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Long-term Behavior of Stationary Electrical Connections in Areas with Harsh

Natural Environmental Conditions

Article · October 2015

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Long-term Behavior of Stationary Electrical
Connections in Areas with Harsh Natural
Environmental Conditions
Authors:
Sebastian Dreier*, (Technische Universität Dresden),
Steffen Großmann*, (Technische Universität Dresden,
Ghareeb Moustafa, (Suez Canal University Egypt)
Diego Guimarães dos Santos, (Federal University of Pará)
Brigida Ramati Pereira da Rocha, (Federal University of Pará, CENSIPAM)
Valquiria Gusmão Macedo, (Federal University of Pará)

Abstract coating (silver, tin or nickel) were considered. Over two

Abstract: The expansion of power systems in areas with harsh
natural environmental conditions increases the operation
of stationary electrical connections in such areas. Electrical
connections can be evaluated by determining the connection
resistance. Considering the environmental impact, the
aging of electrical connections can be accelerated. This
could possibly result in a reduced life time of the electrical
connections. In this research study, busbar joints made of
copper, aluminum or aluminum alloy with and without
and a half years, long-term field tests were conducted in
Belém (Brazil), Ismailia (Egypt) and Dresden (Germany).
The connection resistance was regularly measured. Most
of the considered material combinations had a stable
performance. These result may support engineers in the right
choice of material combinations when designing stationary
connections for power systems within the considered areas.
Scientist might be interested in the long-term behavior of
the considered connection materials and the influence of the
considered environments on the degradation process.

Lists of Abbreviations / Nomenclature

*sebastian.dreier@tu-dresden.de - steffen.grossmann@tu-dresden.de

KEYWORDS
degradation mechanism, aging, environmental conditions, long-term behavior, power connections, stationary electrical
connections,

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40
1. Introduction
The global energy generation currently faces a massive
transition from fossil to renewable energy sources. Driven
by governments and international organizations the energy
sector is moving towards a less carbon-intensive electricity
generation. The key to this carbon-reduced generation
are renewable energy systems. The electricity generation’s
efficiency by renewable sources particularly depends on
their location.
In many countries the most promising potentials for
renewable energy generation are located far away from
demanding consumption centers. In order to connect load
and generation areas, electric energy has to be transmitted
and distributed over long distances. Often transport,
generation and even the distribution occurs in areas with
prevailingly harsh natural environmental conditions.
Furthermore, large upcoming energy projects, such as
hydropower projects or the electrification in emerging
countries focus on regions with insufficient energy
infrastructure. All electrical applications used in such
regions have to withstand extreme conditions. They also
have to maintain a good performance in order to assure the
reliable and efficient supply of energy. Electrical connections
are typically applied everywhere in electric power systems.
An electrical contact is defined as a current carrying
junction between two conductors [1]. In power engineering
the contact interface of two metallic conductors consists of
many individual contact spots. An individual measurement
of the contact resistance is not possible for the majority of
typical power connections. Usually the measured resistance
contains the contact resistance as well as some bulk material
and is therefore defined as connection resistance RJ [2].
Stationary electrical connections applied in electric power
systems have to fulfill high reliability requirements in order
to prevent power black outs or failures in other components
of the power system. In terms the operating conditions, the
environment can affect the performance of stationary electrical
connections. The impact of other connection parameters on
the connections resistance, for instance number of bolts or
contact pressure, is the subject to other studies [3], [4]
Typical materials applied in power connections are copper
and aluminum and its alloy. The contact properties can be
improved by coatings. This study aims to investigate the
long-term performance of stationary electrical connections
applied in electric power systems dependent on time,
Cigre Science & Engineering
41
material, temperature and environmental conditions.
Experimental studies were carried out to determine the
long-term behavior (t  >  1000  h) of stationary electrical
connections. In order to determine the resistance of the
connections, experimental and analytical methods were
applied. Besides the experimental work, optical inspection
of the power connections and conditions were conducted at
different stages.
1.1. Degradation of Electrical Connections
The degradation or aging of electrical connections is caused
by a number of different degradation mechanism (Fig. 1),
namely interdiffusion, force reduction, electromigration,
sliding wear and fretting as well as chemical reactions [2]–[4]
Fig. 1: Overview of aging mechanism and interaction with electrical contacts [5]
The connection resistance eventually rises through the
degradation mechanism and results in higher Joule losses
as well as in higher temperature. This process is designated
as aging and continues until both the resistance and the
temperature are too high so that the connection will fail.
Intensive research on electrical connections and has been
carried out at the Technische Universität Dresden (TUD)
for many years. The long-term behavior of stationary
connections in power engineering, dependent on the
degradation mechanism chemical reactions, is still not fully
understood. Despite this fact the degradation mechanism
chemical reactions is often considered as the cause for
connection failure of stationary electrical connections
applied in electric power systems [6]–[11].
In terms of electrical connections chemical reactions, such
as corrosion or oxidation, can result in a film development
within the contact interface. For an electrical connection it
is not important whether the film is produced by corrosion
or oxidation. Corrosion and oxidation may affect the
connection resistance in different ways of degradation
that are not discussed in more detail here. However, the
resulting film is highly resistive and can increase the
connection resistance. The growth of the film depends
on material, time and temperature. Longer time periods
with sufficiently high temperatures would promote the
film growth. Consequently the question on whether the
individual degradation mechanisms chemical reactions
influence the aging of stationary electrical connections
arises. Chemical reactions at the contact interface of power
connections are influenced by environmental parameters
such as temperature, relative humidity and gas components
within the surrounding air.
Prior work concluded, that the simple application of aging
accelerators (e.g. temperature) could significantly change
the underlying physical processes [12]–[14]. The results of
such accelerated tests would therefore not fit real operating
conditions. For instance the increase of temperature above
the respective boundaries may result in the activation
of material dependent processes. Regarding long-term
behavior, the application of aging accelerators can only be
considered for carefully defined boundaries.
1.2. Harsh Natural Environmental Conditions
Some standards address the relationship between the
environment and electrical devices. The IEC  60721-
1 or DIN  EN  60721:  1990 + A1:  1992 + A2:  1995
“Classification of environmental conditions” [15] defines
certain classes for different environmental conditions.
This standard also covers various global climates. The
IEC 60068 or DIN EN 60068-1: 1994 + Corrigendum 1988
+  A1:  1992 “Environmental Testing” [16], on the other
hand, determines environmental testing with reference
to IEC  60721. According to IEC  60721-1 environmental
conditions are characterized by one or more environmental
factors which in turn are characterized by environmental
parameters (Fig. 2). The environmental condition “desert
climate”, for example, is characterized by heat which can
be influenced by other environmental parameters such as
radiation, ambient temperature and other.
Fig. 2: Structure of environmental definitions according to IEC 60721-1 [15]
Cigre Science & Engineering
42
A few subchapters in IEC  60068 apply to electrical
contacts. Theses subchapters outline a selection of specific
environmental conditions which could occur in operational
services. Commonly the test procedures of IEC 60068 are
designated for testing specific electrical devices and not for
conducting long-term test of electrical connections in power
engineering. In field electrical connections of different sizes
and applications could be exposed to severe environmental
conditions over long time periods. Therefore a solely
limitation on specific environmental parameter areas and
short-term testing would not match real conditions.
The application of stationary connections in areas with
harsh natural environmental conditions means higher stress
for the used connections. Nevertheless the performance
and lifetime requirements also have to be fulfilled. Several
studies on the environmental influence on the degradation
of electric devices in desert [17] and tropical rainforest
environments [18] were examined. Compared with a
laboratory environment, tropical rainforest or desert
conditions can be considered as harsh. In this study, only
areas with harsh natural environments are considered. They
can be characterized (Tab. 1) by high values in ambient
temperature  Tamb, ambient temperature spread  ΔTamb,
relative humidity  RH and reaction accelerators (gas
components). The following field tests were conducted in
such environments.
Tab. 1: Classified extreme conditions [17],[18]
The ambient temperature ϑamb limits the current load while
high temperatures accelerate temperature-dependent aging
processes, such as oxidation. The ambient temperature
spread  ΔTamb between the highest and the lowest
temperature is important for material expansion. High
rates of relative humidity  RH could accelerate corrosion
processes [19]. Chemical reaction processes always depend
on the participating reactants. Reaction accelerators in the
air include sulfides, sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, hydroxides,
or ammonium salts [19]. These reaction accelerators tend
to develop corrosion products with the conductor material
of electric devices, dependent on material, temperature and
other environmental parameters.
If the considered reaction accelerators occur individually,
their possible influence would be much less critical than in
combination [20]. The measurement and the determination
 Fig. 4: Performance factor course for typical stationary electrical
connections applied in power systems [2], [21], [22]
of gas components is difficult and depends on the location.
The key points of several studies reviewed in [17] and [18]
was that the air composition of tropical rainforest might
have a higher concentration of reaction accelerators than
that of a desert environment. However, this fact is strongly
dependent on the location and may alter if additional
influences, such as local industrial pollution, also occur.
1.3. Long-term Performance of Busbar Joints
Several different types and sizes of busbars joints are
common applications used in power engineering. The status
of stationary electrical connections can be evaluated can be
evaluated by regular measurement dependent on time. The
connection resistance directly influences the connection
temperature. Moreover, the performance factor ku ((1) and
Fig. 3) can be used to evaluate the electrical performance of
busbar joints. ku is defined as a ratio between the resistance
(or voltage or power losses) of the busbar joint RJ and the
busbar sequence Rbusbar [2].
Busbars of the same shape and dimensions but made out of
different materials (coated and uncoated) can be compared
with each other. In theory, the lower boundary of the
performance factor for busbar connections with quadratic
apparent contact area is 0.5. The lower the factor, the better
the electrical and thermal performance of the connection.
Fig. 3: Busbar joint with apparent contact area Aa, performance factor ku and
schematic circuit; only one drilled hole per busbar is performed in the figure
Cigre Science & Engineering
43
In general, the aging of stationary electrical connections
applied in electric power systems can be divided into three
phases.
Within the formation phase (Fig. 4), initial physical
processes such as creep, thermal-induced softening,
embedding or stress relaxation, influence the size of
the current carrying area  Ac and therefore the initial
performance factor ku,0. The nature of this change depends
on the material, force, shape, dimension, temperature
and time. Eventually, the aging proceeds with a low but
increased slope of the performance factor  ku during the
phase of relative stability. This results in a temperature
increase at the contact interface area. The temperature
at the interface increases considerably if the current
carrying area Ac falls below a critical level. At this point
the generated heat of the interface cannot be transferred
away from the contact area to reach a thermal steady state.
The aging proceeds into the phase of the accelerated aging
until the critical performance factor ku,crit is reached. If the
temperature exceeds the melting point of the material, the
contact spots at the interface will melt. Subsequently new
contact spots will develop. The melting stops process only
stops when the conducting area  Ac is large enough that
the power losses fall below a limit at which the melting
temperature is not reached. This whole process does not
establish the initial performance factor such as in the
formation phase. Indeed this process alternates at higher
levels until the thermal destruction / runaway is finished.
2. Experimental Field Test
2.1. Experimental Design
The objective of this study are bolted busbar joints
(cross section area 40  mm  x  10  mm, length 150  mm)
made of pure aluminum EN  AW-1350A (Al99.5),
aluminum alloy EN AW-6060 (AlMgSi) or pure copper
CW004A (Cu). Each busbar has two drilled holes
(diameter  =  13  mm) within the apparent contact area.
The busbars were delivered by a metal manufacturer.
Further manufacturing was done at TUD according
to the dimensions above. The selected dimensions are
based on various research studies [6], [7], [10]–[14], [23]
conducted at TUD and should enable the comparison of
the results.
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Tab. 2: Investigated material combinations busbars

The surfaces at the contact interface are either bare or
coated with silver, tin or nickel. Before connecting process
the busbar surfaces were cleaned by ethanol and with a
wire brush (about 30  strokes with approximately  50  N
compression force each) or an abrasive pad (grid size 200
and 1000) dependent on the material system (Tab. 2) [2],
[13]. In the field, inhibitors and lubricants are commonly
used for switching-, plug-in-, sliding- and other moveable
contacts. For some stationary connections such as press
connectors, inhibitors are used for conservational
issues and easier assembling. Using inhibitors is not
necessary for force-fitted stationary connections, such
as busbar joints. The long-term performance of busbar
joints would not be significantly improved by the use of
inhibitors [22], [23]. Moreover, using inhibitors would
require a detailed study on different inhibitors and its
properties. The true influence chemical reactions might
have on films would be blurred if inhibitors were utilized.
One material combination was set up with bare copper
and aluminum alloy busbars using a single-sided
aluminum-copper sheet (AlCu, d  =  2  mm) between
the two busbars. The aluminum-copper sheet consists
of a cold rolled, single-side, composite material [24]
(dAl  |  1.4  mm, dCu  |  0.6  mm). After cleaning of the
busbar surfaces, the busbars were bolted with galvanized
or stainless steel M12x40-8.8 screws and M12 washers by
using a torque of 70 Nm. Each busbar combination was
assembled with five or more single samples. The busbars
were bolted on site except the joints in Brazil. Most of
the busbar joints were bolted on site while the joints in
Brazil having partially been assembled in Dresden before
transportation.
The experimental research was carried out at the
Botanical Garden of the Technische Universität Dresden
in Germany (DE), at the Suez Canal University Ismailia
in Egypt (EG) and at the Universidade Federal do Pará
in Belém, Brazil (BR). All samples were exposed to local
environmental conditions. During the test duration,
environmental parameters, such as ambient temperature
and relative humidity were recorded (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).
The measurement of the air composition would have
been of interest, it could not taken because of insufficient
resources. Although the highest temperatures of > 45 °C
as well as the highest spread between daily min. and
max. temperature of about 30  K was measured in
Ismailia, EG. Fig. 5 shows that the lowest gap between
min. and max. temperature for the tropical environment
in Belém, BR was there. The relative humidity in this
particular environment is very high and stays at a high
level all year round. When the relative humidity exceeds
100  %, supersaturation of the air with fog formation
and condensation occurs. Moreover, even in desert
environments the relative humidity might be 100  %.
During night time, the temperature decreases and the air
cools down which results in a distinct dew formation in
the morning hours of the following day.

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44
 Fig. 5: Exemplary monthly min. and max. temperature of different environments

2.2. Experimental Setup and Operating Conditions
The experimental research was conducted both with
current (EG, BR) and currentless (DE, BR). Test
series with not current are indicated by supplement
“currentless”. As can be seen in Fig. 7  –  Fig. 9, the
busbar joints were connected in test circuits. A high
current transformer RUE6500 So. 6.5 kVA and a variable
transformer RRSP2512 26-400-400-17 was used for each
current-fed test circuit in BR and EG.
considered connections. The current was adjusted as
such to keep the connection temperatures at 90  °C.
However, the daily change in weather affected the
temperature of the tested connections. The temperature,
measured at the connections in operation, was in the
range of (30…90)  °C in EG, (20…90)  °C in BR and
(15…45)  °C in DE, dependent on local environmental
conditions such as day / night, rain, wind and further.
2.3. Long-Term behavior of Busbar Connections

The permitted temperature of the considered busbar joints In order to obtain the resistance of a busbar
depends on the material combination and the ambient sequence Rbusbar, the resistivity of the used materials was
temperature. According to IEC  62271-1:2007+A1:2011 determined (Tab. 3). The resistivity was measured at
[25] and the material combination, the permitted busbar ambient temperature and corrected to 20 °C by (2).
joint temperature would be (90…105)  °C for ambient
temperatures of 40  °C. A max. operating temperature
of 90 °C was set for comparability reasons between the

Fig. 6: Exemplary monthly min. and max. relative humidity course of different environments

Cigre Science & Engineering

45
 Fig. 7: Test setup, Botanical garden Dresden, DE

Fig. 8: Test setup Belém, BR

Fig. 9: Test setup Ismailia, EG

During the field work, the resistance measurement
was conducted regularly with a microohmeter LoRe
mobile (Werner Industrielle Elektronik). Before the
measurement was taken, the test circuits were switched
off and opened at one position. A measurement current
was fed into the circuit by the measurement device.
Punch marks were used as potential taps (Fig. 3).
For comparability reasons, the measured connection
resistance  RJ was corrected to 20  °C. The temperature
of the busbar joints was measured together with the
resistance at ambient temperature. The resistances
results are in the range of a few μΩ. This is typical for the
kind of power connections tested.
2.3.1. Bare Aluminum Busbar Joints
In the first 1000 h within the formation phase, (Fig. 10)
the measured resistance of some of the busbar joints rises.
Both material and temperature depending processes
provoke force reduction and smaller contact areas. The
contrary resistance drop for the current-fed samples in
BR could be possibly caused by mechanical distortion.
Higher initial connection resistance may result in
enhanced aging [2]. The highest connection resistance
for AlMgSi was measured for currentless busbar joints in
BR (Fig. 10), possibly due to film formation. In addition
to the native aluminum oxide layer found in humid

Tab. 3: Bulk resistivity of copper, aluminum and aluminum alloy at 20 °C, measurement done with a microohmeter MO2A
(Rasmus & Kühne)

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46
 Fig. 10: Measured connection resistance of bolted AlMgSi busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

atmospheres, a separate cover layer might develop to
eventually increase the film’s thickness. Prevailingly high
temperatures in the contact area would not only reduce
the humidity locally but may also prevent a strong
growth of such films. The connection resistances of the
samples measured at the Botanical Garden are lower than
the connection resistances of the currentless samples in
BR. Possibly, this might stem from the film’s reduced
impact by a lower mean relative humidity. The stronger
scattering of the connection resistances measured at
the Botanical Garden is caused by the simultaneous
scattering of the ambient temperature.
After being in the field for two years, the surface
of the AlMgSi-busbars (Fig. 10) appears somewhat
matted. In the desert environment of Ismailia, EG,
on the other hand, the surface is partially covered by
dust particles.
Compared with AlMgSi the difference of the measured
connection resistances of Al99.5 (Fig. 11) in between
the different environments are lower. There is no clear
highest resistance graph based on the test environment.
Eventually the spans overlap each other. Indeed, the
mean connection resistances of Al99.5 are lower than
for AlMgSi. This is a result of the better conductivity
of Al99.5. However, the performance factor is nearly
the same and indicates a similar quality of the electrical
connection. No significant difference in performance
factor of Al99.5 was observed between the samples with
current or without current. It is therefore likely that the
temperature’s influence on the considered operating
parameters is might be negligible for AlMgSi.
After two years of experimental field work, the visual
inspection of the busbar surface yields the same results
as for AlMgSi (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: Measured connection resistance of bolted Al99.5 busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

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47
 Fig. 12: Measured connection resistance of bolted Cu busbar joints in different environments depending on time,
ϑmax d 90 °C

2.3.2. Bare Copper Busbar Joints
The resistance of the bare copper joints (Fig. 12) remains
stable during the testing time and is lower than that for
aluminum. No difference visible was noticed among the
different environments. A visible oxide film develops
on the surface of the copper busbars (Fig. 12). The film
appears darker for samples with current and also in the
tropical environment of Belém, BR. Temperature and
humidity both influence the film development on the
copper busbar surfaces. Nevertheless no influence on the
connection resistance was observed.
2.3.3. Tin coated Busbar Joints
It appears evident that the measured connection
resistance of Cu-Ni-Sn and AlMgSi-Ni-Sn busbars (Fig.
13 and Fig. 14) only differ by the conductivity of the base
material. Therefore the measured connection resistances
of AlMgSi-Ni-Sn are slightly higher. No significant
increase in resistance was observed during the long-
term tests of tin-coated busbar joints. The dimensionless
performance factor is equal for both. After two years the
surfaces have tarnished and changed color from bright to
matt. Small frizzles and especially dust particles occurred
on the surface.
2.3.4. Nickel coated Busbar Joints
The measured connection resistances of Ni coated Cu
and AlMgSi busbars (Fig. 15 and Fig. 16) are relatively
close to each other. The higher connection resistance of
AlMgSi-Ni Botanical Garden, currentless, DE (Fig. 16)
is caused by two individual busbar joints. Applicable to
the samples in Ismailia, EG, a decrease of the measured
connection resistance can be observed during the first

Fig. 13: Measured connection resistance of bolted Cu-Ni-Sn busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

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48
 Fig. 14: Measured connection resistance of bolted AlMgSi-Ni-Sn busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

1000 h of the formation phase. At this time, material and
temperature-dependent processes create larger contact
areas and therefore lower connection resistances. The
connection resistance of the AlMgSi-Ni busbars in
Ismailia, EG (Fig. 16) was evaluated at approximately
11.000  h only. Afterwards unwanted mechanical
distortion occurred at the test site. Before assembling, the
Ni coated busbars in Belém, BR were additional treated
with an abrasive pad (grid size 1000). The reduction
of the connection resistance during formation phase is
therefore not perceptible for the Ni coated busbars in
Belém, BR (Fig. 16). On the surface of the Ni coated
busbars no clear visible film developed and the surface
remained bright. Typical oxide films on nickel are very
thin and may appear transparent. Appropriate surface
cleaning is essential and could have a strong influence
on the connection resistance. This fact is evident when
comparing the performance factor of Cu-Ni in Ismailia,
EG to that of Belém, BR (Fig. 15 and Fig. 16). In Ismailia,
EG and Dresden, DE, no additional surface cleaning
using an abrasive pad was done prior to the tests. There
the performance factor shows stronger scattering, which
is induced by more or less penetrated films.
2.3.5. Silver coated Aluminum Busbar Joints
The connection resistance of AlMgSi-Ni-Ag busbars
(Fig. 17) did not show significant changes during the
entire testing time. Considering the resistances only, no
significant difference can be observed between three
environments.
Nevertheless, the silver surface condition significantly
changed. Overall the busbar surface appears from bright
to more dark and black with no uniform color. Moreover,
the coating was locally spalling and heavily destroyed

Fig. 15: Measured connection resistance of bolted Cu-Ni busbar joints in different environments depending on time,
ϑmax d 90 °C

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49
 Fig. 16: Measured connection resistance of bolted AlMgSi-Ni busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

(Fig. 18 below). Possibly, leaky coatings enable layer
infiltration. Despite this fact the performance factor
remains stable; the most likely reason for this being that
the coating at the interface area is compressed by the
connection force between the busbars. As a result, the
silver coating in the apparent contact area is somehow
protected against environmental effects and the measured
connection resistance also remains stable. Samples with
current present a stronger environmental attack on the
busbar surface because of the additional influence of
the current induced heating (Fig. 18, Ismailia EG, and
Belém, BR). The higher the temperatures, the stronger
the possible environmental attack.
2.3.6. Bare Copper-Aluminum Busbar Joints
For the material combinations displayed in the figure
above (except for the combination AlMgSi-Cu Belém,
currentless, BR), AlCu sheets (AlCu) were used
between the interfaces of the busbar surfaces (Fig. 19).
The combination AlMgSi-Cu was tested in order to
demonstrate the difference when using no AlCu sheet.
The highest resistance graph was measured for the
samples in Belém, BR. In Ismailia, EG and the Botanical
Garden the connection resistances remain stable.
Previous research stated that AlMgSi-Cu tend to enable
electrochemical reactions between the materials [3],
[4]. Possibly, the graph of AlMgSi-AlCu-Cu in Belém,
BR was not stable due to the same reason as applicable
to AlMgSi-Cu. Maybe the electrochemical reaction
between aluminum and copper can proceed along the
surface of the AlCu sheet after all. A sufficiently humid
atmosphere, as present in Belém, BR, would be required
tough. In the future, the AlMgSi-AlCu-Cu busbar joint
in Belém, BR will exceed the performance factor ku ≥ 1.5
and would convert from a heat sink to a heat source.

Fig. 17: Measured connection resistance of bolted AlMgSi-Ni-Ag busbar joints in different environments depending on
time, ϑmax d 90 °C

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50
 Fig. 18: Environmental attack on the surface of AlMgSi-Ni-Ag busbars

Depending on the environment, the visible surface
alterations are the same as those for aluminum and
copper. Additionally, a greenish and whitely film can be
also seen at the interface area of the AlMgSi-Cu busbar
joint in Belém, BR.
Concluding Remarks
The environmental parameters temperature and relative
humidity were recorded during the field tests whereas
the air composition could not be considered in this
study. However, it might be of interest for future research
to investigate the air composition in field studies in order
to compare it with the specifications of laboratory tests
according to test standards.

The purpose of this research was to assess the long-
term performance of stationary electrical connections
dependent on time, temperature, material and the
environment. It was designed to determine what effect,
if any, the degradation mechanism chemical reactions
has on stationary electrical connections applied in real
operating conditions.
This is one of the first experimental works, investigating
what effects, if any, the degradation mechanism chemical
reactions has on the long-term behavior of stationary
electrical connections (for power engineering) in
tropical and desert environments all dependent
on time (> 20000  h), material and temperature
(current-fed / currentless).
This work has found that in areas with desert and tropical
rainforest conditions, bare busbar joints of the same
material, either made of copper, aluminum or aluminum
alloy, show stable performance factors. On the other hand,
connection resistances evaluated in long-term tests and
more than 20,000 hours testing time remains stable.
In tropical rainforest and desert areas, tin coated busbar
joints based on copper or aluminum alloy (AlMgSi)
present stable connection resistances and performance
ratios in long-term tests conducted over two years.
The investigation of silver coated busbar surfaces has
shown that the environmental attack is strong and
leads to spalling and destroying of the silver coating.

Fig. 19: Measured connection resistance of bolted AlMgSi / AlCu / Cu and AlMgSi / Cu busbar joints in different
environments depending on time, ϑmax d 90 °C

Cigre Science & Engineering

51
The significant presence of sulfur compounds in the
surrounding air might be the reason for the strong
surface alteration. However, the performance factor of
silver coated aluminum busbar joints, exposed to tropical
rainforest conditions, remains stable in long-term tests
lasting over two years. One of the more significant
findings to emerge from this study is that the silver
coating in the contact area is somehow compressed by the
connection force of the busbar joints. The silver coating
in the contact area remained electrical unimpaired and
resulted in a stable connection resistance.
The research has also shown that the performance factor
of nickel coated busbar joints exposed to desert conditions
remains stable in long term tests up to one year. Longer
test durations seem necessary for meaningful results.
In tropic rainforest conditions, busbar joints show a
good performance in tests up to two years’ time. Busbar
joints with nickel coatings are supposed to behave more
sensitive to mechanical distortion than any other tested
material combinations.
During a test window of two years, the performance
factor of copper and aluminum busbars connected via
AlCu sheet was stable in a desert environment and was
rising in a tropical rainforest environment. The chemical
reaction between aluminum and copper proceeds in
very humid environments. Regarding tropical rainforest
environments, the high amount of water in the air could
possibly enable the chemical reaction to proceed along
the surface of the AlCu sheet. More studies seems to
be necessary to understand the failure mode of Al / Cu
connections [26].
Finally, during the experimental phase of the tests, a
low performance factor and no significant change of
the connection resistance was observed. No distinct
difference between the long-term behavior in harsh
natural environments and laboratory tests was observed.
According to prior works, it is expected, that electrical
connections with ku  <  1.5 will not significantly
degrade in the future [6], [7], [13], [21], [26]. A strong
environmental attack was detected on the surface of silver
coated aluminum busbars. However, the performance
factor dependent on time remains stable. All connection
temperatures are below the permitted limits (according
IEC  62271-1:2007+A1:2011). The results of this study
indicate that within the tested environments, the film
development induced by chemical reactions may not be
critical for this kind of power connections.
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52
4. Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Dr.-Ing. Stephan Schlegel
and Dr.-Ing. Nils Lücke for their advice and support
throughout this project and the Botanical Garden of the
Technische Universität Dresden for the cooperation.
The authors are further grateful for the support of the
SIPAM (Amazon Protection System) during the course
of the experiments and for the weather data provided
by REDEMET (Meteorological Network of the Brazilian
Air force Command) as well as all local supporters in
Brazil and Egypt.
5. References
[1] R. Holm and E. Holm, Electric contacts theory and application.
Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967, ISBN: 978-3-662-06688-1.
[2] H. Böhme, Mittelspannungstechnik: Schaltanlagen berechnen und
entwerfen, 2nd ed. Berlin: Huss-Medien, Verl. Technik, 2005, ISBN:
3-341-01495-0.
[3] P. G. Slade, Ed., Electrical contacts: principles and applications,
Second edition. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group,
2014, ISBN: 978-1-4398-8130-9.
[4] M. Braunovic, V. V. Konchit
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contacts fundamentals, applications and technology. Boca Raton:
CRC Press, 2007, ISBN: 978-0-8493-9108-8.
[5] S. Dreier, “The Impact of Films on the Long-Term Behavior of Static
Electrical Connections and Contacts in Electric Power Systems,” phd
thesis in preparation, TU Dresden.
[6] R. Schneider, “Langzeitverhalten geschraubter
Stromschienenverbindungen in der Elektroenergietechnik,”
Dissertation, TU Dresden, Berlin, 2013.
[7] R. Bergmann, Zum Langzeitverhalten des Widerstands elektrischer
Stromschienenverbindungen. Dissertation, TU Dresden, Düsseldorf:
VDI Verlag, 1996, ISBN: 3-18-319521-6.
[8] B. W. Callen, B. Johnson, P. King, R. S. Timsit, and W. H. Abbott,
“Environmental degradation of utility power connectors in a harsh
environment,” IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging
Technologies, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 261–270, Jun. 2000, ISSN: 1521-3331,
doi: 10.1109/6144.846763.
[9] E. Takano, “Thin Tunnel Film in Contact Boundary and the Lifetime
for Closed Contacts Deteriorated by Ingress of Reactants,” in 23rd
International Conference on Electrical Contacts (ICEC 2006),
Sendai, 2006, pp. 51–56.
[10] R. Bergmann, H. Löbl, H. Böhme, and S. Großmann, “Model
to describe the chemical ageing behaviour of electrical busbar
joints,” European Transactions on Electrical Power, vol. 7, no. 5,
pp. 345–350, Sep. 2007, ISSN: 1430144X, 15463109, doi: 10.1002/
etep.4450070508.
[11] R. Bergmann, H. Löbl, H. Bohme, and S. Großmann, “Calculation
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on Electrical Power, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 403–408, Sep. 2007, ISSN:
1430144X, 15463109, doi: 10.1002/etep.4450070606.
[12] S. Schlegel, S. Grossmann, H. Löbl, M. Hoidis, U. Kaltenborn, and
T. Magier, “Joint Resistance of Bolted Copper - Copper Busbar Joints
Depending on Joint Force at Temperatures beyond 105 °C,” presented
at the ICEC, 2010, pp. 1–8, ISBN: 978-1-4244-8174-3, doi: 10.1109/
HOLM.2010.5619459.
[13] S. Schlegel, “Langzeitverhalten von Schraubenverbindungen mit
Stromschienen aus Reinkupfer in der Elektroenergietechnik unter
besonderer Berücksichtigung der Temperatur,” Dissertation, TU
Dresden, Dresden, 2011.
[14] S. Schlegel, S. Grossmann, M. Lakner, and T. Schoenemann,
“Investigations on material structural changes on electrical joints
at high contact temperature,” in 26th International Conference on
Electrical Contacts (ICEC 2012), Beijing, 2012, pp. 7–11, ISBN: 978-
1-84919-508-9, doi: 10.1049/cp.2012.0613.
[15] “DIN EN 60721-1: 1990 + A1: 1992 + A2: 1995, Classification of
environmental conditions- Part 1 : Environmental parameters and
their severities.”
[16] “DIN EN 60068-1: 1994 + Corrigendum 1988 + A1: 1992,
Environmental testing — Part 1: General and guidance.”
[17] S. Dreier, G. Moustafa, S. Großmann, and C. Hildmann,
“Transmission of Renewable Energies under Extreme Conditions,” in
1th International Conference on New Paradigms in Electronics and
Information Technologies (PEIT 2011), Alexandria, 2011.
[18] S. Dreier and S. Grossmann, “Impact of various harsh environmental
conditions on the long term behavior of electrical joints,” in 26th
International Conference on Electrical Contacts (ICEC 2012),
Beijing, 2012, pp. 502–508, doi: 10.1049/cp.2012.0706.
[19] M. Antler, W. Abbott, W. Campbell, S. Garte, M. Mamrick,
A. Snowdon, and M. Trzeciak, “The Effect of Environment on
Electrical Contacts: A Discussion at the 1973 Holm Seminar,” IEEE
Transactions on Parts, Hybrids, and Packaging, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 57–
67, Mar. 1975, ISSN: 0361-1000, doi: 10.1109/TPHP.1975.1135040.
[20] W. H. Abbott, “The development and performance characteristics
of mixed flowing gas test environment,” IEEE Transactions on
Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, vol. 11, no. 1,
pp. 22–35, Mar. 1988, ISSN: 01486411, doi: 10.1109/33.2959.
[21] H. Böhme and H. Löbl, “Zur Theorie des Lanzeitverhaltens von
Aluminium-Schraubverbindungen,” ELEKTRIE, vol. 41, no. 5, pp.
179–183, 1987.
[22] Institute of Electrical Power Systems and High-Voltage Engineering,
TU Dresden, Unpublished work, 2011.
[23] R. Bergmann, H. Löbl, H. Bohme, and S. Grossmann, “Model to
assess the reliability of electrical joints,” 1996, pp. 180–188, ISBN:
978-0-7803-3578-3, doi: 10.1109/HOLM.1996.557195.
[24] S. Pfeifer, S. Grossmann, and S. Schlegel, “Alterung stationärere
elektrischer Verbindungen durch Interdiffusion,” in Elektrische und
optische Verbindungstechnik 2013, Lemgo, 2013, pp. 42–53, ISBN:
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978-3-00-041043-7.
[25] “IEC 62271-1:2007+A1:201, High-voltage switchgear and
controlgear.”
[26] S. Pfeifer, “Einfluss intermetallischer Phasen der Systeme Al-Cu
und Al-Ag auf den Widerstand stromtragender Verbindungen im
Temperaturbereich von 90°C-200°C,” Dissertation, TU Dresden,
Dresden, 2015.
6. Biographies
Sebastian Dreier was born in Riesa in 1984. He studied
engineering and management at the Technische Universität
Dresden (TUD) and finished his studies with a diploma
degree in 2010. Since 2011 he has been working as a
research assistant towards a Dr.-Ing. degree at the Institute
of Electrical Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering
of the TUD. His research focuses on the impact films may
have on the long-term behavior of stationary electrical
contacts and connections applied in power engineering.
The results of his work have been internationally published.
He is a member of IEEE, VDE and CIGRE.
Steffen Großmann (1954) studied electrical engineering
at the Technische Universität Dresden (TUD) and finished
his studies with a diploma degree in 1976. He received a
Dr.- Ing. degree for his research work in the field of electrical
contacts and connections in 1988. For 28 years he worked
for the industry companies Starkstrom-Anlagenbau
Dresden and RIBE Electrical fittings Schwabach-Radebeul.
Since 2003 he has been appointed as professor for the Chair
for High Voltage and High Current Engineering of the
TUD. Currently he is the Dean of the Faculty of Electrical
and Computer Engineering of the TUD. Prof. Großmann is
a member of VDE and CIGRE.
Ghareeb Moustafa received his B.S. and a MSc degree
in electrical power engineering from the Faculty of
Engineering of the Suez Canal University (SCU), Ismailia
- Egypt. From 2007 to 2009 he worked as a researcher and
Ph.D. student at the Institute of Electrical Power Systems
and High Voltage Engineering at the Technische Universität
Dresden (TUD). His research was in the field of power
connector. He received his Ph.D. degree in electric power
connector from SCU as a joint research project between
TUD-Germany and SCU-Egypt.
Diego Guimarães dos Santos was born in Belém in 1989. He
obtained a technical education in Industrial Electrotechnic
from the Federal Institute of Education, Science and
 Technology of Pará (2010). He graduated in physics from
the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology
of Pará (2011) and received a Master’s degree in electrical
engineering (2014) from the Federal University of Pará. He
is currently pursuing his pre-doctoral studies in electrical
engineering at the Federal University of Pará in the field of
electric power systems.
Brígida Ramati Pereira da Rocha was born in Brazil in
1953. She studied electrical engineering at the Federal
University of Pará (UFPA) and completed a Master (1979)
and a PhD  (1995) in geophysics in the field of electrical
properties of rocks and electromagnetic modeling of
complex media. She was assigned a post doc position at
the High Voltage Laboratory of UNICAMP University, SP
(1986). In this research she considers the effects of lightning
in power systems. She works at the Federal University of
Pará as a professor for developing research activities in the
fields of atmospheric discharges (lightning), high voltage,
digital processing of signals, electromagnetic compatibility,
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renewable energy, biomass and energetic planning.
Professor Rocha is currently coordinating research activities
in the field of atmospheric discharges (lightning) in the
Amazon Protection System (CENSIPAM).
Valquiria Gusmão Macedo was born in Brazil in 1953.
She graduated in electrical engineering (1977) and physics
(1977) from the Federal University of Pará, and completed a
Master’s degree in electronic and computational engineering
from the Technology Institute of Aeronautics (1985). She
received a doctoral degree in electrical engineering from
the Federal University of Pará (2002). Professor Macedo is
currently working as a Professor at the Federal University
of Pará, developing research activities in the fields of
telecommunication, digital processing of signals, speech
processing, computational processing of portuguese
language, ultrasonic transducers, and processing of
biological signals and medical images. Professor Macedo
also coordinates the course of biomedical engineering at
Federal University of Pará (UFPA).
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