Web Answers for Digital Communication

Chapter 2: Source Encoding

Example 24
It is required to transmit 800 characters / sec where each character is represented by its 7-bit ASCII
codeword followed by an eighth bit for error detection per character. A multilevel PAM waveform
with M = 16 levels is used
(a) What is the effective transmitted bit rate?
(b) What is the symbol rate?

Solution:
(a) Total number of bits in one character = 7 + 1 = 8 bits.
So, the number of bits transmitted per second
= Effective transmitted bit rate
= 800 × 8 bps
= 6400 bits per second.
(b) m 16 and m 2n 16 24 .
Hence n 4
Thus number of bits per symbol = 4
6400 bits s
So, symbol rate 1600 symbols / second.
4 bits symbol

Example 25
Determine the minimum sampling rate necessary to sample and perfectly reconstruct the signal
sin (6280t )
x(t ) .
(6280 t )

Solution:
Wt
sin
x(t )
sin(6280 t ) 2 where W 2 f 6280 radians 2 (1000)
(6280 t ) Wt 2
2
Hence f 1000 Hz.

1
So, for f 1000 Hz
X f W
0 elsewhere
Thus, m 1000 Hz
Hence, minimum sampling rate s 2 fm 2 1000
2000 samples / s

Example 26

A waveform x (t ) 10 cos 1000t 20 cos 2000t is to be uniformly sampled for

3 6
digital transmission.
(a) What is the minimum allowable time interval between sample values that will ensure
perfect signal reproduction?
(b) If we want to reproduce 1 hour of this waveform, how many sample values need to be
stored?

Solution:
(a) Input waveform is
x(t ) 10cos(1000 t 3) 20cos(2000 t 6)
Hence maximum angular frequency,
m 2 fm 2000
2000
So, fm 318.3 Hz.
2
Sampling frequency,
fs 2 fm 2 318.3 636.6 samples / sec.
Sampling period,
1 1
Ts
fs 636.6
i.e. Ts 0.00157 sec.
Hence, the maximum allowable time interval between sample values
0.00157s 1.57 ms.

(b) 1 hour 60 60 3600sec .

So, total number of sample values per hour
3600 636.6
2.29 106 samples.
Example 27
A signal in the frequency range 300 to 3300 Hz is limited to peak-to-peak swing of 10 V. It is
sampled at 8000 samples / sec and the samples are quantized to 64 evenly spaced levels. Calculate
and compare the bandwidth and SQR if the quantized samples are transmitted as binary pulses.

Solution:
Sampling frequency,
fs 8000 samples / s
L = Number of levels = 64
But L 2n where n = Number of bits / sample
So, 2n 64 26 .
Thus n 6
So, Transmission rate R 8000 6 48,000 bits / s
1
Bandwidth W R 48, 000 Hz.
Tb
We know,
SQR 3L2
So, SQR 3(64) 2 12, 228 41 dB.
 Chapter 4: Baseband Transmission

Schwartz’s Inequality

Proof:
Let x(t ) and y(t ) be denoted by the real-valued functions a (t ) and b(t ) respectively such that

a(t ) x(t ) and … (8)

b(t ) y(t )
We may define a (t ) and b(t ) in terms of a pair of orthonormal functions 1 (t ) and 2 (t ) .
So, a(t ) a1 1 (t ) a2 2 (t ) ... (9)
b(t ) b1 1 (t ) b2 2 (t ) ... (10)

where ai a (t ) i (t ) dt for i 1, 2 ... (11)

bi b (t ) i (t ) dt for i 1, 2... (12)

1 (t ) and 2 (t ) are related as

1 for i j
i (t ) j (t ) ... (13)
0 for i j
We may represent the two time functions a (t ) and b(t ) by vectors.
Thus
a (a1 , a2 )
... (14)
b (b1 , b2 )
The cosine of the angle between the two vector a and b is given by
( a · b)
cos( a, b) . ... (15)
a b

where ( a · b ) is the inner product of the vector a and b and a and b are their absolute values
or norms.
We know, the cosine of an angle has a magnitude less than or equal to unity. Hence
( a · b) a b ... (16)

The equality holds if and only if b K a , where K is a constant.

Using equations, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13, we can write

(a · b) a(t ) b(t ) dt ... (17)

a [ a 2 (t ) dt ] 1 2 ... (18)

b [ b2 (t ) dt ] 1 2 ... (19)

Substituting equations (17), (18) and (19) in equation (16) we obtain,

[ a(t ) b(t ) dt ] 2 a 2 (t ) dt b2 (t ) dt ... (20)

Equation (20) is the Schwartz’s inequality.

Equivalence of Correlation and Matched Filter Receivers

Let us consider a linear time-invariant (LTI) filter with impulse response h j (t ) . If x(t ) is the input

signal to the filter and y (t ) is the output signal of the filter, then

y(t ) x( ) h j (t )d

From the definition of a matched filter, we know that the impulse response h j (t ) of a LTI filter

matched to an input single j (t ) is a time-reversed and delayed version of the input j (t ) .

Thus h j (t ) j (T t )
The resulting filter output is

y j (t ) x( ) j (T t )d

We sample this output at time t T , we obtain

y j (T ) x( ) j ( )d .

By definition, j (t ) is zero outside the interval 0 t T.

So, y j (t ) is actually the jth correlator output x j produced by the received signal x(t ) .
T
Thus y j (T ) x( ) j ( )d
0

The detector part of the optimum receiver may also be implemented using a bank of matched filters.
Question 6
State the differences between Matched Filters and Conventional Filters.

Answer:
Unwanted spectral components of a received signal are filtered out by a conventioned filter. It
maintains some measure of fidelity for signals in the passband. Conventional filters provide
approximately uniform gain and linear phase-frequency characteristic over the passband. It also
provides a specified minimum attenuation over the stop band.
Matched filters, however, are designed to maximize the SNR of a known signal in the presence of
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Matched filters are applied to known signals with random
parameters, while conventional filters are applied to random signals defined only by their bandwidth.
The matched filter is like a template that is matched to the known shape of the signal being processed.
A matched filter largely modifies the temporal structure of the signal. It gathers the signal energy
matched to its template and at the end of each symbol time presents the result as a peak amplitude.
However, a conventional filter attempts to preserve the temporal or spectral structure of the signal of
interest.
A conventional filter in a communication receiver isolates and extracts a high-fidelity estimate of the
signal for presentation to the matched filter.
 Chapter 7: Digital Modulation Techniques

- shifted QPSK
4

- shifted QPSK is a variant of quadriphase-shift keying modulation. Two commonly used signal
4
constellations for QPSK are shown below.
2 2

o 1 o 1

In - shifted QPSK, the carrier phase used for the transmission of successive dibits is alternatively
4

picked from one of the two QPSK constellations. Thus in - shifted QPSK, there are eight possible
4
phase states as shown in the figure below.

A - shifted QPSK signal may reside in any one of the eight

4 2

possible states. Envelope variations of - shifted QPSK signals

4
due to filtering is significantly reduced, compared to those in
o 1

QPSK. - shifted QPSK can be detected non-coherently. This

4
considerably simplifies the receiver design.
Signal-space Diagram for MSK system

The signal constellation for an MSK signal is two-dimensional. It has four possible message points.
The signal-space diagram for MSK system is shown in the figure below.
2

Message point, m2 Eb
 0   ,  (Tb )    2 Message point, m1
 0  0,  (Tb )    2

1
– Eb Eb

0 , (Tb ) 2
Message point, m4
Message point, m3 – Eb   0,  (Tb )   2

The co-ordinates of the message points are:

m1 ( Eb , Eb ), m2 ( Eb , Eb )

m3 ( Eb , Eb ) and m4 ( Eb , Eb )
In MSK, unlike QPSK, one of two message points is used to represent the transmitted symbol at any
one time, depending on the value of (0) .
Question 16
Calculate the probability of error of MSK.

Answer:
For an AWGN channel, the received signal is given by
x(t ) s(t ) (t )
where s (t ) is the transmitted MSK signal and (t ) is the sample function of white Gaussian noise
process of zero mean and power spectral density N o 2 .
For the optimum detection of (0) , we first find the projection of the received signal x(t ) onto the
reference signal (t ) over the interval Tb t Tb . This is given by
Tb

x1 x(t ) 1 (t ) dt
Tb

s1 1 for Tb t Tb .

If x1 0 , then the receiver chooses the estimate ˆ 0 . However, if x1 0 , it chooses the estimate
ˆ(0) .
Similarly, the projection of the received signal x(t ) onto the second reference signal 2 (t ) over the
interval 0 t 2Tb is given by
2Tb

x2 x(t ) 2 (t ) dt
0

s2 2 for 0 t 2Tb .

If x2 0 , the receiver chooses the estimate ˆ(Tb ) . If x2 0 , it chooses the estimate

2
ˆ(T ) .
b
2

If we have the estimates ˆ(0) 0 and ˆ(Tb ) , or alternatively, if ˆ(0) and ˆ(Tb ) ,
2 2
the receiver makes a decision in favour of symbol 0.

If we have the estimate ˆ(0) and ˆ(Tb ) or alternatively, if ˆ(0) 0 and ˆ(Tb ) , the
2 2
receiver makes a decision in favour of symbol 1.
Now the MSK and QPSK signals have similar signal space diagrams. Thus for AWGN channel they
will have the same formula for their average probability of symbol error. Thus the average probability
of symbol error for the MSK is given by
Ps erfc( Eb No ) 1 4 erfc2 ( Eb No )
If Eb N o 1 , we may ignore the second term on the RHS.
So, Ps erfc( Eb No )
Hence the bit error rate (or probability of bit error) is given by for MSK
Pe 1 2 erfc( Eb No ) .

Question 17
Draw the sequences and waveforms involved in the generation of an MSK signal for the binary
sequence 1101000.

Answer: 2Tb 4Tb 6Tb

0
Input Binary
sequence → 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

(kTb) →
Polarity of s1 → 0 π π 0
+ – – +

s1 1 (t)

(kTb) →
π/2 π/2 π/2 –π/2
Polarity of s2 →
– – – +

s2 2 (t)

s(t)

Question 18
State the advantages and disadvantages of Gaussian MSK (GMSK) and its principal application.

Answer:
If we pass an NRZ binary data steam through a baseband pulse-shaping filter whose impulse response
is defined by a Gaussian function then the resulting method of MSK signal is referred to as Gaussian-
filtered MSK or just GMSK. In GMSK system, the design parameter is the time-bandwidth product
WTb. It is found that when WTb is less than unity, increasingly more of the transmit power is
concentrated inside the passband of the GMSK signal. This is an advantage of GMSK.
The disadvantage of GMSK is that it generates intersymbol interference which increases with
decreasing WTb. This disadvantage is known as performance degradation of GMSK. Thus the choice
of WTb offers a trade-off between spectral compactness and performance loss.
The principal application of GMSK is in GSM wireless communication. For GSM mobile
communication WTb is standardized at 0.3.

Question 19
Calculate the probability of error for a non-coherent receiver.

Answer:
Let the upper path of the non-coherent receiver be called the in-phase path and the lower path be
called quadrative path. Now let the signal s1 (t ) be transmitted for the interval 0 t T . Refer to the
figure below for a generalized binary receiver for non-coherent orthogonal modulation.
Sample at t = T
Filter matched Envelope
to 1(t) Detector
l1 If l1 > l2
Choose s1(t)
Comparator
x (t) If l1 > l2
l2 Choose s2(t)

Filter matched Envelope

to 2(t) Detector
Sample at t = T

An error occurs if the receiver noise (t ) is such that the output  2 of the lower path is greater than
the output  1 of the upper path. Then the receiver makes a decision in favour of s2 (t ) rather than

s1 (t ) .
Let xI 2 and xQ 2 denote the in-phase and quadrature components of the matched filter output in the
lower path of the above figure. The equivalent quadrature receiver equivalent to either one of the two
matched filters is shown below.
t xQ i Square-law x2Q i
dt
0
detector

i (t) +
li2
x (t)
+

t xI i Square-law
dt Detector
0
x2I i

i (t)

Then for i 2,  2 xI22 xQ2 2 ... (21)

The random variable X I 2 and X Q 2 are both Gaussian distributed with zero mean and variance

N o 2 . Hence
1
f X I 2 ( xI 2 ) exp( xI22 No ) ... (22)
No
1
f X Q 2 ( xQ 2 ) exp( xQ2 2 No ) ... (23)
No
Now we know that the envelope of a Gaussian process is payleigh distributed. The random variable L2
has the probability density function given by

2 2  22
exp for  2 0
f L 2 ( 2 ) No No ... (24)
0 elsewhere
The variation of f L 2 ( 2 ) with  2 is shown in the figure below.

fL2 (l2)

Conditional probability
of error

l1 l2

The conditional probability that  2 1 , given the sample value  1 is shown by the shaded area in
the above figure. Hence

P ( 2 1 1 ) f L2 ( 2 ) d  2 ... (25)
1

Substituting equation (25) in equation (24) and integrating, we obtain

P ( 2  1  1 ) exp(  2I N o ) ... (26)
Now let us consider the output amplitude  1 due to the upper path.

Here  1 is due to signal plus noise. Let

x I 1 In-phase component at the output of the matched filter

xQ 1 Quadrature component at the output of the matched filter

Then for i 1, 1 x I 1 xQ2 1

The random variable X I 1 represented by sample value xI 1 is Gaussian distributed with mean E
and variance N o 2 , where E is the signal energy per symbol. The random variable X Q 1 is Gaussian
distributed with zero mean and variance N o 2 . Hence the probability density functions of these two
independent random variables are given by
f X I ( xI 1) 1 No exp( ( xI 1 E )2 No ) ... (27)
1

f X Q ( xQ 1) 1 No exp( xQ2 1 No ) ... (28)

1

Given xI 1 and xQ 1 , an error occurs when the lower path’s output amplitude  2 due to noise alone

exceeds  1 due to signal plus noise. Thus

2I xI21 xQ2 1 ... (29)

Substituting equation (29) in equation (26) we get
P(error xI 1 , xQ1) exp( xI21 xQ1 No ) ... (30)
Error density is given by
P(error xI 1 , xQ1) f X I ( xI 1) f XQ ( xQ1)
1 1

1 No exp{ 1 No [ xI21 xQ2 1 ( xI 1 E )2 xQ2 1] ... (31)

We note,
xI21 xQ2 1 ( xI 1 E )2 xQ2 1 2( xI 1 E 2)2 2xQ2 1 E 2 ...(32)
Hence the average probability of error is

Pe P(error xI 1, xQ 1) f X I ( xI1 ) f X Q ( xQ 1) dxI 1 dxQ 1

1 1

1/ No exp( E / 2 No ) exp[ 2 No ( xI 1 E 2)2 ] dxI 1

exp( 2 xQ2 1 No ) dxQ 1 ... (33)

Now, exp[ 2 No ( xI 1 E 2)2 ] dxI 1 No 2 ... (34)

and exp( 2 xQ2 1 No ) dxQ 1 No 2 ... (35)

using equations (34) and (35) we obtain

Pe 1 2 exp( E 2 N o ) ... (36)
Equation (36) gives the probability of error for a non-coherent orthogonal receiver.
 Chapter 8: Spread Spectrum Modulation

Need of synchronization in spread spectrum modulation and its

implementation

For proper operation of spread spectrum communication, it is necessary that the locally generated PN
sequences in the receiver are synchronized to the PN sequence used in the transmitter.
Synchronization is implemented in two parts, namely, acquisition and tracking. Acquisition is known
as coarse synchronization and tracking is termed as fine synchronization. Acquisition means the two
PN codes are aligned to within a fraction of the chip in as short time as possible. Tracking takes place
once the incoming PN code has been acquired. Acquisition consists of two steps. Firstly, the received
signal is multiplied by a locally generated PN code to produce a measure of correlation between it and
the PN code used in the transmitter. Then an appropriate decision rule and search strategy is employed
to process the measure of correlation so obtained. This determines whether the two codes are in
synchronism. It also decides what to do if they are not in synchronism. Tracking is accomplished by
using phase-lock loop techniques. These are similar to those used for the local generation of coherent
carrier references.
 Chapter 10: Coding Theory

Channel Coding Theorem

Channel coding theorem has two parts.

First Part
Let a discrete memoryless source with an alphabet S have entropy H ( X ) and produce symbols once
every Ts seconds. Let a discrete memoryless channel have capacity C and be used once every Tc
seconds. Then if
H (X ) C
Ts Tc
these exists a coding scheme for which the source output can be transmitted over the channel and be
reconstructed with an arbitrarily small probability of error.
The channel coding theorem specifies the channel capacity C as a fundamental limit on the rate at
which the transmission of error-free messages can take place over a discrete memoryless channel. The
theorem asserts the existence of good codes. But it does not show us how to construct a good code.

Example 13
Consider an (n, 1) repetition code where n = 5. For this code,
(a) Construct the generator matrix G
(b) Find all code words using G
(c) Find the parity check matrix H for this code
(d) Show that GHT = 0

Solution:
(a) The two code words in the code are [1 1 1 1 1] and [0 0 0 0 0]
PT [1111 ]
Generator matrix, G [ 11111 ]
(b) For d1 0, c1 [ 0 ] [ 1 1 1 1 1] [00000]
For d1 1, c1 [1] [11111 ] [11111]
(c) The parity check matrix H is given by
110 0 0
1010 0
H [P : I4 ]
10 010
10 0 01
110 0 0
1010 0
(d) GH T 11111 0000 0.
10 010
10 0 01