Brief Review

High-Intensity Interval Training Shock Microcycle

for Enhancing Sport Performance: A Brief Review
Filippo Dolci,1 Andrew E. Kilding,2 Paola Chivers,3,4 Ben Piggott,1 and Nicolas H. Hart1,4,5
1
School of Health Science, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia; 2Sports Performance Research Institute New
Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand; 3Institute for Health Research, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle,
Australia; 4Exercise Medicine Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia; and 5School of Medical and Health Science,
Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
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Abstract
Dolci, F, Kilding, AE, Chivers, P, Piggott, B, and Hart, NH. High-intensity interval training shock microcycle for enhancing sport
performance: A brief review. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 1188–1196, 2020—High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a powerful strategy
to develop athletes’ fitness and enhance endurance performance. Traditional HIIT interventions involve multiple microcycles (7–10
days long) of 2–3 HIIT sessions each, which have been commonly supported to improve athletic performance after a minimum period
of 6 weeks training. Regardless of the efficacy of such an approach, in recent years, a higher frequency of HIIT sessions within a unique
microcycle, commonly referred to as an HIIT shock microcycle, has been proposed as an alternative HIIT periodization strategy to
induce greater and more efficient endurance adaptation in athletes. This review article provides an insight into this new HIIT period-
ization strategy by discussing (1) HIIT shock microcycle format and design; (2) the sustainability of this training strategy; (3) effects on
performance and physiological parameters of endurance; and (4) potential mechanisms for improvements. Evidence advocates the
sustainability and effectiveness of HIIT shock microcycle in different athletes to improve intermittent and continuous running/cycling
performance and suggests mitochondria biogenesis as the main acute physiological adaptation following this intervention.
Key Words: block periodization, endurance performance, endurance training, physiological adaptation

Introduction previous recommendations have suggested avoiding the prescription

of other high-intensity activities within 48 hours of HIIT sessions to
High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a popular and time-
allow athletes adequate recovery between HIIT sessions (44).
efficient training strategy to induce cardiorespiratory and metabolic
Adopting these prescription guidelines, significant improvements in
adaptations which can lead to improved fitness and endurance
athletes’ endurance parameters (i.e., 2.7 6 4.6% increase in maximal
performance in athletes (11,12). HIIT protocols typically last no
oxygen uptake) have been commonly reported after a minimum
more than 30 minutes in total and involve the performance of
period of 6-week training (48).
multiple periods of activities at near maximal or maximal intensities
In recent years, there has been interest in distributing a higher
interspersed by periods of passive rest or low-intensity exercise
number of HIIT sessions within a shorter period. Such an approach
(11,12). Depending on the format, HIIT protocols can be divided
has been referred as an HIIT shock microcycle (HIITSM) (46,47),
into various subcategories (12). Specifically, subcategories of HIIT
and it has been designed to induce faster development of endurance
include (a) multiple sets of continuous periods of work ($2–3
performance capability (40). Although there is an attractive ratio-
minutes) at $ 90% of the intensity associated with the minimal
nale behind the application of an HIITSM (faster improvements in
velocity eliciting the maximal oxygen uptake (vV̇ O2max) (HIIT with
endurance than those possible throughout a traditional approach),
long intervals or also known as small-sided games when work spe-
to date, an analysis of its sustainability, physiological, and per-
cifically include game activities); (b) multiple sets of intermittent
formance outcomes across different HIITSM designs and athletes’
periods of work where short exercising intervals ($15 seconds) at
categories has not been undertaken yet, leaving the application and
100–120 %vVO2max are interspersed with recovery periods of
optimization of such training intervention more complex for
equal of lower duration (HIIT with short intervals); (c) multiple sets
fitness/strength and conditioning coaches. Hence, the purpose of
of near to or all-out short efforts (.4 seconds) interspersed by re-
this article is to review original studies and provide a summary
covery period longer than 20 seconds (repeated sprint training); and
characterization of the HIITSM approach to develop athletic en-
(d) multiple sets of slightly longer near to all-out effort (.20 seconds)
durance capacity by analyzing its sustainability, changes in per-
interspersed with recovery periods of equal or longer than 2 minutes
formance test, endurance parameters and potential mechanisms for
(sprint interval training) (12).
physiological adaptations in athletes.
Each HIIT format can induce high levels of physical stress (11,12),
with protocols including higher duration or intensity generally
leading to higher glycogen depletion, metabolite accumulation in the Methods
muscle, and neuromuscular strain (11,12). As a consequence,
Original research, peer-reviewed articles reporting physiological,
Address correspondence to Filippo Dolci, Filippo.dolci1@my.nd.edu.au. perceptual, and performance adaptations or changes after an
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 34(4)/1188–1196 HIITSM were collated after an extensive search of the English lan-
ª 2020 National Strength and Conditioning Association guage literature using scholarly search engines (PubMed, Scopus,

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 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4
and Google Scholar). The search terms used were shock micro-
cycle, HIIT shock microcycle, block periodization, HIIT block, and
HIIT training. No specific subject characteristics and durations or
designs of HIITSM were used to determine inclusion or exclusion
criteria. In general for inclusion, all studies were ascertained as
having prescribed HIIT protocols by measuring intensity based on
percentage of (a) maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ O2max); (b) measured
heart rate; and (c) maximal aerobic speed or surrogate speeds
obtained by specific field test (i.e., 30–15 intermittent fitness test) to
ensure for accurate HIIT intensity training prescriptions. Supple-
mentary studies were subsequently located by using the afore-
mentioned search engines to help to contextualize, support, and
discuss HIITSM analysis.
This is a brief review and as such does not need to obtain ethics
approval. We confirm, that the PhD program of study which this
paper forms part was approved by the School of Health Sciences,
and ratified by the university’s Research Office.
Results
Definition of an HIITSM
Training periodization is a planned manipulation of different
training stimuli with the aim of optimizing training adaptation and
performance (29). The specific training periodization strategy
where training plan is divided into multiple blocks, each one pro-
viding a concentrated training and specific stimulus for developing
just one or few specific aspects of performance, is better known as
block periodization (8,27). An HIITSM is one of these short training
blocks where a congested distribution of HIIT sessions is imple-
mented to provide high stimuli for endurance adaptation
(27,40,46). More specifically, HIIT shock microcycles reported in
the literature have consisted of periods shorter than 28 days and
have usually included a day to HIIT ratio equal or lower than 3:2
(i.e., #2 HIIT session every 3 days) (10,32,40,41,46,47,50) with
studies implementing up to 11 HIIT sessions over 6 days (24). Such
congested periods of HIIT have often been followed by 5–7 days of
recovery where HIIT sessions are not performed (32,46,47) or
significantly reduced to 1 or 2 sessions per week (4,40) to dissipate
the fatigue induced by the density of HIIT sessions within a short
timeframe. High-intensity interval training sessions occurring
during an HIITSM are not different in mode or duration from those
applied during other longer traditional HIIT periodization models
(11) and can occur up to twice a day (10,46,47). An example of
HIIT session distributions over an HIITSM is reported in Table 1.
Sustainability of an HIITSM in Athletes
When implementing an HIITSM into a training program, training
load increases significantly, and it is therefore worthwhile to ini-
tially consider whether the training required is sustainable for the
athletes without inducing a harmful level of stress. Specifically, an
abrupt increase in training load can lead the athlete in a stress
phase, called overreaching and requiring a few days (functional
Table 1
Example of HIIT session distribution over a 13-day HIIT shock microcycle for team sports, adapted from Wahl et al. (46).*
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6
AM HIIT HIIT HIIT Off HIIT HIIT
PM Off Off Off Off HIIT Off
*HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training.
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| www.nsca.com
overreaching) or several days (nonfunctional overreaching) of rest
before fatigue can dissipate and training adaptation occurs (22,33)
Furthermore, an overreaching syndrome persisting over time along
with external life stressors can also develop into the overtraining
syndrome, where the cumulative physical and psychological stress
seriously harm athlete’s performance and health which can take up
to several months to restore (22,33).
Levels of physical stress during an HIITSM have been regularly
reported in most of the studies by using different wellness and ques-
tionnaire scales. For instance, 15 HIIT sessions over 14 days nega-
tively affected the perception in readiness to train physical flexibility
and energy as assessed over perceived wellness scales in junior tri-
athletes after (47). Similar HIIT to day ratio (9 HIIT sessions over
a week) induced significantly higher rate of perceived exertion during
training and significantly lower perception of recovery also in junior
cross-country skiers (28); 7 HIIT sessions over 4 days negatively af-
fected the “Short Recovery and Stress Scale” with international junior
tennis players (49); 11 sessions over 6 days induced large detrimental
change in the “Acute Recovery and Stress Scale” and its abridged
version the “Short Recovery and Stress Scale” with a group of well-
trained intermittent-sport athletes (24). Further signs of acute effect of
fatigue during an HIITSM have been also supported by a significant
increase in delayed onset of muscle soreness; a significant increase in
creatine kinase (marker of inflammation) levels compared with the
values before the intervention (39,49); a decrease in repeated sprints
(24), and in countermovement jump (10,49).
Although all these findings support a decrease in wellness, re-
covery, and performance scores (as sign of high acute fatigue) during
the HIITSM period, there is also evidence of a rapid restoration in
these psychophysical and performance measures after such a training
block (32,50). None of the reviewed studies reported the exclusion of
subjects from the postintervention test because of overstress-related
causes. Hence, although acute fatigue effect during an HIITSM is
expected, and functional overreaching symptoms observed (45), they
do not appear to be a limiting factor for its application as they can
dissipate after few days of recovery. Nonetheless, coaches and sport
scientists should be encouraged to monitor athletes closely to allow
proper recovery when fatigue levels exceed the safe threshold as
established by the monitoring devices/scales applied. This can be
further optimized by educating athletes and implementing specific
strategies regarding appropriate recovery processes.
Physiological Adaptations to an HIITSM
There are 3 main physiological parameters affecting endurance
performance: (a) maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ O2max), (b) lactate
threshold, and (c) movement economy. V̇ O2max indicates the
maximal amount of energy an athlete can obtain through the
oxidative process per unit of time during exhaustive activities (9).
The lactate threshold (LTan) represents the highest intensity sus-
tainable before a nonlinear (sudden) increase in lactate pro-
duction, which indicates an imbalance between lactate
production and clearance (17). Movement economy represents
the oxygen cost required to perform a specific activity
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14–19
Off HIIT HIIT HIIT Off HIIT HIIT REST
Off Off Off Off Off HIIT Off Off
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(i.e., running, cycling, and skiing) at submaximal intensities and
provides information about an athlete’s aerobic efficiency to
perform such given task (6).
Among these physiological parameters of endurance perfor-
mance, V̇ O2max has been the most frequently assessed after an
HIITSM (4,10,23,34,40,41,43). Studies reporting this parameter
have been mainly undertaken on endurance athletes (such as
cross-country/alpine skiers and cyclists) (4,10,32,40,41) and have
reported a significant improvement in V̇ O2max when compared
with baseline (39) or when compared with both baseline and
control group performing regular training (therefore less overall
HIIT sessions) (10,34). However, greater improvements in
V̇ O2max have been also reported when concentrating the same
number of HIIT sessions within a shock microcycle, rather than
a typical HIIT periodization sequence over multiple weeks (hence
the same HIIT sessions differently distributed) (4,40,41,43).
Although most of the studies support V̇ O2max improvements
after an HIITSM, only 1 study reported no changes after a shock vs.
traditional HIIT periodization in junior cross-country skiers (32).
However, this particular study was delivered in-season; hence, it
could be argued that at this stage, subjects had already reached
a ceiling in adaptations (32). Furthermore, this study involved
a higher concentration of HIIT sessions (9 HIIT sessions in 1 week)
than most of the other effective studies (4,34,40,41,43), and subjects
may have required a longer recovery period to dissipate fatigue and
accomplish adaptations. In support of this notion, it has been
reported that recovery periods are crucial to observe adaptation after
an HIITSM with a study examining V̇ O2max changes over different
time points after an HIITSM revealing that peak improvements in
a trained, nonathletic population can be expected after 12 days (23).
In addition, the optimization of recovery length after HIITSM should
also be evaluated over different athletic populations and in re-
lationship to the number of days and sessions included over the
training intervention period. Table 2 summarizes the controlled
studies presented in the literature reporting V̇ O2max changes as
a result of HIITSM inserted into training programs.
In addition to variation in V̇ O2max, changes in other physio-
logical parameters have been suggested after an HIITSM. In par-
ticular, a consistent body of the literature has reported an increase
in power output when working at fixed intensities such as those
corresponding to the second ventilatory threshold (10,47), blood
concentration equal to 2 (40) and 4 mM·L21 (41). These changes
can be both indicative of an increase in lactate threshold and
movement economy (6,20). Nonetheless, lactate threshold is
likely to have been the main adaptation and contributor to
changes in power output at fixed working intensities. With the
exception of Christensen et al. (13), who found movement
economy improved after an HIITSM in soccer players, no other
studies have observed improvements in movement economy
within an intense HIIT period when directly assessing cross-
country skiers or cyclist (40,41). These findings, along with evi-
dence that a high volume of training is the main stimulus for
improving movement economy (7), might suggest that only spe-
cific athletic groups who are not commonly exposed to high
volume of continuous activity, such as team sport athletes, might
obtain further movement economy improvements after an
HIITSM.
Together, the majority of these findings support the theory that
a short and intense period of HIIT is likely to induce significant
physiological adaptations in parameters of endurance perfor-
mance, such as V̇ O2max and lactate threshold, which are other-
wise not occurring with regular training or different HIIT
periodization strategies over such a short period. Nonetheless, the
limited number of studies warrants further research to strengthen
these conclusions and investigate the effect of HIITSM on move-
ment economy as this is still unclear.

Table 2
Effect of HIITSM on V̇ O2max in parallel controlled studies.*
Post-test VȮ 2max pre, VȮ 2max post, % of mean
Study Subjects Group, y Training description timing ml·min·kg21 ml·min·kg21 changes
Bakken (4) Trained cross-country IG 5 10 (23 6 9) 5-1-3-1-1 HIIT sessions Immediately 64.9 6 6.4 / ↑2.6
skiers over 5 weeks, respectively after 5 weeks
CG 5 9 (22 6 5) 2-2-3-2-2 HIIT sessions 63.7 6 7.9 / ↑0.8
over 5 weeks, respectively
Rønnestad and Trained male cyclists IG 5 10 (30 6 7) 5-1-1-1 HIIT sessions Immediately ;62.0 ;65.0† ↑4.83
Hansen (40) over 4 weeks after 4 weeks
CG 5 9 (32 6 6) 2-2-2-2 HIIT sessions ;62.5 ;63.0 ↑0.80
interspersed with LIT
Breil et al. (10) Trained elite junior alpine IG 5 13 (17.4 6 1.1) 15 HIIT sessions over 11 7 days after 53.0 6 4.6 56.2 6 5.1† ↑6.03
skiers days
CG 5 8 (16.6 6 1.1) Regular endurance and 52.9 6 6.3 54.4 6 7.0 ↑2.83
strength training
Menz et al. (34) Well-trained athletes IG 5 19 (27 6 3) 11 HIIT sessions over 3 5 6 2 days 63.6 6 7.5 65.8 6 7.1† ↑3.46
weeks after
CG 5 16 (24 6 2) Regular training 63.7 6 8.2 64.7 6 7.1 ↑1.57
Hatle et al. (23) Healthy active subjects IG 5 11 (23.7 6 2.1) 24 HIIT sessions over 3 9 days after 52.2 6 7.0 55.4 6 9.8† ↑6.13
weeks
CG 5 10 (23.1 6 2.3) 24 HIIT sessions over 8 51.5 6 5.5 55.6 6 5.0† ↑7.96
weeks
Thyli (43) Elite cross-country skiers IG 5 10 (30 6 7) 5-1-3-1-1 HIIT sessions 3 days after 64.5 66.5† ↑3.10
and biathletes over 5 weeks, respectively
Rønnestad et al. (41) CG 5 9 (32 6 6) 2-2-3-2-2 HIIT sessions 63.5 64.0 ↑0.79
over 5 weeks, respectively
*HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; VȮ 2max 5 maximal oxygen uptake; IG 5 intervention group; CG 5 control group; ; 5 values exported from graph; ↑ 5 increase.
†Significant changes from preintervention (p . 0.05).

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 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4 | www.nsca.com

Table 3
Effect of an HIITSM on intermittent endurance performance.*
Post-
test Test (score Preintervention Postintervention % of mean
Study Subjects Group, y Training description timing measure) scores scores changes
Christensen et al. (13) Semiprofessional IG 5 7 (23.4 10 HIIT sessions over 2 wk At least YYIR1 937 6 56 m 994 6 72 m ↑0.75
male soccer players 6 3.5) 36 h after (distance)
RSA 33.44 6 1.17 s 32.81 6 1.01 s† ↓1.88
(tot time)
CG 5 11 No training YYIR1 845 6 160 m 654 6 99 m† ↓22.60
(23.4 6 3.5) (distance)
RSA 33.41 6 0.96 s 34.11 6 0.92 s† ↑2.09
(tot time)
Gatterer et al. (19) Amateurs male CG 5 7 8 maximal HIIT sessions 4 d after YYIR1 1,029 6 273 m 1,303 6 211 m VLB ↑26.63
soccer players (23.9 6 2.1) within 12 d in normoxia (distance)
RSA (mean 7.60 6 0.19 s 7.63 6 0.18 s PT ↑0.39
time)
RSA (% 5.8 6 1.9 s 4.2 6 0.9 s U ↓27.60
decrement)
IG 5 7 (23.9 8 maximal HIIT sessions YYIR1 1,109 6 209 m 1,440 6 412 m VLB ↑29.85
6 2.1) within 12 d in hypoxia (distance)
(3,300 m)
RSA (mean 7.66 6 0.32 s 7.59 6 0.30 s PB ↓0.91
time)
RSA (% 5.2 6 2.6 s 4.2 6 1.7 s U ↓19.23
decrement)
Fernandez-Fernandez Professional male IG 5 12 13 HIIT sessions over 17 d 5 d after 30-15 IFT 19.3 6 7.0 20.6 6 6.0† ↑6.74
et al. (18) tennis players (21.9 6 2.0) (final level)
Wahl et al. (46) Amateur male IG 5 12 12 HIIT sessions over 13 d 6 d after YYIR1 ;410 6 40 m ;503 6 47 m† ↑22.7
soccer players (26.1 6 4.5) (distance)
RSA (mean ;6.61 6 0.13 s ;6.46 6 0.15 s† ↓2.27
time)
RSA (% ;4.95 6 1.5 s 2.5 6 0.9 s† ↓49.5
decrement)
Paul et al. (38) Young professional CG 5 7 4 HIIT and SSG sessions 18 Within 7 30-15 IFT 17.9 6 1.3 18.2 6 1.6 ↑1.68
soccer players (16.3 6 strength session over 4 wk d after (final level)
0.75)
IG 5 12 16 HIIT and 4 SSG sessions 30-15 IFT 17.0 6 1.1 18.4 6 0.8† ↑8.24
(16.3 6 over 4 wk (final level)
0.75)
*HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; IG 5 intervention group; CG 5 control group; ; 5 values exported from graph; ↑ 5 increase; ↓ 5 decrease; VLB 5 very likely beneficial effect; U 5 unclear effect; PT
5 possibly trivial effect; PB 5 possibly beneficial effect; 30–15 IFT 5 30–15 intermittent fitness test; RSA 5 repeated sprint ability test; YYIR 5 YO-YO Intermittent Recovery Test.
†Significant changes from preintervention (p . 0.05).

Effect of HIITSM on Intermittent Endurance Performance previously, a longer period of recovery may be necessary to ac-
commodate adaptation and improve test scores after such an intense
The transfer of physiological adaptation on performance is usually
period of training (10 HIIT sessions over 14 days).
measured through performance tests, where athletes’ score is mea-
Improvements in intermittent endurance performance observed
sured by the ability to complete a competition-related tasks within
in most of the other studies have been shown to occur by per-
the shortest period or until exhaustion. When assessing changes in
forming $5 HIIT sessions per week over periods ranging from 10
performance, there are 5 studies specifically assessing intermittent
to 28 days (13,18,19,46) and also when HIIT activity involved
running tests, which are more specific for team sport athletes
small-sided game format (38). However, it is worth noting that
(Table 3). All studies assessing the effect of HIITSM on the in-
only 1 study included a control group performing regular training
termittent running performance test (i.e., repeated sprint ability
and HIIT (38); so, although the literature supports fast improve-
[RSA], YO-YO Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2 (YYIR2), and
ments in intermittent endurance performance after an HIITSM
30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test) (18,19,38,46) have reported sig-
compared with baseline, further research is required to verify the
nificant test improvements, with only 1 exception (13), who found
superiority of such a training strategy approach vs. traditional HIIT
such an HIIT cycle effective for improving RSA but no YYIR2
periodization on intermittent running performance tests.
performance. A possible reason why this study did not find a signif-
icant improvement in YYIR2 is that it implemented the HIITSM
immediately after the in-season period, with players already exhib-
Effect of HIITSM on Continuous Endurance Performance
iting high YYIR2 scores compared with those in the literature (5),
suggesting that these players may have reached their peak perfor- Similarly to the effect of HIITSM on intermittent running perfor-
mance already. In addition, this study (13) used methodology that mance, most of the studies evaluating the effect of HIITSM on con-
included a postintervention test after 36 hours, and as discussed tinuous endurance performance (running, cycling, and cross-country

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 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4
Figure 1. General guidelines for HIIT protocol design. HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training.
skiing) have reported improvements (4,14,32,40,43,47). For exam-
ple, during cycling time trials (TTs) with trained cyclists, Costa et al.
(14) observed a significant increase in power output at the beginning
and during the final part of a 20-km event. Similarly, Wahl et al. (47)
reported up to 12% improvement in a 20-minute TT on a cycle
ergometer with junior triathletes. However, there are also a few other
studies that did not report any change over a 600-minute TT (32) or
a 20-minute all-out test in elite cross-country skiers (43). Lack of
improvements in these latter studies could be attributed to 2 differ-
ences in design. First, the period when the HIITSM was undertaken
(i.e., end of the cross-country ski season and early during the com-
petitive season, respectively) (32,43) could have influenced subject
adaptations to training. As previously discussed, during competitive
periods, athletes might have already reached a high level of fitness
and to stimulate further improvements is more challenging. Sec-
ondly, the greater number of sessions during such HIITSM but
a similar postintervention recovery period compared with other ef-
fective studies (10,40,41,46) may have hindered full recovery/
adaptations of athletes in these studies after training intervention.
In regards to time to exhaustion tests, Bakken (4) found 6%
improvement only when a group of cross-country skiing athletes
performed an HIITSM. By contrast, Breil et al. (10) did not find
any significant change when assessing time limit on a cycle er-
gometer in alpine skiing athletes. However, it should be ac-
knowledged that time to exhaustion tests have a higher coefficient
of variation in contrast to time trials (25–5%, respectively) (15)
and might not be the best and most reliable test to reflect actual
performance changes. Since continuous endurance races can have
different forms and duration (i.e., cycling vs. running; marathon
vs. half marathon), future studies are encouraged to expand
current knowledge and further support the benefits of HIITSM
over different continuous type of races.
Potential Mechanisms for Physiological and Performance
Improvements After an HIITSM
An increase in V̇ O2max has been regularly reported in the litera-
ture after an HIITSM (Table 2). Changes in V̇ O2max after tradi-
tional endurance training are generally attributed to changes in
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central components (maximum stroke volume) rather than pe-
ripheral changes (arteriovenous O2 difference) (9,35). However,
the few studies analyzing stroke volume and cardiac output after
an HIITSM have not reported any change associated with V̇ O2max
(4,34). Another determinant of aerobic capacity, which highly
correlates to V̇ O2max, is total hemoglobin mass (tHb mass) (42).
Interestingly, this factor does not appear to be the main de-
terminant responsible for increase in V̇ O2max after an intense
HIIT cycle since studies reported no change in tHb mass after an
HIITSM regardless of improvements in V̇ O2max (4,34). Hence, it
can be assumed that other peripheral adaptations might play
a more relevant role for improving V̇ O2max after an HIITSM.
Among the other peripheral mechanisms affecting V̇ O2max are
capillary density and mitochondrial content (30). An increase in
capillary density might require months to occur in response to
training (1,26) and is therefore less likely to justify improvements
after a such short training interventions. Nonetheless, there is
evidence that an increase in mitochondrial content can occur
quickly when increasing the duration and frequency (volume) of
HIIT (21). Therefore, it could be plausible to consider that this
mechanism may be the main physiological change leading to
improvements in maximal aerobic capacity observed after an
HIITSM, although no HIITSM study has reported muscle tissue
analysis to ascertain this aspect of oxidative mechanisms. Fur-
thermore, an increase in mitochondria content may also be re-
sponsible for improvements in other relevant parameters of
endurance such as lactate threshold. Specifically, increased mi-
tochondrial enzyme content is associated with an increase in the
rate of lipid utilization and in turn a decrease in rate of glycogen
depletion (16,25) which might explain the higher power output at
the same working intensity after an HIITSM observed in a few
studies (10,40,41,47). However, the higher power output ob-
served at the same working intensity could also be attributed to
improvement in motor unit recruitment. It has been recently
reported that the performance of HIIT over a brief period can
induce an increase in discharge rate of high-threshold motor units
(31) therefore improving the efficiency of movement.
Nonetheless, although all the aforementioned potential
mechanisms for improvements are related to the HIIT training
stimulus itself, another separate mechanism for improvements
 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4 | www.nsca.com

Table 4
Sample example of HIITSM for professional team sport athletes.*
HIIT Set number 3 interval In-set running/resting Working interval Resting interval Between sets HIIT interval
sessions duration, min interval duration, s/s intensity† intensity recovery, min Recovery type mode
HIIT
protocols
A 433 Continuous $90% HRmax Passive 3 Active: low-intensity Small-sided
jogging games . 3v3
B 238 15/15 110% vVȮ 2max Passive In-line
C 333 ;7/25 All-out Passive 10 Active: low-intensity 1,180˚ COD
tactical games
D 434 Continuous $90% vVȮ 2max Passive 3 Active: low-intensity In-line
jogging
F 237 20/20 120% vVȮ 2max Passive 3 Passive In-line
Time Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10 Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14–20
HIIT session distribution
AM A C Off D E F Off A C† Off D E F HIIT recovery
PM B* Off Off Off Off Off Off B Off Off Off Off Off
*HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; HR 5 heart rate.
†Intensity can be predicted/monitored with different modes according to the easiest way to control for the HIIT protocol mode (i.e., %HRmax, %vVȮ 2max, % max speed achieved during the incremental field
test). Warm-up always precedes HIIT sessions and supplementary low intensity/recovery technical, and tactical activities can then be implemented for up to approximately 60 minutes, according to athletes’
tolerance; these should limit repeated explosive activities to reduce risk of injuries with fatigued players. Small-sided games are expected to be more aerobic and are planned early in a day involving HIIT session
morning and afternoon (A); session expected to requiring an higher anaerobic glycolytic energy contributions and induce higher muscle soreness has been scheduled before the day off (C); long interval
continuous running which is expected to be perceived as hardest and more cardiorespiratory demanding has been planned after a day off and when only 1 daily HIIT session is scheduled (D).

observed after an HIITSM may be attributed to the tapering
period allowed before postintervention tests. In fact, although
regular training can chronically lower glycogen content, the
period of recovery generally allowed after the HIITSM (4–7
days) may lead to taper-mediated muscle glycogen re-
plenishment (36) and justify both improvement in time trial
test and V̇ O2max (2). Moreover, such a tapering period might
also contribute to improved fast-twitch fiber function (36) and
in turn increases in power production at the same effort in-
tensity (as observed after the HIITSM).
In conclusion, mitochondria adaptation and improved mo-
tor unit recruitment are plausible mechanisms for physiologi-
cal adaptation and in turn performance improvements
observed after an HIITSM. However, the design of the HIITSM,
usually allowing longer tapering periods compared with con-
trol groups (when having one), does not make it possible to
exclude that improvements observed after such training in-
tervention are also caused by pretest tapering effect. Research
investigating changes in performance in groups having similar
tapering periods regardless of the HIIT periodization approach
is recommended.
Advantages of HIITSM in Training Plans
Although the mechanism for HIITSM-induced improvements
still needs to be ascertained, the current review suggests
HIITSM is an equal or even superior training approach to de-
velop athletes’ endurance performance. In addition to its ef-
fectiveness, there are also a number of practical advantages
which make HIITSM a more appealing HIIT periodization for
specific group of athletes than more traditional methods. First,
by developing fitness levels quickly, an HIITSM delivered early
in the preseason could allow athletes with a short preparation
period (i.e., team sport players) to sustain larger part this phase
at an optimal fitness. This would be beneficial as athletes with
higher levels of fitness can recover faster after sessions and
hence can sustain a greater workload during the crucial pre-
season phase and have more time to train for technical and
tactical aspects of the game as getting closer to the competition
period. Second, the short duration of an HIITSM intervention
enables the development of endurance separately from
strength and power, hence avoiding the so-called interference
effect when these different forms of training are undertaken
concurrently (3). Specifically, the parallel development of
strength and endurance (required in most sports) has been
often argued to lead to a biological interference effect which
reduces the magnitude of physiological adaptations which
would be expected by training these physical components
separately (3,37).
HIIT Protocol Design During an HIITSM
In the reviewed literature, HIIT protocols applied during an
HIITSM have varied from HIIT with long intervals (such as for
instance 5 sets of 6 minutes running at intensities corresponding
to ;90% vV̇ O2max with 2.5/3 minutes of recovery) (41) to sprint
interval training (for instance 10 sets of 3 repeated maximal-effort
sprints of 15, 30, and 45 seconds, with an effort to recovery
duration ratio of 1:5) (14). In addition, within the same training
period, studies have commonly alternated HIIT formats belong-
ing to different subcategories (i.e., HIIT with short intervals and
repeated sprints) (13,46) or included HIIT protocols requiring
different mode of work, such as running, cycling, swimming, or
game-play, according to the athletes specific sport (47,50).
When designing specific HIIT protocols, there are several variables
that can be manipulated including the intensity and duration of both
working and recovery periods, the intervals and recovery working
mode, and set number of intervals and recovery periods (12). There
are no specific studies reporting strategies to maximize HIIT protocol
design and selection for an HIITSM, with the exception of one, who
reported benefits of implementing HIIT protocols with passive re-
covery rather than with active recovery (47). This is possibly because
the passive recovery can slow down lactate clearance; lactate can play
a key role as a signaling molecule to stimulate physiological adapta-
tions such as mitochondrial biogenesis (47), which has been pre-
viously discussed as the potential main physiological adaptation

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 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4

Table 5
Sample example of HIITSM for professional triathletes.*
HIIT
HIIT Set number 3 interval (min) In-set running/resting Working interval Resting interval Between-set interval
sessions or distance, m interval duration, s/s intensity† intensity recovery, min Recovery type mode
HIIT
protocols
A 5 3 6 min Continuous $90% HRmax Passive 3 Active: low-intensity In-line
jogging running
B 4 3 4 min Continuous $90% HRmax Passive 2 Passive Cycling
C 635 Continuous $90% HRmax Passive 10 Active: low-intensity In-line
tactical games running
D 6 3 200m Continuous 90% best time Passive 3 Passive Swimming
speed
Time Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10–15
HIIT session distribution
AM A C Off A B D Off A D HIIT recovery
PM B D Off Off C Off Off B C
*HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; HR 5 heart rate.
†Intensity can be predicted/monitored with different modes according to the easiest way to control for the HIIT mode (i.e., %HRmax, %best time speed). Warm-up is preceding the HIIT session, and
supplementary low/recovery activity for approximately 60–75 minutes could be implemented according to athletes’ feelings. HIIT with same interval mode has been always planned on different days to better
distribute over time-specific mode stress. Endurance athletes are expected to be able to sustain larger training load than team sport athletes (Table 4), and for this reason, HIIT sessions have been more
concentrated over a shorter period. Please also note volume of single HIIT sessions is generally higher for endurance athletes than for team sport athletes (compare protocols with Table 4).

occurring after an HIITSM. In the absence of further knowledge, tra-
ditional guidelines (11,12) have been commonly applied in studies
involving HIITSM (4,10,13,18,19,23,34,40,41,43,46) and should be
considered to maximize HIIT effect. To improve aerobic capacity,
these mainly suggest to apply HIIT protocols that allow athletes to
increase exercising time at V̇ O2max (T at V̇ O2max) (11). Usually, 7-
minute T at V̇ O2max is a target time for team sport athletes during
HIIT training session, whereas long-distance endurance athletes might
aim to spend more than 10 minutes at T at V̇ O2max (11). Basic
guidelines for structuring different formats of HIIT sessions have been
provided in Figure 1.
In addition to ensure adequate metabolic and cardiopulmo-
nary stimuli, when planning HIIT protocols over an HIITSM, it is
important to consider secondary HIIT-related training stimuli
which might affect the neuromuscular/neuromechanical system
and increase risk of overstress and injuries during such a period of
limited recovery. For instance, protocols involving all-out train-
ing intensity might impose a higher muscular stress and increase
risk of injuries such as ankle and knee sprains. Furthermore, HIIT
protocols involving running activities mode rather than cycling or
swimming might be more traumatic for joints, in particular over
harder surfaces or when involving also downhill running. Finally,
HIIT with long continuous working intervals might expose ath-
letes to higher overuse stress and higher risk of tendon injury than
with short intervals (12). Tables 4 and 5 provide practical
examples for HIIT protocols design and planning over a HIITSM.
For a deeper insight into the various stimuli induced by different
HIIT formats, the review articles from Buchheit and Laursen
(11,12) provide a good summary. Future research should address
how to optimize different HIIT protocols, specifically for an
HIITSM, to increase the load of HIIT sustainable by an athlete
while providing the highest and most efficient adaptationstimuli.
HIITSM represents an appealing strategy for athletes who
need to develop endurance quickly and possibly separately
from other different physical qualities such a strength. Most
studies presented in the literature report sustainability and
effectiveness of such an approach, in particular in developing
physiological parameters such as V̇ O2max and lactate
threshold and improving intermittent and time trial perfor-
mance. Nonetheless, further research should compare the ef-
fect of HIITSM vs. traditional HIIT training approaches on
intermittent endurance performance and over multiple en-
durance specific test. In addition, future studies should clarify
the effect of HIITSM on movement economy over various cat-
egories of athletes and provide stronger support of mechanisms
for improvements after such short training periods. Finally,
further research should aim to provide evidence-based guide-
lines for specifically optimizing HIIT protocol design and se-
lection in relationship to athletes’ different background.
Practical Applications
HIITSM appears as a viable strategy to quickly improve en-
durance parameters and performance in athletes. From the
current review, to optimize the HIITSM design and effective-
ness, strength and conditioning coaches should consider to
implement at least 2 HIIT sessions every 3 days for periods
ranging from 7 to 21 days. Specifically, strength and condi-
tioning coaches planning HIITSM for team sport athletes
should expect better improvement with HIITSM of 12 (62)
days, followed by approximately 6 days of recovery. When
training well-trained endurance athletes, who are expected to
be able to sustain higher training workload, strength and
conditioning coaches might also consider to deliver more in-
tense HIITSM (5 HIIT sessions every 4 days for periods even
shorter than 10 days), as similar protocol has been also
reported as effective/sustainable for this latter athlete category
and improvement could be observed after shorter recovery
periods of 3–5. Similarly, volume and intensity of single HIIT
protocols over an HIITSM should be better tailored on athlete
background and level, with long distance and well-trained
endurance athletes likely able to sustain more demanding
protocols than team sport or less-trained athletes.
Strength and conditioning coaches should also consider the
manipulation of HIIT protocols according to their secondary

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 HIIT Shock Microcycle (2020) 34:4
and complementary neuromuscular and neuromechanical
stress (i.e., join overuse, specific muscles damage, etc) to limit
excessive stimuli summation and potentially reduce injury
risk. Finally, regardless of the athlete background, strength
and conditioning coaches should carefully monitor athletes’
psychophysical status over this period where training load/
stress is substantially increased. Although athletes should ex-
pect overreaching symptoms, coaches have to ensure the ac-
cumulated fatigue level dissipates during the recovery period
of HIITSM to ensure athletes’ optimal performance and health.
Acknowledgments
This research received no external funding. F. Dolci is supported
by a Vice-chancellor’s International Fee Remission Research
Scholarship from the University of Notre Dame, Australia, and
supported by a Research Training Program Stipend Scholarship
issued by the Australian Government. N. H. Hart is supported by
a Cancer Council of Western Australia Research Fellowship. The
authors declare they have no competing interests. The results of
this study do not constitute endorsement of the product by the
authors or the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA).
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