s s e r d i s t a n c e s from t h e n e u t r a l a x i s ,

which a r e s u b j e c t t o lower s t r a i n s , and f o r which a l a r g e r number of cycles

a r e required t o e s t a b l i s h s a t u r a t i o n s t r e s s e s . S t i l l another reason for

t h e discrepancy i s t h e unknown e f f e c t of s t r a i n g r a d i e n t on l i f e . I n .the

a x i a l s t r a i n cycling t e s t s , t h e s t r a i n i s uniform over t h e e n t i r e s e c t i o n ,

whereas i n t h e bending t e s t s , only a very small region a t t h e outermost

r a d i u s i s a t t h e maximum s t r a i n , while t h e remainder of t h e s e c t i o n i s a t

lower s t r a i n . Nevertheless, d e s p i t e t h e many f a c t o r s t h a t could cause

discrepancy, t h e agreement between p r e d i c t i o n s and experiment shown i n

f i g u r e 52 i s seen t o be very good.

We can now proceed t o examine t h e more complicated case of r o t a t i n g

bending. Before doing s o , l e t us recognize t h a t t h e reason t h e case of

f l e x u r a l b e n d i n g lends i t s e l f so e a s i l y t o a n a l y s i s i s t h a t once t h e s u r -

face s t r a i n has been assumed, a l l s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s i n t h e cross

s e c t i o n are immediately e s t a b l i s h e d , s i n c e they a r e a l l i n phase, reach-

i n g a maximumamplitude a t t h e same t i m e . Figure 53 shows t h e complica-

t i o n t h a t develops when considering r o t a t i n g bending i n c o n t r a s t t o

f l e x u r a l bending. Consider t h e two elements A and B shown i n

f i g u r e 53(b). I f t h e cross s e c t i o n were simply being b e n t back and

f o r t h as i n f l e x u r a l bending, t h e s e two elements, being a t t h e same d i s -

tance from t h e bending a x i s , a .- a would have e x a c t l y t h e same s t r e s s .

 51
I n r o t a t i n g bending, however, t h e problem develops because of a phase

r e l a t i o n , with t h e r e s u l t t h a t A and B a r e not a t t h e same s t r e s s

l e v e l , unless t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n i s e l a s t i c . If we were t o analyze

t h i s problem i n t h e same manner as we d i d f o r f l e x u r a l bending, assuming

a s t r a i n a t t h e s u r f a c e of E ~ ,t h e s t r e s s a t points A and B would

be equal and would be obtained from a knowledge of t h e s t r a i n , as shown

i n f i g u r e 53(c). If t h e cross s e c t i o n were not r o t a t i n g , A and B

would always be a t t h e same d i s t a n c e from t h e n e u t r a l axis, as shown i n

f i g u r e 5 3 ( b ) , and no question would a r i s e regarding t h e value of s t r e s s

i n t h e s e elements. When w e consider r o t a t i n g bending, however, it i s

c l e a r t h a t points A and B w i l l u l t i m a t e l y reach a s t r a i n l e v e l Em

when t h e y achieve t h e maximum distance from t h e strain a x i s , b u t t h a t a t

t h e i n s t a n t considered i n t h e f i g u r e , point B has a l r e a d y passed i t s

maximum s t r a i n , while p o i n t A i s approaching i t s maximum. The s t r e s s e s

a t each of t h e s e p o i n t s must be determined from t h e h y s t e r e s i s loop

(fig. 53(d)). I n t h i s f i g u r e t h e s t r e s s corresponding t o t h e maximum

strain em t o be reached by both these p o i n t s i s shown as um, obtained

from f i g u r e 53(c) f o r t h e maximum s t r a i n ern experienced by both

points A and B. To o b t a i n t h e current s t r e s s e s , however, we must

determine t h e s t r e s s when t h e s t r a i n i s E. Therefore, r e f e r r i n g again

t o f i g u r e 5 3 ( d ) , we can move out a distance E from t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s

l o c a t i n g t h e p o i n t s i d e n t i f i e d as UA and uB. These a r e t h e s t r e s s e s

a t t h e two elements A and B. Thus, even though A and B are a t

t h e same d i s t a n c e from t h e s t r a i n axis, t h e i r s t r e s s e s a r e , i n f a c t ,

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a t t h e i n s t a n t considered, and i n obtaining t h e bending

moment allowance must be made f o r the a c t u a l s t r e s s p r e s e n t i n each

element.
 52

Further r e f l e c t i o n regarding t h i s problem i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b e s t

approach f o r a n a l y s i s i s t h a t i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 54. The loading axis xx

i s t h e axis about which t h e bending moment is applied. If one considers

t h e s t r a i n s a t t h e individual l o c a t i o n s i n t h e element, it can b e seen t h a t

t h e cross s e c t i o n bends about a d i f f e r e n t axis aa, which makes an angle cp

with t h e xx a x i s . By w r i t i n g an expression f o r t h e bending moment con-

t r i b u t e d by a l l t h e elements about an a r b i t r a r y a x i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e d i s -

placement a x i s , and expressing t h e f a c t t h a t t h e bending moment about t h e

axis normal t o t h e loading axis xx must be zero ( s i n c e t h e a p p l i e d bend-

i n g moment has no component about t h i s normal a x i s ) , we can determine t h e

angle cp between t h e d e f l e c t i o n a x i s and t h e loading axis, as shown i n

t h e figure. The computations a r e somewhat complex, and d e t a i l s w i l l b e

provided i n a forthcoming NASA publication. Once t h e angle between t h e

two axes has been determined, t h e complete s t r e s s and s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n

can be computed, from which t h e bending moment f o r an assumed value of

maximum surface s t r a i n can be e s t a b l i s h e d . From t h e assumed value of

s u r f a c e s t r a i n , l i f e can be determined from f i g u r e 53( a ) .

A comparison of t h e predicted r e s u l t s and experimental data i s shown

i n f i g u r e 55. The curves a r e t h e p r e d i c t i o n s based on a x i a l f a t i g u e data;

t h e experimental data a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e symbols. The comparison i s

q u i t e good, c e r t a i n l y much b e t t e r than t h e agreement shown i n f i g u r e 50.

Thus, it can be concluded t h a t one of t h e main reasons why bending and

a x i a l f a t i g u e do not agree i s t h a t we do n o t , i n r e a l i t y , know what t h e

t r u e s t r a i n i s on t h e s u r f a c e f o r a given a p p l i e d bending moment i n r o -

t a t i n g bending. When t h e proper s u r f a c e s t r a i n i s determined b y an ana-

l y s i s of the type i n d i c a t e d here, g r e a t l y improved r e s u l t s a r e obtained.

 53

The problem discussed here i s obviously an extremely elementary one,

b u t t h e b a s i c approach involving t h e use of t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n

curve, can be extended t o much more d i f f i c u l t and more g e n e r a l problems.

Rule of Thumb Relating S t r a i n Range t o Cyclic L i f e

I n an e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n (ref. 1 4 ) it' was observed t h a t , as a f i r s t

approximation, most m a t e r i a l s w i l l survive approximately 10 000 cycles

of a p p l i c a t i o n of a s t r a i n range of 1 percent. Morrow ( r e f . 37) has

examined t h i s r u l e of thumb i n comparison with o t h e r s and has concluded

t h a t an even b e t t e r r u l e i s one suggested by Peterson ( r e f . 38) that

most m a t e r i a l s can withstand 1000 cycles of a s t r a i n range of 2 percent

prior t o failure. Because of t h e l a r g e amount of data r e c e n t l y developed

i n our l a b o r a t o r y r e l a t i n g l i f e t o s t r a i n range, it i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o

reexamine b o t h t h e s e r u l e s .

The r e s u l t s f o r t h e 29 m a t e r i a l s p r e v i o u s l y used i n our d i s c u s s i o n

are shown i n f i g u r e 56. Here a l l the data a r e shown i n a p l o t of s t r a i n

range a g a i n s t l i f e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e values of t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and

d u c t i l i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l materials. It i s seen t h a t i n t h e l o w - l i f e

range t h e r e i s considerable spread i n t h e p o i n t s because of t h e l a r g e

range i n d u c t i l i t i e s of t h e materials; i n t h e v e r y l o n g - l i f e range a

spread a g a i n develops because of t h e l a r g e range i n t h e s t r e n g t h l e v e l s

of t h e m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d . I n t h e range between 1000 and 10 000 cycles,

t h e spread narrows considerably, and each of t h e two r u l e s c i t e d above

p r e s e n t s a reasonable approximation of a c t u a l m a t e r i a l behavior. (The

v e r y d i s c r e p a n t data p o i n t s i n t h e low-cyclic-life range r e f e r t o t h e

powder-metallurgy produced beryllium, which probably d i d n o t reach i t s

f u l l potential i n fatigue.) If a r i g i d choice had t o be made between

 54

t h e merits of t h e two r u l e s , it would probably be i n favor of t h e 2 percent

r u l e a t 1000 cycles, b u t b o t h r u l e s a r e u s e f u l f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e approxi-

mate behavior i n t h e range of l i f e between 1000 and 10 000 cycles.

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF FATIGUE

A s has a l r e a d y been i n d i c a t e d , it i s not t h e i n t e n t i o n here t o sum-

marize the s t a t e of knowledge of t h e f a t i g u e mechanism, s i n c e t h i s s u b j e c t

i s not only t o o broad, b u t a l s o because many good summaries have r e c e n t l y

appeared. However, some of t h e a s p e c t s of t h e s u b j e c t t h a t have been d i s -

cussed from an engineering p o i n t of view a l s o have some fundamental s i g -

n i f i c a n c e t h a t b e a r summarization. I n t h e following d i s c u s s i o n we s h a l l

l i m i t ourselves p r i m a r i l y t o r e s u l t s that have a l r e a d y been mentioned i n

some other connection, introducing only a few a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s needed

t o round out t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e r e s u l t s .

Cyclic S t r a i n Hardening and Softening

The f i r s t f e a t u r e i n t h e f a t i g u e process t h a t we have observed i n

our discussion i s t h e change i n s t r e s s range r e q u i r e d t o maintain a given

c y c l i c s t r a i n range. The f e a t u r e s of major s i g n i f i c a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

such c y c l i c hardening or s o f t e n i n g a r e summarized i n t a b l e 111. F i r s t ,

we have noted, as i n f i g u r e 8, t h a t such changes i n s t r e s s a r e manifesta-

t i o n s of m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l changes. Since t h e s e changes a r e an i n d i c a t i o n

of t h e r a t h e r l a r g e p o s s i b l e changes i n t h e y i e l d p o i n t , it can be seen

t h a t t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d p o i n t i s of r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n

governing t h e f a t i g u e behavior when l a r g e p l a s t i c s t r a i n s a r e involved.

The v a l i d i t y of t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n has been demonstrated by showing t h a t

t h e f a t i g u e l i f e i n t h e low and i n t e r m e d i a t e c y c l i c l i f e range depends

very l i t t l e on t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d point. We have a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t

 .
55

s a t u r a t i o n hardening or softening occurs r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y i n t h e l i f e of

a specimen, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s 1 5 ( c ) and 1 6 ( c ) , as long as t h e

s t r a i n range i s maintained constant during t h e complete h i s t o r y of load-

ing, When changes a r e introduced i n t h e s t r a i n range during t h e course

of t h e l i f e of a specimen, t h e s e changes may be accompanied by l a r g e

changes i n hardening or softening, the material seeking a new stress

l e v e l , which would place it on t h e hardening or s o f t e n i n g curve asso-

c i a t e d with t h e new s t r a i n l e v e l . The p o i n t on t h e curve it seeks de-

pends roughly on t h e sum of t h e cycle r a t i o s of t h e p r i o r h i s t o r y . Thus,

as i n d i c a t e d i n item (4) o f t a b l e 111, we conclude t h a t changes i n stress

a r e governed approximately by a l i n e a r l i f e - f r a c t i o n r u l e . Limited e v i -

dence of t h i s behavior i s shown i n f i g u r e s 42 - 44, b u t more data a r e

( 2 ) Tends t o wipe out i n i t i a l y i e l d p o i n t

needed f o r more general s u b s t a n t i a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , we observe, as i n

item (5) of t a b l e 111, t h a t c y c l i c hardening and s o f t e n i n g may appre-

c i a b l y a l t e r t h e macroscopic s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n an engineering

s t r u c t u r e , s i n c e t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n depends on t h e c y c l i c s t r e s s -

s t r a i n curve, which i n t u r n i s influenced by t h e hardening or softening.

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An example of t h i s e f f e c t has been discussed i n connection w i t h t h e bend-

i n g problem, where it has been i n d i c a t e d t h a t computations u s i n g t h e

c y c l i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves l e a d t o improved determination of t h e a c t u a l

s u r f a c e stresses and s t r a i n s , which makes p o s s i b l e a more a c c u r a t e d e t e r -

mination of l i f e .

M i c r o s t r u c t u r a l Events i n Fatigue

The m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l events a s s o c i a t e d with hardening and s o f t e n i n g ,

and which l e a d t o t h e e v e n t u a l development of a crack t h a t can then s t a r t

propagating i n subsequent cycling, are o u t l i n e d i n t a b l e I V . A s indi-

TABLE I V . - MICROSTRUCTURAL EVENTS I N FATIGUE

(1)S l i p on a f e w well-defined planes tends t o produce

internal discontinuities.

( 2 ) Substructure formation helps maintain c o n t i n u i t y ; it

r e s u l t s , however, i n more c e n t e r s of d i s o r d e r .

( 3 ) S l i p may a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e of t h e microstructure,

f o r example, break up dispersed p a r t i c l e s ( s t r a m s o f t e n i n g ) .

( 4 ) S l i p n o t completely reversible, r e s u l t s i n i n t e r n a l

and s u r f a c e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s .

c a t e d i n item (l), t h e most important f a c t o r t o bear i n mind i n connection

with f a t i g u e i s t h a t , i n c r y s t a l l i n e materials, p l a s t i c deformation of

any one c r y s t a l can f o r t h e most p a r t take p l a c e only i n a f e w , well-

defined d i r e c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s l i p planes. Thus, while t h e

equations of c o m p a t i b i l i t y ( t h o s e equations t h a t r e s u l t from t h e as-

sumption t h a t t h e material remains continuous) s t i p u l a t e a s t r a i n d i s -

tribution i n -
a l l d i r e c t i o n s , such s t r a i n s may n o t b e p o s s i b l e when t h e
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a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t i o n s of s l i p a r e l i m i t e d . Thus, if t h e s t r a i n develops

only as a r e s u l t of s l i p on such a l i m i t e d number o f s l i p planes, t h e r e

develops a tendency t o c r e a t e p o i n t s of m a t e r i a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y . Naturally,

t h e more g r a i n s t h e r e a r e per u n i t a r e a , each g r a i n being d i f f e r e n t l y

o r i e n t e d so t h a t i t s s l i p planes a r e i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , t h e e a s i e r

it becomes t o s a t i s f y t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y requirements without producing

l o c a l i z e d p o i n t s of d i s c o n t i n u i t y , For t h i s reason, as i n d i c a t e d i n

item ( 2 ) o f t a b l e IV, and demonstrated i n f i g u r e 8, a s u b s t r u c t u r e

develops within t h e i n d i v i d u a l grains. That is, t h e g r a i n s subdivide

i n t o smaller regions, each having a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n r e l a -

t i v e t o the a d j a c e n t regions, s o t h a t i t s s l i p planes a r e i n a d i f f e r e n t

direction. Thus t h e r e i s e s t a b l i s h e d a g r e a t e r ease of o b t a i n i n g a r e -

quired p l a s t i c s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n . Such realignment of t h e subgrains

i s not, however, accomplished without paying a p r i c e . This p r i c e i s i n

t h e form of g r e a t e r d i s o r d e r i n t h e subgrain boundaries ( r e f . 39), which

eventually may serve as n u c l e i f o r f a t i g u e cracking, b u t a t l e a s t i n t h e

e a r l y stages must b e regarded as b e n e f i c i a l .

While c y c l i c s t r a i n hardening can readtilybe i n t e r p r e t e d according

t o accepted concepts involving t h e exhaustion of planes of e a s y s l i p ,

t h e pile-up of d i s l o c a t i o n s , or any o t h e r mechanism t h a t r e q u i r e s more

. f o r c e t o cause a given amount of s l i p a f t e r s l i p has a l r e a d y occurred

previously, s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g i s somewhat harder t o understand physically.

Item ( 3 ) o f t a b l e I V i n d i c a t e s one mechanism f o r s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g t h a t

i s a p p l i c a b l e t o dispersion-strengthened m a t e r i a l s ( m a t e r i a l s t h a t gain

t h e i r s t r e n g t h as a r e s u l t of a d i s p e r s i o n of v e r y f i n e hard p a r t i c l e s ,

such as carbides i n s t e e l and oxides i n aluminum). McEvily and Boettner

( r e f . 40) have found, f o r example, t h a t i n an aluminum a l l o y which gains

i t s s t r e n g t h i n t h i s manner, c y c l i c s t r a i n i n g caused t h e hard, b r i t t l e

p a r t i c l e s t o be broken up whenever s l i p occurred along a plane i n t e r s e c t i n g

them. Eventually, t h e p a r t i c l e s become s o small t h a t t h e y become u n s t a b l e

i n t h e i r matrix. When t h e p a r t i c l e s become small enough, t h e r a t i o of

t h e i r s u r f a c e t o volume becomes very high, and t h e y become unable t o r e -

s i s t d i s s o l u t i o n i n t o t h e surrounding matrix. As t h e p a r t i c l e s dissolve,

t h e region becomes s o f t because of the removal of t h e hardening agents,

t h u s e x p l a i n i n g a mechanism of c y c l i c s t r a i n softening. Other explana-

t i o n s a r e , of course, required f o r other systems. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of

f o r example, b e unstable when t h e material i s subsequently subjected

t o cyclic plastic strain. A new d i s l o c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e and d i s t r i b u t i o n

may t h u s develop t h a t more r e a d i l y lends i t s e l f t o s l i p , producing s t r a i n

softening.

The f i n a l item, item (4) of t a b l e I V , r e f e r s t o a mechanism whereby

a crack i s e v e n t u a l l y developed as a r e s u l t of c y c l i c r e v e r s a l of s t r a i n : It

has been proposed by Wood ( r e f . 41), among o t h e r s , and i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g -

u r e 57. The concept i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e ( a t l e a s t p a r t i a l ) i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y

of s l i p of any one s l i p plane. I n f i g u r e 5 7 ( a ) , s l i p t a k e s p l a c e along one

s l i p plane when t h e load i s t e n s i l e as shown. Reversing t h e load does

n o t r e v e r s e t h e s l i p on t h e i d e n t i c a l plane; a t l e a s t a part of t h e r e -

versed s l i p t a k e s place on an adjacent p a r a l l e l plane, producing a s m a l l

notch a t t h e s u r f a c e (or i n t h e i n t e r i o r a t a g r a i n boundary i n some

c a s e s ) , as shown i n f i g u r e 5 7 ( b ) . Further cycling e n l a r g e s t h e discon-

t i n u i t y , as shown i n f i g u r e s 5 7 ( c ) and ( d ) , e v e n t u a l l y developing a crack

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of macroscopic proportions t h a t responds t o engineering formulas f o r

s t r a i n concentration i n t h e v i c i n i t y of a notch, t h u s f u r t h e r aggravating

strain localization. A notch such as t h a t shown i n f i g u r e 57(d) has been

c a l l e d an i n t r u s i o n , because of t h e absence of material; when t h e s l i p i s

of such n a t u r e as t o form an excess of m a t e r i a l j u t t i n g out from t h e s u r -

face, it i s c a l l e d an extrusion. Examples of such e x t r u s i o n s have been

i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 13.

Development of Microcracks

F u r t h e r a s p e c t s of t h e development of microcracks a r e o u t l i n e d i n

t a b l e V. As noted i n item (l), such microcracks may develop a t regions

TABLE V. - DEVELOPMENT OF MICROCRACKS

(1) Influenced by i n i t i a l surface topography, i n t r u s i o n s ,

e x t r u s i o n s , inclusions, f l a w s , g r a i n boundaries,

subgrain boundaries, twin boundaries, e t c .

( 2 ) I n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o s l i p planes; s t a g e I

( 3 ) Slow growth; l i m i t e d within i n d i v i d u a l grains; may

stop a t g r a i n boundary o r o t h e r impediment (non-

propagating crack)

(4) Main f r a c t i o n of l i f e used up i n t h i s s t a g e , except

a t extremely high s t r a i n and low l i f e

( 5 ) M a t e r i a l s of high s t r a i n c a p a c i t y . ( h i g h d u c t i l i t y

f o r p l a s t i c s t r a i n , high t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h f o r

e l a s t i c s t r a i n ) r e s i s t e a r l y development of

microcracks

( 6 ) Tends t o follow cumulative l i n e a r l i f e f r a c t i o n r u l e

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of strain concentration a s s o c i a t e d with i n t r u s i o n s and e x t r u s i o n s a l r e a d y

discussed, b u t t h e y may a l s o develop a t o t h e r regions of d i s c o n t i n u i t y

such as surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , i n c l u s i o n s o r o t h e r i n t e r n a l flaws, a t

g r a i n boundaries, subgrain boundaries, twin boundaries, or wherever a

d i s c o n t i n u i t y of s l i p o r s l i p d i r e c t i o n occurs. As a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d

i n f i g u r e 57, t h e i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e crack i s l i k e l y t o b e parallel

t o a s l i p plane, which i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 58, taken from

a r e c e n t r e p o r t of Schijve ( r e f . 4 2 ) . The s l i p planes are d e l i n e a t e d

by t h e f i n e l i n e s , and t h e crack by t h e coarse l i n e . Note t h a t i n any

one g r a i n t h e crack i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s l i p plane, and that as t h e crack

moves t o an adjacent g r a i n it changes i t s d i r e c t i o n s o as t o be p a r a l l e l

t o t h e s l i p planes of t h e new grain. (Such p a r a l l e l n e s s i s t y p i c a l ,

however, only f o r t h e e a r l i e s t s t a g e s of cracking. Cracking i n t h e

l a t e r stages i s t r a n s c r y s t a l l i n e , with r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e regard for t h e

d i r e c t i o n of t h e s l i p planes.) The e a r l y s t a g e s of cracking, wherein

t h e crack i s confined l a r g e l y t o an i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n , o r t o a few

a d j a c e n t g r a i n s , has been c l a s s i f i e d as s t a g e I by Forsyth and by

others. As i n d i c a t e d i n item ( 3 ) , of t a b l e V, t h e growth of such a

s i n g l e - g r a i n confined crack i s q u i t e slow. When it reaches a g r a i n

boundary it may, i n f a c t , be stopped i f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s l i p

planes of t h e a d j a c e n t g r a i n i s such as t o f a i l f a v o r i n g propagation,

Many examples have been c i t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of s o - c a l l e d nonpropa-

g a t i n g cracks, a t l e a s t some of which may b e explained on t h e basis of

t h e favorable o r i e n t a t i o n of a d j a c e n t g r a i n s s o as t o prevent crack

extension once t h e g r a i n boundary or o t h e r impediment i s reached.

Item ( 4 ) of t a b l e V r e f e r s to t h e conclusion drawn from f i g u r e 39

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t h a t t h e major p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e i s used up i n i n i t i a t i n g t h e crack.

Because t h i s conclusion may appear t o b e i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o many c u r r e n t

concepts t h a t f a t i g u e i s predominantly t h e process of propagating a

crack, it i s important t o c l a r i f y the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s item i n order

t o avoid undue d i s p u t e i n cases where no r e a l c o n f l i c t e x i s t s . First,

w e must recognize t h a t t h e conclusion r e l a t e s t o c y c l i c l i v e s g r e a t e r

t h a n about 500 cycles. I n t h e v e r y low-life-range, figure 39 shows t h a t

crack propagation consumes, i n any case, t h e major p a r t of t h e l i f e . At

a l i f e of 100 cycles, f o r example, only about 40 percent of t h e l i f e i s

r e q u i r e d t o i n i t i a t e t h e crack under consideration, and about 60 percent

i s r e q u i r e d t o propagate it t o f i n a l f r a c t u r e . Secondly, we must recog-

n i z e t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g with o r i g i n a l l y smooth specimens, wherein

i n i t i a l l y t h e r e a r e no gross s t r a i n - c o n c e n t r a t i n g conditions. If a

s h a r p d i s c o n t i n u i t y i s i n i t i a l l y present, t h e crack may develop and

s t a r t t o grow much e a r l i e r i n t h e l i f e . That t h i s i s t h e case has been

i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 14, where t h e specimen i n i t i a l l y contains a very

s h a r p notch, and it can be seen t h a t a crack of about 0.0025 inch i s

d e t e c t e d w i t h i n about 1 percent of t h e l i f e almost over t h e e n t i r e l i f e

range f o r t h e specimen. Furthermore, we must recognize t h a t we are con-

cerned w i t h small specimens of 1/4-inch c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n , avoiding

s t r e s s - c o r r o s i o n conditions o r other h o s t i l e environments t h a t might be

t y p i c a l of s e r v i c e a p p l i c a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , and perhaps of t h e g r e a t e s t

importance, we must recognize that when w e talk about a crack w e mean

one a t l e a s t e q u a l i n s i z e t o t h e n a t u r a l imperfections p r e s e n t on t h e

s u r f a c e of engineering materials. Any smaller cracks w i l l have an i n -

s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t compared with t h e imperfections a l r e a d y present.

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Undoubtedly, "cracks" developed by f a t i g u e can be d e t e c t e d i n highly

polished l a b o r a t o r y samples e a r l i e r t h a n shown i n f i g u r e 39 if use i s

made of the very high magnifications a s s o c i a t e d with e l e c t r o n micros-

copy or o f a high-power o p t i c a l microscope t o g e t h e r with t a p e r s e c t i o n -

ing. Many i n v e s t i g a t o r s have observed "cracks" by such techniques very

e a r l y i n t h e l i f e of a specimen, and t h e i r observations a r e not i n d i s -

pute. It must be r e c a l l e d , however, t h a t t h e uses t o which t h e c u v e

o f f i g u r e 39 were applied were a s s o c i a t e d with engineering problems

r a t h e r than with t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from t h e standpoint of physics.

When considering notch s e n s i t i v i t y , which w a s t h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n

involved, it would seem reasonable t h a t we would want t o consider cases

only when t h e crack i s l a r g e enough t o a f f e c t t h i s s e n s i t i v i t y i n an

engineering sense, as a l r e a d y discussed. I n t h e second a p p l i c a t i o n ,

t h a t of considering t h e crack growth l a w , we were concerned w i t h w r i t -

ing an equation f o r crack growth during i t s "measurable" s t a g e - whether

by " s t r i a t i o n s " , " r i p p l e s " , o r otherwise. We needed some boundary con-

d i t i o n s for i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equations, and wanted t o ensure t h a t t h e

corresponding values of 2, and No were within t h e range of v a l i d i t y

o f t h e observed crack growth law; t h u s , w e chose a value of lo that

w a s within t h e " s t r i a t i o n " s t a g e which we were t r y i n g t o analyze.

Thus, questions a r i s i n g out of item ( 4 ) of t a b l e V should be

answered only i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e purpose intended t o b e resolved, r a t h e r

than t o the academic question of t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a f a t i g u e crack.

Item ( 5 ) of t a b l e V g e t s a t t h e h e a r t of t h e r e l a t i o n s sought f o r

p r e d i c t i n g both t h e e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c l i n e s of f i g u r e 1 7 i n terms of

t h e d u c t i l i t y and t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . By showing t h a t t h e s e two p r o p e r t i e s

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are predominantly e f f e c t i v e i n governing t h e c y c l i c l i n e s of small smooth

specimens, we may conclude t h a t t h e important f a c t o r s governing t h e

i n i t i a t i o n of a crack and i t s very e a r l y s t a g e s of propagation a r e t h e

. manifestations of t h e c a p a c i t y of a material t o deform. Thus, high

d u c t i l i t y , which means high c a p a c i t y f o r p l a s t i c deformation, and high

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , which i s a manifestation of t h e c a p a c i t y f o r e l a s t i c

deformation, a r e important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t influence t h e a b i l i t y

of t h e m a t e r i a l t o r e s i s t crack i n i t i a t i o n and e a r l y s t a g e s of crack

propagation.

Item ( 6 ) of t a b l e V r e f e r s t o the r e s u l t s of f i g u r e 45 where, on

a l i m i t e d s c a l e a t l e a s t , it i s seen t h a t a cumulative l i n e a r l i f e f r a c -

t i o n r u l e i s v a l i d when t h e major portion of t h e l i f e i s involved i n

i n i t i a t i n g t h e crack. The complexities a s s o c i a t e d with t h e crack i t s e l f ,

high l o c a l i z a t i o n of s t r a i n , r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , e t c . , d e s t r o y t h e v a l i d -

i t y of t h e l i n e a r damage rule, b u t up t o t h e p o i n t where t h e crack i s of

s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o introduce such complications, it would appear t h a t

such a l i n e a r damage r u l e may be applicable. O f course, more data t h a n

t h o s e shown i n f i g u r e 45 a r e required f o r conclusiveness, and, of course,

we i m p l i c i t l y assume t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l remains m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y s t a b l e ,

and t h a t r a t e e f f e c t s (e.g., creep) a r e absent.

Stage I1 Cracking

Table V I summarizes some important a s p e c t s of crack growth once it

has reached an appreciable length, and when t h e f a i l u r e propagation mode

i s one whereby progressive opening of t h e crack occurs normal t o t h e

d i r e c t i o n of loading. This period has been c a l l e d Stage I1 Cracking

by Forsyth ( r e f . 43). ,
A s i n d i c a t e d by item (1) t h e crack now moves
 64

TABLE V I . - STAGE I1 CRACKING

(1)Crack p e n e t r a t e s g r a i n boundaries; assumes

characteristic transcrystalline nature

( 2 ) Mechanism of crack growth may be r e l a t e d t o

b l u n t i n g and sharpening of crack under

t e n s i o n and compression

( 3 ) Independently formed cracks merge

( 4 ) Power laws of crack l e n g t h and of p l a s t i c

s t r a i n d e s c r i b e crack growth

( 5 ) Not governed by l i n e a r l i f e f r a c t i o n r u l e

( 6 ) Residual s t r e s s induced by p r i o r s t r e s s

h i s t o r y i s important

e a s i l y across g r a i n boundaries and assumes t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a n s -

c r y s t a l l i n e n a t u r e t y p i c a l of f a t i g u e failures. The f a c t o r s t h a t

govern the e x t e n t of crack growth per cycle, and why i n f a c t it grows

only a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e i n one cycle, while extending f a r t h e r i n t h e

next cycle even though t h e nominal loading has not changed, have n o t

y e t been completely resolved. One explanation t h a t has been o f f e r e d

i s based on t h e concept of b l u n t i n g and resharpening of t h e crack

( r e f . 44), as i n d i c a t e d i n item ( 2 ) of t a b l e V I . Presumably t h e crack

grows during t h e t e n s i l e p o r t i o n of t h e cycle u n t i l t h e r a d i u s a t t h e

r o o t of the crack i n c r e a s e s ( b l u n t s ) enough t o r e l i e v e t h e s t r e s s con-

c e n t r a t i o n s u f f i c i e n t l y s o t h a t no f u r t h e r crack growth i s needed, a t

which time crack growth stops. The compressive p o r t i o n of t h e cycle

sharpens t h e crack, s o t h a t r e - a p p l i c a t i o n of t e n s i o n , f u r t h e r crack

growth i s needed t o r e l i e v e t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n again; however,

 65

t h i s concept provides only a p a r t i a l explanation. Of great interest

would be an a n a l y s i s involving t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s because t h e s e

s t r e s s e s undoubtedly e n t e r i n t o t h e consideration of t h e amount of crack

e x t r u s i o n , b u t a proper a n a l y s i s i s as y e t not a v a i l a b l e .

Item ( 3 ) of t a b l e V I r e l a t e s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s t a g e I1

cracking involving t h e merging of independently formed cracks. Except

f o r cases involving very high c y c l i c l i v e s , f a t i g u e u s u a l l y involves

n o t one crack b u t many independently formed cracks t h a t merge, and crack

growth, i n p r t , c o n s i s t s of t h e merging of such cracks r a t h e r than j u s t

t h e propagation of a s i n g l e crack. Most analyses of crack growth do

n o t , however, t a k e such type of crack growth i n t o consideration.

A s i n d i c a t e d by item ( 4 ) of t a b l e V I , t h e rate of crack l e n g t h

growth during s t a g e I1 cracking i s governed by power l a w s of crack

l e n g t h and p l a s t i c s t r a i n . Thus, when t h e crack i s small, t h e growth

r a t e i s a l s o small; as t h e crack length i n c r e a s e s , i t s growth r a t e also

i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y , s o t h a t i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e t e s t t h e growth

r a t e may become c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y high compared w i t h t h e r a t e i n t h e

e a r l y part of t h e t e s t . Here a l s o , i s a p a r t i a l explanation of why

notch s e n s i t i v i t y does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t t h e f a t i g u e c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s i n t e s t s of t h e type used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e l i f e r e l a t i o n s d i s -

cussed i n t h i s r e p o r t . The l e s s notch s e n s i t i v e t h e m a t e r i a l t h e

deeper t h e crack t h a t can be withstood b e f o r e f r a c t u r e ; b u t t h e added

crack l e n g t h would be achieved i n r e l a t i v e l y s o f e w cycles t h a t t h e

t o t a l number of cycles t o f a i l u r e i s n o t increased appreciably. It

must b e emphasized, however, t h a t , while t h i s conclusion i s v a l i d f o r

t h e small, i n i t i a l l y unnotched specimens conventionally used i n low-

 66

cycle-fatigue t e s t s , it may not be d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y contain flaws o r notches,

Use of t h e crack growth power laws does r e s u l t i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

d e r i v i n g a power l a w f o r c y c l i c l i f e i n terms of p l a s t i c s t r a i n ( o r , i n

f a c t , i n terms of s t r e s s r a n g e ) , b u t t h e implied exponents a r e not i n

complete agreement with t h e observed values. P a r t of t h i s discrepancy

may be due t o t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s assumed i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n , b u t it may

also be t h a t t h e very process of studying crack growth r a t e s i n small

specimens, where t h e value of t h e a c t u a l a p p l i e d s t r a i n becomes be-

clouded once t h e crack i s l a r g e enough t o t a k e meaningful measurements,

c o n s t i t u t e s part of t h e d i f f i c u l t y . This problem r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r

attention.

Item ( 5 ) of t a b l e V I p o i n t s out t h a t , when s t a g e I1 cracking i s

involved, a l i n e a r l i f e f r a c t i o n r u l e should n o t be expected t o apply.

The f a i l u r e of t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e i n such a p p l i c a t i o n s has n o t been

discussed here b u t i s w e l l k n w n from t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Thus, cases t h a t

involve an appreciable p o r t i o n of t h e l i f e i n s t a g e I1 cracking - for

example, bending t e s t s , or those of l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y i f

t h e y contain notches or flaws - should n o t be expected t o follow a l i n e a r

damage rule. One of t h e most important reasons f o r t h e f a i l u r e of t h e

r u l e (item ( 6 ) ) i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t r o d u c i n g important r e s i d u a l

s t r e s s e s when cracks a r e p r e s e n t , whereas such s t r e s s e s a r e n o t con-

s i d e r e d i n t h e conventional a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e theory. Other reasons,

however, also operate. One i s t h e n a t u r e of t h e crack growth curve, as

discussed i n connection with f i g u r e 48; another i s t h e l i f e value used

i n t h e denominator of t h e cycle r a t i o s , as discussed i n connection with

 67

f i g u r e 49. The s u b j e c t of cumulative f a t i g u e damage of notched s t r u c t u r e s

i s a most important one, and i s receiving a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n i n

many l a b o r a t o r i e s a t t h e p r e s e n t time.

F i n a l Fracture

Although t h e f r a c t u r e process i s one of g e n e r a t i n g and propagating

a crack, t h e f a t i g u e l i f e i s u s u a l l y taken as t h e number of cycles a t

which f r a c t u r e occurs. F i n a l f r a c t u r e i s , however, a complex s u b j e c t

in itself. Most of t h e s t u d i e s c u r r e n t l y under way and t h e concepts

t h a t have been derived from them involve t h e assumption of l i n e a r e l a s -

t i c i t y i n t h e major s e c t i o n of t h e body that undergoes f r a c t u r e . The

specimens from which our concepts of low and intermediate cycle f a t i g u e

a r e derived involve l a r g e p l a s t i c s t r a i n s , u s u a l l y throughout t h e f r a c -

t u r e cross section. Thus, much needs t o b e done t o b r i d g e t h e gap b e -

tween s t u d i e s of f a t i g u e and of f r a c t u r e , and hopefully t h i s s u b j e c t

w i l l c o n s t i t u t e much of t h e content of t h o s e r e p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d i n

f i g u r e 1 b y t h e dashed curve.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I n conclusion, I wish t o express deep g r a t i t u d e t o my co-workers

whose c a r e f u l experiments and h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n s have been of t h e

utmost value i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t : M. H. Hirschberg,

W. B. Bedesem, J. C. Freche, C. R. Ensign, and J. R. Kubancik.

 68

REFERENCES

1. Thompson, N., and Wadsworth, N. J. : "Metal Fatigue", Advances i n

Physics, (Supplement t o P h i l . Mag.), Vol. 7, 1958, pp. 72-169.

2. Alden, T. H., "Basic S t u d i e s of Fqtigue F r a c t u r e i n Pure Metals",

Report No. 62-RL-2923M, General E l e c t r i c Research Laboratory,

February, 1962.

3 . Avery, D. H., and Backofen, W. A. : "Nucleation and Growth of Fatigue

Cracks", i n F r a c t u r e of S o l i d s , ed. b y D. C. Drucker and J. J.

Gilman, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1963.

4. Grosskreutz, J. C.: "A C r i t i c a l Review of Micromechanisms i n

Fatigue", Proceedings of t h e Tenth Sagamore Army Materials Re-

search Conference, i n Fatigue - An I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Approach,

ed. by J. J. Burke, N. L. Reed, and V. Weiss, Syracuse U n i v e r s i t y

Press, 1964, pp. 27-59.

5. Gerberich, W. W.: " P l a s t i c S t r a i n s and Energy Density i n Cracked

Plates. I. Experimental Techniques and Results", GALCITSM 63-23,

Graduate Aeronautical Laboratories, C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of

Technology, Pasadena, C a l i f o r n i a , June, 1963.

6. Oppel, G. U., and Hill, P. W. : " S t r a i n Measurements a t t h e Root of

Cracks and Notches", Experimental Mechanics, Vole 4, No. 7,

J u l y 1964, pp. 206-211.

7. Howie, A . , and Whelan, M. J. : " D i f f r a c t i o n Contrast of E l e c t r o n

Microscope Images of C r y s t a l L a t t i c e Defects", Proceedings of t h e

Royal S o c i e t y of London, Vol. A263, 1961, pp. 217-237.

 69

8. Grosskreutz, J. C.: "Research on the Mechanisms of Fatigue",

Technical Documentary Report No. WADD-TR-60-313,Part 11,

Prepared under Contract No. AF 33(616)-7858 by Midwest Research

Institute, Dec. , 1963.

9. Bassett, G. A. , Menter, J. W. , and Pashley, D. W. : "Moird Patterns

on Electron Micrographs, and Their Application to the Study of

Dislocations in Metals", Proceedings of the Royal Society of

London, Vol. A246, 1958, pp. 345-368.

10. Lang, A. R.: "Studies of Individual Dislocations in Crystals by

X-ray Diffraction Microradiography", Journal of Applied Physics,

Vol. 30, 1959, pp. 1748-1755.

11. Dash, W. C.: !'The Observation of Dislocations in Silicon", Dis-

locations and Mechanical Properties of Crystals, John Wiley &

Sons, Inc., New York, 1957, pp. 57-67.

12. Hahn, G. T., and Rosenfield, A. R. t "Local Yielding and Extension

of a Crack under Plane Stress", Battelle kemorial Institute, 1964.

13. Wood, W. A., Cousland, S. McK., and Sargent, K. R. : "Systematic

Microstructural Changes Peculiar to Fatigue Deformation". Acta

Metallurgica, Vol. 11, 1963, pp. 643-652.

14. Smith, R. W. , Hirschberg, M. H. , and Manson, S. S. : "Fatigue

Behavior of Materials Under Strain Cycling in Low and Inter-

mediate Life Range", NASA TN D-1574, April 1963.

15. Manson, S. S., and Hirschberg, M. H. : "Fatigue Behavior in Strain

Cycling in the Low and Intermediate Cycle Range", Fatigue - An

Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. by J. J. Burke, N. L. Reed, and

V. Weiss, Syracuse University Press, 1964, pp. 133-173.

 70

16. Manson, S. S.: "Behavior of Materials Under Conditions of Thermal

Stress" Heat Transfer Symposium, University of Michigan, June 27-28,

1952, University of Michigan Press. Also:

Manson, S. S.: "Behavior of Materials Under Conditions of Thermal .

Stress". NACA TN 2933, July 1953.

17. Manson, S. S.: "Thermal Stresses in Design, Part 19 - Cyclic Life

of Ductile Materials", Machine Design, July 7, 1960, pp. 139-144.

18. Laird, C. , and Smith, G. C., "Initial Stages of Damage in High

Stress Fatigue in Some Pure Metals", Philosophical Magazine,

v01. 8, NOV. 1963, pp. 1945-1963.

19. Coffin, L. F., Jr. : "A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal

Stresses on a Ductile Metal". Trans. ASME, Vol. 76, 1954,

pp. 931-950.

20. Weiss, V. : "Analysis of Crack Propagation in Strain-Cycling

Fatigue", in Fatigue - An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. by

J. J. Burke, N. L. Reed, and V. Weiss, Syracuse University

Press, 1964, pp. 179-186.

21. Palmgren, A. : "Die Lebensdauer von Kugellagern", ZVDI, Vol. 68,

No. 14, April 5, 1924, pp. 339-341.

22. Langer, B. F.: "Fatigue Failure from Stress Cycles of Varying

Amplitudes", Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 4, No. 4,

December 1937, pp. A160-Al62.

23. Miner, M. A.: "Cumulative Damage in Fatigue", Journal of Applied

Mechanics, Vol. 12, 1945, pp. A159-Al64

 71

24. Grover, H. J.: "An Observation Concerning t h e Cycle Ratio i n Cumu-

l a t i v e Ihmage", Symposium on Fatigue of A i r c r a f t S t r u c t u r e s , ASTM,

STP No. 274, 1960.

25. Manson, S. S., Nachtigall, A. J., and Freche, J. C. : "A Proposed

New Relation for Cumulative Fatigue Damage i n Bending", Proceedings

ASTM, Val. 61, 1961, pp. 679-703.

26. Manson, S. S., Nachtigall, A. J , , Ensign, C. R., and Freche, J. C.:

"Further I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a Relation f o r Cumulative Damage i n

Bending". NASA Technical Memorandum TM X-52002, 1964.

27. Weibull, W. : "The E f f e c t of S i z e and S t r e s s History on Fatigue

Crack I n i t i a t i o n and Propagation", Proceedings of t h e Crack

Propagation Symposium, Cranfield, 1961, pp. 271-286.

28. Richart, I?. E., Jr., and Newmark, N. M.: "An Hypothesis f o r t h e

Determination of Cumulative Damage i n Fatigue", ASTM Proc.,

Val. 48, 1948, pp. 767-800.

29. Marco, S. M., and Starkey, W. L.: "A Concept of Fatigue Damage",

Trans. ASME, Vol. 76, 1954, pp. 627-632.

30. Corten, H. T., and Dolan, T. J. : "Cumulative Fatigue Damage",

Paper No. 2 of Session 3, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Fatigue

of Metals, Vol. 1, I n s t . of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1956.

31. Freudenthal, A. M., and H e l l e r , R. A. : "Accumulation of Fatigue

Damage", Fatigue of A i r c r a f t S t r u c t u r e s , Academic Press, Inc.,

New York, 1956, pp. 146-177.

 72

32. Freudenthal, A. M., and Heller, R. A. : "On S t r e s s I n t e r a c t i o n i n

Fatigue and a Cumulative Damage Rule: Part I - 2024 Aluminum

and SAE 4340 S t e e l Alloys", WADC TR 58-69, 1958 (AD 155687).

33. Henry, D. L.: "A Theory of Fatigue-Damage Accumulation i n S t e e l .

Trans. ASME, Vol. 77, 1955, pp. 913-918.

34. Gatts, R. R.: "Application of a Cumulative Damage Concept t o

Fatigue", Trans, ASME, S e r i e s D, J o u r n a l of Basic Engineering,

Val. 8 3 D , 1 9 6 1 ( 4 ) , pp. 529-540-

35. Brown, G. W., and Work, C. E. : "An Evaluation of t h e Influence of

Cyclic P r e s t r e s s i n g on Fatigue L i m i t " , Proceedings ASTM, Vol. 63,

1963, pp. 706-716,

36. Grover, H. J.: "Cumulative Damage Theories", Fatigue of A i r c r a f t

S t r u c t u r e s , WADC Symposium, WADC, TR 59-507, August 11-13, 1959,

pp. 207-225.

37. Morrow, J., and Johnson, T. A. : "Correlation Between Cyclic S t r a i n

Range and Low-Cycle Fatigue L i f e of Metals", Materials Research &

Standards, Vol. 5, No. 1, January 1965, pp. 30-32.

38. Peterson, R. E. : "A Method of Estimating t h e Fatigue S t r e n g t h of

a Member Having a Small E l l i p s o i d a l Cavity", I n t e r n a t i o n a l Con-

ference on Fatigue of Metals, I n s t . of Mechanical Engineers,

London, 1956, pp. 110-117.

39. Ronay, M.: "On S t r a i n I n c o m p a t i b i l i t y and Grain Boundary Damage i n

Fatigue", Columbia University, I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Study of Fatigue

and R e l i a b i l i t y , Technical Report No. 9, August 1964.

40. McEvily, A. J., Jr., and Boettner, R. C.: "A Note on Fatigue and

Microstructure", F r a c t u r e of S o l i d s , John Wiley & Sons, New York,

1963, pp. 383-389.

 73

41. Wood, W. A.: "Recent Observations on Fatigue F a i l u r e i n Metals",

ASTM STP NO. 237, 1958, pp. 110-119.

42. Schijve, J.: "Analysis of t h e Fatigue Phenomenon i n Aluminum

, Alloys 'I. National Aero- and A s t r o n a u t i c a l Research I n s t i t u t e ,

Amsterdam, NLR-TR-M2122, 1964.

43. Forsyth, P. J. E.: "A Two-Stage Process of Fatigue-Crack Growth",

Proceedings of t h e Crack Propagation Symposium, Cranfield, 1961,

pp. 76-94.

44. Laird, C., and Smith, G. C. : "Crack Propagation i n High S t r e s s

Fatigue", Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 7, 1962, pp. 847-857.

 ANNUAL INCREASE

TOTAL PAPERS LISTED SINCE 1950 CS-34031

Figure 1. - Selected publications on fatigue (from ASTM references on fatigue).

Figure 2. - Factors associated with fatigue studies.

 M

2024-0 ALUMINUM 6061-T6 ALUMINUM MILD STEEL

Figure 3. - Photoelastic coating method to determine strain distribution at notch tip.
CS-33791
(N. W . GERBERICH, 19631

MICROSCOPE
OCULAR 8,
CAMERA BACK

r SODIUM LIGHT

A,,,.- MICROSCOPE
OBJECT IV E
CLEAR, PLANE
GLASS PLATE-._
'.
1 , ,I' SURFACE
II
.,r SPECIMEN

/////////////////////////
SCHEMATIC OF OPTICS FOR OBSERVING SPECIMEN UNDER
PHASE-INTERFERENCE FRINGES HIGH TENSILE LOAD
cs-33790

(G. U. OPPEL 8 P. W. HILL, 1964)

Figure 4. - Phase interference method to determine strain distribution at notch tip.
I
w

Figure 5. - Crack growth striations on fracture surface of U4-inch

diameter polycarbonate resin specimen; 115 cycles to fracture.

,rREPLICATING
,‘ MATERIAL
I.

RACTURE SURFACE

APPLY SHADOW

-
\ ”,:P”,”,Z:N
-REPLICATING
2. MATERIAL

3. REPLICATING MATERIAL I S D I S S O L V E D
BY SOLVENT.

4.
REPLICA USED IN ELECTRON STRIATIONS ON FRACTURE SURFACE CHARACTERIZING
MICROSCOPE. FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

MATERIAL: 7075-T6 ALLOY cs-34139

LIFE : 56,000 CYCLES

(BEDESEM 8 HARRELL - NASA)

Figure 6. - Electron microscopy studies of fatigue fracture surface by replication. Material 7075-T6 alloy: life, 56 OOO cycles.
 INCREASED
DIFFRACTION AT
1 1 EI-&TRON

-
DISLOCATION--,.
SPECIMEN
-1000% THICK

OBJECTIVE
LENS
I\ I ?zzi

OBJECTIVE
\X #'
,-DIFFRACTED
BEAM

APERTURE

rTRANSMlTTED
BEAM

SCREEN \ ,,- DISLOCATION IMAGE

(HOWIE AND WHELAN, 1961)

cs-33777
Figure 7. - Formation of dislocation image by transmission electron microscopy.

DISLOCATION SUBBOUNDARIES SUBGRAINS AFTER

A F T E R 500 C Y C L E S 5000 C Y C L E S

ELONGATED SUBGRAINS A F T E R
5000 C Y C L E S
Figure 8. - Use of transmlrrlon electron microscopy to observe formation of substructure i n aluminum. Total Strain
range, 0.m4 life = 5x16 cycler

(GROSSKREUTZ, 1963)
ANALOG SHOWING APPEARANCE EDGE DISLOCATION IN
OF DISLOCATIONS IN M O I R ~ PALLADIUM SINGLE CRYSTAL
PATTERNS GROWN ON GOLD SINGLE
(a) PARALLEL CASE CRYSTAL
(b) ROTATION CASE cs-33787

(G. A. Bassett e t al., 1958)

Figure 9. - M o i r i method used to observe dislocations in crystal lattice by electron microscopy.

(3-33785

(A. R. LANG, 1959)

Figure 10. - Observation of dislocations i n
silicon by X-ray diffraction.
Figure 11. - Observation of dislocations
by decoration. Frank-Read source in
silicon observed using copper decora-
tion. CS-33788
( W . C. DASH, 1957)

N 0 TCH-,

SURFACE

NOTCH-.,

MIDSECTION
CS-33786
(HA" 8 ROSENFELD, 1964)
Figure 12. - Etching techniques to reveal plastic
zone.
SURFACE :SECTIONING PLANE
SPECIMEN:
---- -

TAPER MAGNIFICATION, COSECANT 8

NOTCH DEPTH ON SECTION
NORMAL, A TAPER SECTION OF BRASS
TAPER, B SPECIMEN IN TORSION
(533789
Figure 13. -Observation of fatigue damage at specimen surface by taper sectioning.

(W A WOOD,et.ol., 19631

S - N C U R V E S FOR
NOTCHED 2 0 1 4 - T 6
0 6 0" SHE E T
ROOT
0.0007" r F l R S T OBSERVATION OF
/I CRACKS (.0025")
40
i 4 R=.1428

-4
\
30
MAX.
CYCL I c
STRESS, 2 0
KS I
IO

IO' Io3 io5 I 07

CYCLES
CS-33765

K L I M A , LESCO, FRECHE, 1964

Figure 14. - Ultrasonic technique for detecting early fatigue cracks.
 ELASTIC
MODULUS
r r

280
STRESS 240
RANGE,
t M

200

I
I I
I 6 O t

I20

0 .01 .02 .03 .04 3/4 IO IO2 IO3 IO4 0 300 600 900 1200 1500
STRAIN RANGE CYCLES
la1 Static and cyclic stress-strain character- Ibl Stress range as lunction of applied cycles; Id Stress range as function of applied cycles: linear scale.
istics. lqarithmic scale.
CS-22779
Figure 15. - Static and cyclic stress-strain characteristics of 304 stainless steel.

ELASTIC
MODULUS
440- LINE
I I
400 -

360 -

- 320 -
x
o)

J
4
a
280-
I
I:
o)
Y 240-
LL
I-
o)

200 -

160 -

o .OI .02 03 .04 .05 314 IO 10' 103 lo4 o IO00 2000 3000
Strain range Cycles
la) Static and cyclic stress-strain charac- Ibl Stress range as function of applied cycles: I C 1 Stress range as function of applied cycles: linear
teristics. lqarithmic scale. scale. CS-22781
Figure 16. - Static and cyclic stress-strain characteristics of 4340 steel.
 I

.IO
RANGE
STRAIN

.o I

.oo I I I I I
IO-' loo 10' lo2 lo3 lo4 lo5 lo6 10'
CYCLES TO FAILURE CS-22507
Figure 17. - Total strain as combination of two linear relations.

STRAIN
RANGE

-
I IO' io4 105
4 CYCLES TO FAILURE
Figure 18. - Method of predicting axial fatigue life based on ductility, fracture strength,
and ultimate strength.
 FRACTURE
STRESS,
KSI

(I+D)uu ,KSI (333668

Figure 19. - Fracture stress against function of true ductility and

ultimate strength.

--- PI ELASTIC LINE AT 1/4 CYCLE

PLASTIC LINE AT 104 CYCLES
.om
.01m

+
.
.m80
ELASTIC LINE
AT IdCYCLES,
P2 r ELASTIC
.mul
.0020
LIFE, CYCLES
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
REDUCTION I N AREA, 'b
I I 1 1 I I 1 I Ill I
I I Ill I 1 I
.02 .1' .a. 3 .4 .6
PLASTIC LINE AT 10 CYCLES, P3 cs-33782

Figure 20. - Predicting axial fatigue from tensile data by four-point correlatlon method.
 -
2 9 MATERIALS
-
-
-
*€PI
D a6 -
w
.01---
-
-
-

Life, cycles cs-33674

Figure 21. - Relation between plastic strain ductility and cycles to failure.

.4-
-

.2 - I I I
 LIFE, CYCLES C S -3420
Figure 23. -Model for method of universal slopes.

REDUCTION IN AREA, %

4
c
m
c
CL
W
V
L
Q)
+-
.-c I

cs-33779

Figure 24. - Predicting axial fatigue from tensile data by method of universal slopes.
 .I 0 .I 0 c 00
ARD
.IO .IO

L<ut:iET 0 EXPERIMENTAL

-k
.IO .I0 _-_ PREDICTED BY FOUR-
TOTAL
STRAIN
RANGE ,lo .IO k
1 %
300
M
POINT CORRELATION
__ PREDICTED BY
UNIVERSAL SLOPES

,001
100
-- io2

Figure 25. -
104 io6
CYCLIC LIFE
.o
. l Io b

001
100 102 lo4
ANNEALED

lo6
cs-33669
Comparison of predicted and experimental axial fatigue life for lw-alloy and high-strength steels.

r r
.I0

.IO

.IO
0 EXPERIMENTAL
TOTAL PREDICTED BY FOUR-
POINT CORRELATION
STRAIN .IO .I0
-PREDICTED BY
RANGE UNIVERSAL SLOPES

.IO .IO

.o I .01

.ooI
loo io2 104 106
cs-33667
CYCLIC LIFE
Figure 26. - Comparison of predicted and experimental axial fatigue life for stainless steels and high-temperature alloys.
 r r

0 EXPERIMENTAL
TOTAL
STRAIN
_- - PREDICTED BY FOUR-
POINT CORRELATION
RANGE
-PREDICTED BY
UNIVERSAL SLOPES

CYCLIC L I F E (3-33666

Figure 27. - Comparison of predicted and experimental axial fatigue life for nonferrous metals.

I- /
1 29 MATERIALS ./
' . . /.:. . . .:.
. . . . .
. . . . . ....,

L ...
MEASURED ..
LIFE, I o4 . . .
CYCLES

I .5 35
2 62
5 09
IO 94
20 97

PREDICTED LIFE, CYCLES CS-33672

Figure 28. - Measured as function of predicted life determined by four-point correlation
 1.or
2 9 MATERIALS
. : /
.I F

PREDICTED %,
TOTAL STRAIN STRAIN OF
RANGE FACTOR DATA
1.1 33
I. 2 60
I .5 90
2 96
5 100

-00I I I1111111 I I IIIllll

.OOl .01 .I I.o
MEASURED TOTAL STRAIN RANGE cs-33673
Figure 29. - Predicted as function of measured total strain range by four-
point correlation.

1 0 ~ ~

I-
29 MATERIALS
/
/
, ",/. . . ...
.. . .. . . ,

.... .:. :
. .. :....,.
.. . .
MEASURED
LIFE, 1o4k / .. ' .:
. .
,.._._ .:'<
.
. ..
%,
CYCLES LIFE OF
FACTOR DATA
I .5 37
2 59
5 90
IO 96
20 99.5

PREDICTED LIFE, CYCLES CS-33671

Figure 30. - Measured as function of predicted life determined by method of
universal slopes.
 ls0F 29 MATERIALS /
%,
STRAIN OF
FACTOR DATA
1.1 31
1.2 55
1.5 84
2 96
5 100

MEASURED TOTAL STRAIN RANGE CS-33670

Figure 31. - Predicted as function of measured total strain range by method
of universal slopes.

N' = A ( A C - A C ~P

lr
I
EXPE R IME N T A L
--- METHOD OF U N I V E R S A L

.IO0
\ *
SLOPES
POINTS F I T T E D T O GET
CONSTANTS A,A(o AND v
TOTAL
STRAIN
RANGE,
I '\
I

I
A6 .OlO I T-* & I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
.OOl 1 I I I I I
10' lo2 lo3 lo4 lo5 lo6 IO?
CYCLIC LIFE, Nf CS-34025
Figure 32. - Alternate equation for life in terms of total strain range.
 FIT OF THREE POINTS ON-
EXPERIMENTAL CURVE
CURVE PREDICTED BY
U N I V E R S A L SLOPES
.IO

VASCOJET
.IO

X-HARD
.IO .I 0

TOTAL CVM

-
STRAIN .IO .IO
RANGE

HARD
.IO

.oI ANNEALED

,001 .0011 I I I
IOO lo2 lo4 lo6 loo IO* lo4 lo6 c5-311337
CYCLIC LIFE
Figure 33. - Comparison of predicted and experimental axial fatigue life for Iw-alloy and hlgh-
strength steels using alternate equation involving endurance limit

FIT OF THREE POINTS ON-

t. EXPERIMENTAL CURVE
CURVE PREDICTED BY
UNIVERSAL SLOPES

TOTAL .IO .IO

STRAIN
RANGE
.IO .IO

.IO .IO

.o I .oI TAINLESS STEEL

 ? ,

FIT OF THREE POINTS ON-

-EXPERIMENTAL CURVE
N,= A(A~-A~,S/ --- CURVE PREDICTED BY
UNIVERSAL SLOPES

MAGNESIUM

io

.IO

TOTAL
STRAIN .IO
RANGE

,100

100 102 104 106

LIFE
Flgure 35. - Comparison of predicted and experimental axial fatigue llfe for nonferrous
metals using alternate equation involving endurance limit

50

HARDNESS,

w-
Rc 40
I
35
45[ \
-
II
I RC

220
0 NASA DATA
STRENGTH,
TENSILE 2001 VENDOR DATA

KSI 180

tK;RA
160
II I
I
I II QU
REDUCTION
IN AREA,
PERCENT ,40
6
IZOD
IMPACT,
20 IZOD
FT-LB 0
400 600 800 lo00
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE, "F CS-33676
Figure 3 6 - Mechanical properties of type 410 stainless steel
quenched from 1850" F.
.
STRAIN
RANGE

TEMPER
A 0 400" F
A 0 850" F

.OOoli I I

.24
0 AcD = 0.080, Nf

0 AcD = 0.032, Nf
= 115

= 1300

(a) Rectangular coordinates.

*I
.01

.Gu1
-
0 Nf = 115

1
Fatigue life, percent
Nf 13CfJ

/
/I
/
/

(b) Semilogarithmic coordinates.

Figure 38. - Crack g r w t h curves for polycarbonate resin.
I
I
I
 100

-1/3
Nf
PERCENT 60
OF LIFE TO
CRACK INITIATION
40- 6 410 STEEL 400°F TEMPER
0 0 410 STEEL 85OOF TEMPER
0
A 2 0 2 4 - T 4 ALUMINUM
4130 HARD STEEL
20 - 0 POLYCARBONATE
0 PURE A I AND PURE Ni
(FROM LAIRD AND SMITH, 1963)
0 I I
IO' 162 103
Cyclic life, Nf
lo4 lo5 io6 cs-34033

Figure 39. - Relation between percent of life to crack initiation and fatigue life.

LIFE BASEDON
FINAL FRACTURE

PLASTIC
STRAIN
RANGE
CRACK INITIATION
SLOPE = -0.5

POINTS COMPUTED FROM

CRACK INITIATION CURVE,
FIGURE 39
.0051 I
IO0 IO' IO2 lo3 lo4
LIFE, CYCLES cs-34030
Figure 40. - Relation between plastic strain range and life as determined by
crack initiation and by fracture.
 1. 4 r

--
c
m
1. s.1.0
n-0.2

:
m exponent,
q - 1.0
w-0.56

.2
0 .2 .4 .b .a 1.0
P L A S T I C FRACTURE PARAMETER, nq
CS-35002
-
Figure 41. Relation between plastic strain exponent and
other constants entering into crack growth and failure
laws.

-
--- SINGLE STRAIN LEVEL TESTS
HIGH STRkiN FiRST
----- LOW STRAIN FIRST
p 0 2 4 - T 4 ALUMINUM

A~s.070 r l ~
8000- B G'

LOAD Nf = 657
RANGE,
LB

6000

5000 C I
I 10 100 1000 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
CYCLES ILIFE
(a) Load range as function of num- (b) Load range as function of percent of life.
ber of cycles applied. CS-34032
Figure 42. - Cyclic strain hardening under two level fatigue tests,
 c

SINGLE STRAIN LEVEL TESTS

--- HIGH STRAIN FIRST
---___
LOW STRAIN FIRST
9000

8000
r2024-T4 ALUMINUM

LOAD
RANGE, M
I
700C ro
(D
w
P

600C

500(
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
% LIFE cs-34034

(a) Single change of strain (b) Single change of strain (c) Strain levels changed at 25
level at 25 percent of life. level at 50 percent of life. and 50 percent of life.

Figure 43. - Cyclic strain hardening under multilevel fatigue tests.

-SINGLE STRAIN LEVEL TESTS

--- HIGH STRAIN FIRST
----- LOW STRAIN FIRST
r

k
20 000

16000
RANGE,
LB D
.-----
12 000
0 50 IO0
’
0 50
% LIFE
100 0
I
u 50
C S-34022

100

(a) Single change of strain (b) Single change of strain (c) Strain levels changed a t
level at 25 percent of life. level at 50 percent of life. 25 and 50 percent of life.

Figure 44. - Cyclic strain softening under multilevel fatigue tests.

 2024-T4
ALUMINUM
L29
L28
L24
-- -
L 33 *
L34 1 -

SPECIMEN
rl T33 I
M
cn T34 I
cu

-
I
w Ti -6AI-4V T 4 5 1 -
T38
- - 3 1T
T40

0 20 40 60 80 100
% OF LIFE CS-34017
Figure 45. - Cumulative fatigue damage obtained by strain
cycling of smoot h specimens.

RELATIVE
CRACK
LENGTH

CYCLES % FATIGUE LIFE ~5-34026

(a) (b)
Figure 46. - Idealized crack growth behavior satisfying linear damage rule.
 6r IC'
RELATIVE
CRACK
LENGTH 2-

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 20 40 60 80 100

CYCLES % FATIGUE LIFE
(a) (b) CS-34027
Figure 47. - Idealized crack growth behavior showing need for deviation from linear damage rule.

1 ORDER OF
LOAD
HIGH-
I 9+!!2
Nl

LOW .50+( P.75)

N2 ; '1 1
LOW- HIGH .75 + (I -.SO)

RELATIVE
CRACK ,
LENGTH

0 20 40 60 80 100
CYCLES % FATIGUE LIFE
(a) (b)
CS-34019
Figure 48. - Idealized crack growth behavior complying with experimental trends.
 C'

rl RELATIVE
M
cn CRACK
cu
w LENGTH

"REMAINING LIFE-'

0 200 400 600 800 1000

:
0 20 40 60 80 100
CYCLES %REMAINING LIFE
(a) Relative crack length as function of num- (b) Relative crack length as function of per-
ber of cycles applied. cent remaining life.
CS-3423
Figure 49. - Idealized crack growth behavior for precracked specimen.

STRESS
AMPLITUDE I

KSI

40
IO' I
a
o2 o3 os o6 I io4 I I
CYCLES TO FAILURE CS-27138
Figure 50. - Fatigue data under axial loading and in rotating bending for
4130 steel.
 0 .OIO5
H

(a) Strain distribution for life (b) Stress distribution from (c) Contribution of strip to
of 1OOO cycles. (a) and cyclic stress-strain bending moment.
curve.
. .". .L.. ,
CS-27136

Figure 51. - Determination of bending moment supported by circular section for selected value of surface
strain. M = 2JR dM = 4 i R { D ox dx = 113 OOO in. -Ib.

300

F-
PREDICTION
0 EXPERIMENTAL

I50

100

50
CONVENTIONAL
STRESS 4130 (HARD) STEEL 4130 (SOFT) S T E E L

KSI

60
40
20

101 lo2 103 104 lo5 lo6 10' io2 io3 io4 io5 io6
FATIGUE L I F E , CYCLES cs-34029
7075-T6 ALUMINUM 2024-T4 ALUMINUM

Figure 52. - Prediction of flexural fatigue from reversed axial strain cycling
behavior.
 ROT

a 0

CYCLIC LIFE
(a) Total strain range life (b) Strain distribution in cross section of
relation for material. rotating beam.

AE
Cyclic stress range -
IC) (d) Hysteresis loop for points at
strain range relation radius r of rotating beam.
for material. CS-33783
Figure 53. - Determination of stress distribution in a rotating beam from axial
strain cycling fatigue data.

:.HYSTERESIS 0 =TAN- 1 (%)

%
ANGLE

NOMINAL OMAX. M
,, iR 4Mxx
-7A3
\ Y
CS-33778

Figure 54. - Determination of bending moment a n d hysteresis angle in a rotating beam.

 300- -PREDICT ION 300 -
250- 00 EXPERIMENTAL 250-

200 -

:::; ".-,
I50 -
100 100 -
CONVENTIONAL 50 (3- Rl
50 -
STRESS O I I I I I I I I 0
M
I

120- 250 -

olo!60
40-
20-
80 41".., 0-0-
200

f
50-
- \ 0-
D-

O I I I I I I I I 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

STRAIN RANGE
-- 1% A T io4 CYCLES

----- 2% AT io3 CYCLES

 I 4

\' I t
A B C D

cs-34080
(WOOD, 1958)

Figure 57. - Schematic view of crack nucleation.

(SCHIJVE, 19641

Figure 58. - Crack propagation along slip lines

in aluminum.