SEMINAR ON: - HYBRID VEHICLES

BY

DANIEL HAMBISSA ID.NO PGR/19297/12

School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering

Department of Mechanical Systems and Vehicle Engineering

Program: MSc. in Automotive Engineering

Adama Science and Technology University

Submitted to: Ramesh Babu N. (PhD)

Adama, Ethiopia

APRIL 2020
Contents
1.Hybrid vehicle ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Definition of hybrid vehicles ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 main objective.............................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.2 specific objective .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Types of hybrid vehicles ...................................................................................................................... 3
2 The Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) .............................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Key Components of a Hybrid Electric Car ........................................................................................... 6
2.2 Classification of Hybrid electric vehicles ........................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Hybrid vehicles classification based on arrangement of the drive train..................................... 7
2.2.2 Hybrid vehicles classification according to degree of hybridization .......................................... 11
2.3 Parameter Matching Analysis of the Power train System ............................................................... 14
2.4 Hybrid vs Electric vs Petrol/Diesel vs Gas vs Fuel Cell Vehicles ........................................................ 16
2.4.1 A brief summary – Hybrid vs Electric vs Petrol/Diesel vs Gas vs Fuel Cell Vehicles................... 16
2.5 latest hybrid car in the current market ............................................................................................ 19
3.Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 22
4 References ............................................................................................................................................... 23
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1. ICEs are very inefficient energy converters as compared to electric motors ............................... 1
Figure 2 hybrid vehicle example .................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3: Basic Diagram of series Hybrid Solar Vehicle ............................................................................. 4
Figure 4 hybrid electric vehicles .................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 5 .three kinds of arrangements of drive trains for hybrid vehicles .................................................. 7
Figure 6 Series Hybrid................................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 7 Series Hybrid power train ............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 8 Parallel hybrid ............................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 9 parallel power train ....................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 10 series-parallel ............................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 11 complex hybrid system ............................................................................................................... 11

LIST OF TABLE
Table 1 comparison of hybrid levels of evs ................................................................................... 13
Table 2 latest hybrid car in the current market ........................................................................... 19
 1.Hybrid vehicle
1.1 Introduction
Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) have experienced continuous development in
manufacturing technology, materials science, motor performance, vehicle control, driver comfort
and security for more than a century. Modern ICE vehicles encompass top comfort, excellent
performance and advanced security, for relatively low prices and, needless to say, have become
since the beginning the most attractive consumer products. However, despite approximately a
century-long industry and academia struggle to improve ICE efficiency, this is, and will continue
to be, incredibly low. As stated, 30% of the energy produced in the ICE combustion reaction is
converted into mechanical power. In other words, approximately 70% of the energy liberated by
combustion is lost. In fact and worse than that, the wasted energy of thermal motors, as ICEs
may be called, is transformed into motor and exhaust gases heat. The exhaust gases are a blend
formed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO2) and, to a lower extent, nitrogen oxides (NOx),
hydrocarbons (CxHy), carbon monoxide (CO) and soot. Carbon dioxide is known to block the
earth’s radiation emissions back into the outer space thus promoting global temperature rise – the
so-called greenhouse effect. This, climate researchers say, is silently creating other global
catastrophic changes, as for example, sea level rise, Air pollution in big cities , which leads to
respiratory system diseases, including lung cancer. Disturbing noise level is another issue related
to big fleet of ICEVs in big cities.
Whether none of the above listed problems ever existed, yet a challenging situation had to be
dealt with urgently: the finite amount of fossil fuel available for an ever-increasing world fleet.
On the other hand, renewable energy sources, like ethanol produced from sugarcane or maize
crops, are an alternative solution being tried in some countries.
There is a criticism over this solution as regards to the demands on food availability and prices,
once crop fields are used to produce bio-fuels instead of food. Greenhouse effect gas generation
and air pollution problems are still present though to a somewhat lower extent.
electric vehicles are another measure taken to minimize the problem associated with ICEVs. An
accurate look at the figure below reveals that electric motors are far superior to ICE and could
do an excellent job in propulsion of vehicles, helping to solve the serious climate, air pollution
and noise problems created by ICEVs.

Figure 1. ICEs are very inefficient energy converters as compared to electric motors

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As a matter of fact, electric vehicles (EVs) were invented in 1834, before ICE vehicles, being
manufactured by several companies of the U.S.A, England, and France. Poor performance of
their batteries contrasting to fast development of ICE technology, extremely high energy density
and power density of gasoline and petrol, and the abundance and low price offer of fossil fuel, all
conspired against those days’ EVs that rapidly became defunct.

Today, although their sales are negligible in relation to that of ICEVs, pure EVs and hybrid EVs
(HEVs), i.e., those that combine ICE with electrical machines fed by batteries or fuel cells
(hydrogen derived electricity), are offered by world’s greatest carmakers. Thus bring as to the
concept of hybrid vehicles.

1.2 Definition of hybrid vehicles

A hybrid vehicle combines any two power generating sources. Many combinations such as
diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery are usually used. Typically, one
energy source is storage, and the other converts a fuel to energy. The combination of two power
sources can support two separate propulsion systems or combine into a single propulsion system.

For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not considered under hybrid. However, if the truck has
electrical energy storage to provide a second mode, which assists the primary driving source,
then it is a HEV. The two power sources can be coupled either in series or in parallel. For series,
the engine charges batteries and in turn, batteries charge electric motor that powers the vehicle.
For parallel, both engine as well as electric motor constitute for driving power .

Figure 2 hybrid vehicle example

The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different motors work better at different
speeds; the electric motor is more efficient at producing torque, or turning power, and the
combustion engine is better for maintaining high speed (better than typical electric motor).

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Switching from one to the other at the proper time while speeding up yields a win-win in terms
of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency.

1.3 Objective
1.2.1 main objective
 to study about hybrid vehicles

1.3.2 specific objective

 to define and understand different types of hybrid vehicles
 to explain the meaning ,component and classification hybrid electrical vehicles
 to compare different types of hybrid electric vehicles
 to compare different types of hybrid car
 to study about different types of hybrid car in the market

1.4 Types of hybrid vehicles

A. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional internal
combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. Or in a technical way,
a Hybrid Electric Vehicle is a type of technology which indulges both mechanical drive train and
electric vehicle.

Based on the way the energy converters (i.e. IC engine, electric motor etc.) of an HEV are
combined to propel the vehicle, many power train configurations are possible:
i. Series Hybrid (SHEV)
ii. Parallel Hybrid (PHEV)
iii. Series–Parallel Hybrid (SPHEV)
iv. Complex Hybrids (CHEV)
v. Fuel Cell Hybrids (FCHEV)
vi. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)
Also depending On the basis of the degree of hybridization, hybrid electric vehicles can be
classified as; (i) Micro Hybrid, (ii) Mild Hybrid and (iii) Full Hybrid

B. Hybrid Solar Vehicle (HSV)

This technology is an integration of Vehicle and Photovoltaic Panels. Normally, photovoltaic

panels are mounted on the roof-tops of the vehicles. It is also classified into four types: - Series
Hybrid, Parallel Hybrid, Series-Parallel Hybrid and Complex Hybrid. Out of which, Series
Hybrid technology is very efficient and more research is going on this type as shown in Fig. 7.

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 Figure 3: Basic Diagram of series Hybrid Solar Vehicle

C. Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is similar to the hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) on the market
today, but it has a larger battery that is charged both by the vehicle's gasoline engine and from
plugging into a standard 110 V/230V electrical outlet for a few hours each day .

Classifications of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Series Plug-In Hybrids: Also called as Extended Range Electric Vehicles (EREVs). Only the
electric motor turns the wheels; the gasoline engine is only used to generate electricity. Series
plug-ins can run solely on electricity until the battery needs to be recharged. The gasoline engine
then generates electricity to power the electric motor. For shorter trips, these vehicles might use
no gasoline at all.
Parallel or Blended Plug-In Hybrids: Both the engine and electric motor are mechanically
connected to the wheels, and both propel the vehicle under most driving conditions. Electric-only
operation usually occurs only at low speeds.
D. Fuel cell hybrid

Fuel cell vehicles have a series hybrid configuration. They are often fitted with a battery or super
capacitor to deliver peak acceleration power and to reduce the size and power constraints on the
fuel cell (and thus its cost).

E. Human power and environmental power

hybrids Many land and water vehicles use human power combined with a further power source.
Common are parallel hybrids, e.g. a boat being rowed and also having a sail set, or motorized
bicycles. Also some series hybrids exist. Such vehicles can be tribrid vehicles, combining at the
same time three power sources e.g. from on-board solar cells, from grid-charged batteries, and
from pedals.

3.4. Pneumatic hybrid

Compressed air can also power a hybrid car with a gasoline compressor to provide the power.
Moteur Developpement Internationalin France produces such air cars. A team led by Tsu-Chin
Tsao, a UCLAmechanical and aerospace engineering professor, is collaborating with engineers
from Ford to get Pneumatic hybrid technology up and running. The system is similar to that of a

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hybrid-electric vehicle in that braking energy is harnessed and stored to assist the engine as
needed during acceleration.

3.5. Hydraulic hybrid

A hydraulic hybrid vehicle uses hydraulic and mechanical components instead of electrical
ones. A variable displacement pump replaces the motor/generator, and a hydraulic
accumulator(which stores energy as highly compressed nitrogen gas)replaces the batteries. The
hydraulic accumulator, which is essentially a pressure tank, is potentially cheaper and more
durable than batteries. Hydraulic hybrid technology was originally developed by Volvo
Flygmotor and was used experimentally in buses from the early 1980s and is still an active area.
Initial concept involved a giant flywheel(see Gyrobus) for storage connected to a hydrostatic
transmission, but it was later changed to a simpler system using a hydraulic accumulator
connected to a hydraulic pump/motor. It is also being actively developed by Eatonand several
other companies, primarily in heavy vehicles like buses, trucks and military vehicles. An
example is the Ford F-350 Mighty Tonka concept truck shown in 2002. It features an Eaton
system that can accelerate the truck up to highway speeds.

2 The Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

What exactly is an HEV?

The definition available is so general that it anticipates future technologies of energy sources.
The term hybrid vehicle refers to a vehicle with at least two sources of power. A hybrid-electric
vehicle indicates that one source of power is provided by an electric motor. The other source of
motive power can come from a number of different technologies, but is typically provided by an
internal combustion engine designed to run on either gasoline or diesel fuel. As proposed by
Technical Committee (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International Electro technical
Commission, an HEV is a vehicle in which propulsion energy is available from two or more
types of energy sources and at least one of them can deliver electrical energy.

Based on this general definition, there are many types of HEVs, such as:

the gasoline ICE and battery

diesel ICE and battery
battery and FC
battery and capacitor
battery and flywheel
battery and battery hybrids.

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Most commonly, the propulsion force in HEV is provided by a combination of electric motor and
an ICE. The electric motor is used to improve the energy efficiency (improves fuel consumption)
and vehicular emissions while the ICE provides extended range capability.

Figure 4 hybrid electric vehicles

2.1 Key Components of a Hybrid Electric Car

Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity to start
the car before the traction battery is engaged and also powers vehicle accessories.
DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery pack
to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge the auxiliary
battery.
Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking, transferring
that energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform
both the drive and regeneration functions.
Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives the
vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and
regeneration functions.
Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out through the
tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions within the exhaust
system.

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Fuel filler: A nozzle from a high-pressure hydrogen dispenser attaches to the receptacle on the
vehicle to fill the tank.
Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed by the
engine.
Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected into either
the intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with air, and the air/fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the
traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it produces.
Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of the
engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components. Traction battery pack: Stores
electricity for use by the electric traction motor. Transmission: The transmission transfers
mechanical power from the engine and/or electric traction motor to drive the wheels.
2.2 Classification of Hybrid electric vehicles
Now let’s have a look at the different types hybrid vehicles,. The reality is that, not all hybrids
are created equal! Hybrid cars are categorized based on:
1)the drive trains that they utilize; parallel, series, and combined
2) their degree of hybridization
There are many kinds of hybrids, the main ones are; conventional hybrid, mild hybrid, full
hybrid, and plug-in hybrid.
2.2.1 Hybrid vehicles classification based on arrangement of the drive train
A drive train is the set of all components that assist in the transfer of power from the engine to
the wheels of the vehicle. For hybrid vehicles, this drive train arrangement is what determines
the working of electric motors alongside the internal combustion engine.
There are three kinds of arrangements of drive trains for hybrid vehicles

Figure 5 .three kinds of arrangements of drive trains for hybrid vehicles

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A) Serial Hybrid (Range Extended Electric Vehicle – REEV)
These are hybrids that receive mechanical power from the electric motor, which is run by either a
battery or a gasoline-powered generator.

Figure 6 Series Hybrid

Serial hybrid vehicles have both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor, but
100% of their propulsion done by the electric motor. The internal combustion engine here
operates as just a generator and thus has no mechanical connection to the drive.

Figure 7 Series Hybrid power train

This is the simplest type of configuration. In a this arrangement, the electric motor is the only
way of delivering power to the wheels. The motor itself receives its power from battery packs or
generators which are run by engines. A computerized system determines how much power has
been received. The engine helps in charging the battery/generators.
In situations where the car needs to stop and start multiple times, such as that of city trafc (or
when stuck in traffic jams), the series arrangement works ideally since the computer can choose
to extract all power from the batteries, leaving the engines for when a more dire need arises. This
conserves fuel.

In such an arrangement, the engine is typically small whereas the battery is bigger since it has to
meet required power demands. This bigger battery/generator and motor adds to the cost of a
series arrangement; which is much pricier than its parallel counterpart.

An example for serial hybrid / REEV is : BMW i3 with range extender.

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The advantages of series hybrid drive trains are:
mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC engine operating at
its very narrow optimal region.
nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multigear transmission
unnecessary.
However, a series hybrid drive train has the following disadvantages:
the energy is converted twice (mechanical to electrical and then to mechanical) and this
reduces the overall efficiency.
Two electric machines are needed and a big traction motor is required because it is the only
torque source of the driven wheels. The series hybrid drivetrain is used in heavy commercial
vehicles, military vehicles and buses. The reason is that large vehicles have enough space for the
bulky engine/generator system.
B)Parallel Drive trains
In these hybrids, the electric motor and internal combustion engine can provide mechanical
power simultaneously

Figure 8 Parallel hybrid

parallel hybrids, the internal combustion engine and electric motor are work together to drive the
wheels and connected in parallel. Thus, either the internal combustion engine alone, the electric
motor alone or both combined can act on the drive train. Compared to the serial hybrid, it is more
efficient at higher speeds, where it can harness the potential of the two-engine combination when
needed. An example of this is the Honda Civic Hybrid

Figure 9 parallel power train

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The battery pack is small as compared to the series arrangement and gets usually charged
through regenerative braking. In times of need, the engine can be utilized as a generator to
charge the batteries.
The engine is connected directly to the wheels in the parallel drive train. This eradicates the need
to convert mechanical power to electrical and back to mechanical power. This inefficiency is
reduced considerably. However, the use of a series arrangement in stop and go traffic is still
vital.
The advantages of the parallel hybrid drive train are:
both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels and no energy
form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor.

The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drive trains are:

mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the engine operating
points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared to series hybrid
drive train. Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration. Most
passenger cars employ this configuration
C)Combined Series-Parallel Drive trains:
In a combined design, the advantages of both the arrangements are merged into one. The engine
can directly operate the wheels (parallel arrangement) as well as can be disconnected to give the
operation to the electric motors, as in series arrangement. An example is the Toyota Prius which
utilizes this design.
This design helps to keep the efficiency at max where the electric only option can be used at low
speeds while engine-only option can be used at high speeds; minimizing energy losses.This is
however costly since it needs large battery packs and generators as well as large engines. It also
requires more computation power, but its efficiency is higher than both individual arrangements
and accounts for its price.

Figure 10 series-parallel

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D)Complex Hybrid System

The complex hybrid system involves a complex configuration which cannot be classified into
the above three kinds. The complex hybrid is similar to the series-parallel hybrid since the
generator and electric motor is both electric machines. However, the key difference is due to the
bi-directional power flow of the electric motor in complex hybrid and the unidirectional power
flow of the generator in the series-parallel hybrid. The major disadvantage of complex hybrid is
higher complexity.

Figure 11 complex hybrid system

2.2.2 Hybrid vehicles classification according to degree of hybridization

2.2.2.1 DEFINITION OF HYBRIDNESS

Degree of hybridization depends upon the power supplied by IC engine and electric motor. In
some vehicles, IC engine is dominant; electric motor turns on only when boost is needed. In
many vehicles, both IC engine and electric motor share equal loads. Others can run only with
electric motor system operating.

The ratio of power developed by an electric motor in a hybrid vehicle to the total power
consumed by the vehicle is known as degree of hybridization.. The name, hybridization, is
occasionally used for H.
Sum of power of all traction motors
H=Sum of traction motor+Engine power × 100

so that, based on the value of H ,they can be classified as micro hybrid, mild hybrid, and full
hybrid.

As an example of hybridness consider a light delivery van with the propulsion:

Diesel engine: 110 kW at 3000 rpm

Electric motor: 23 kW; maximum torque 243 N-m at 500 rpm

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 23kw
H=(23+100)kw × 100 = 17%

As will be seen, H = 17% is a mild hybrid. As a note of caution, the sum of component power
23 + 110 kW = 133 kW is not the maximum hybrid power. The maximum electric motor torque
and engine torque occur at different rpm. H defines micro, mild, and full hybrids. The domain of
the plug-in hybrid is defined by a range of values of H.

A) Micro Hybrid

Electric motor functions to start or stop the system to automatically shut off the engine while
idling

• This motor does not provide additional torque to the vehicle .

• Electric Motor supplies power 2.5kW at 12 volts

• Energy saving 5 to 10%.

• Example: BMW 1 series, Fortwo Mercedes, etc

B) Mild Hybrid

• Electric motor generator is integrated to provide 10% of maximum engine power.

• These hybrids improve drawbacks of fossil fuel vehicles. Here motor or generator is in parallel
with IC engine [1].

• Electric Motor supplies power 10 to 20 kW at 100-200 volts [7].

• Energy saving 20 to 30%

• Examples: Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Silveradois a full-size pickup truck, Honda Escape,
etc.

The micro as well mild hybrids (MHEV) are equipped with an electric motor, but still uses an
internal combustion engine to drive the train. The primary role of the electric motor is just to
support the combustion engine, for example, when starting or accelerating. These vehicles also
equipped with an auxiliary battery with greater current capacity to improve regenerative braking.
This in turn further increases fuel efficiency and thus reduces CO2 emissions.

C) Full Hybrid

• Electric motor provides at least 40% of engine power as additional torque.

• Bigger motor and battery reduces the required size of conventional engine .

• It has improved fuel consumptions and reduced emissions.

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• Circa Electric Motor supplies power 50 kW at 200-300 volts [7].

• Energy saving 30 to 50%

• Example: -Toyota Prius, Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Ford Fusion Hybrid/Lincoln
MKZ Hybrid, Ford C-Max Hybrid, Kia Optima Hybrid, as well as the General Motors hybrid
trucks with 2 –mode.
D) Plug-in Hybrid:

• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles–known as PHEVs–combine a gasoline or diesel engine with an

electric motor and a large rechargeable battery.

• Unlike conventional hybrids, these hybrids can be plugged-in and recharged from an outlet,
allowing the vehicle to drive extended distances using just electricity.

• When the battery is emptied, the conventional engine turns on and the vehicle operates as a
conventional, non-plug-in hybrid.

• Example: Chevrolet Volt, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Toyota Prius P-HEV, etc.

A brief comparison of various levels of hybrids is shown in Table 5. When the engine of an HEV
is in operation, intelligent controls ensure that the engine always operate at its optimum
performance zone directing the excess energy to the battery. Although regen-braking is a
common feature in all HEVs, vehicles in the micro and mild category cannot absorb the
complete KE of the vehicles during a rapid stop. This is because micro/mild HVs have smaller
hybridization factor, which means small generator; and hence they cannot convert all the
available KE into electricity. For recovery of full braking energy, hybridization factor must be
about 40% or higher. This is the reason for increased energy saving with increasing level of
hybridization.

Table 1 comparison of hybrid levels of evs

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2.3 Parameter Matching Analysis of the Power train System
The parameter matching between the power components (including the engine, drive motor, and
power battery, etc.) and the transmission system directly aff ects the overall performance of the
vehicle’s power ,fuel consumption and emissions. Therefore, it is very important to study the
parameter matching optimization of the power train system of HEVs.

A)Parameter Matching of Drive Motor

According to the performance indicators of the vehicle, the performances such as acceleration
time and maximum gradability, are mainly considered to meet the power performance required
for the vehicle in pure electric drive mode, and the parameters such as rated power, peak power,
maximum speed and peak torque of the motor can be determined.

Motor rated power and peak power

The motor power should take into account the rated power during continuous operation and the
peak power for short-term operation. The rated power can generally be determined by the power
of the vehicle when driving at the highest velocity on a horizontal road, which can be expressed
as follows:

where m is the curb weight, in kg; g is the gravitational acceleration; f is the friction coefficient
of tire; Af is the front area, in m2;CD is the drag coefficient; Vmax is the maximum velocity, in
km/h; ηt is the total transfer efficiency of the mechanical transmission device between the motor
output shaft to the drive wheel.

When the vehicle is driving at the maximum gradability for a short period of time or driving at
full acceleration, the motor runs at peak power. The short-time output power of the motor at the
maximum gradability can be expressed as:

where αmax is the maximum gradability;Vα is the vehicle velocity, in km/h. In addition, it
should meet the basic requirements of the climb performance of the vehicle.

When the vehicle is fully accelerating, it is necessary to meet the requirements of the
acceleration time, of which the power can be expressed as follows:

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where δ is the rotation mass conversion factor; td is the acceleration time, in s;Vend is the
acceleration target velocity, in km/h.

in summary, the peak power of the motor should meet the requirements of the above powers
Equations. (i.e.,Pmax=max{Prat,Pslp,Pacc}. In addition, 1% to 2% margin of the peak power
should also be considered.

Motor maximum speed

The drive motor of the vehicle is generally selected from medium and high-speed motors. The
maximum speed has no special limit, but it is subject to the maximum velocity and total gear
ratio. In addition, it is also necessary to consider the factor of expanding the constant power
zone, that is, the limit of the ratio of the maximum speed to the rated speed. Motor peak torque
When the motor is running at maximum power with rated speed, its output torque is the peak
torque:

where nrat is the rated speed of the motor, in r/min.

B. Parameter Matching of Engine

According to the main and auxiliary power, parallel HEVs (PHEVs) mainly have engine-assisted
and motor-assisted drive modes. The engine-assisted drive mode mainly uses the power battery
and the motor to drive the vehicle, for example, the HEV generally starts from electric drive
mode, and only switches to the hybrid drive mode at the appropriate timing when driving at high
speed, climbing and rushing; while the motor-assisted mode mainly uses the internal combustion
engine to drive the vehicle, and the motor only works when it is instantaneously accelerating,
climbing and decelerating, so it does not have the electric drive mode. The advantage of the
engine-assisted mode is that the vehicle can use the power of the battery in most cases, with
fewer emissions and fuel consumption, while the engine can be started with the motion of the
vehicle without the need to install an additional starter motor.

C.Parameter Matching of the Power Battery

First, the power of the battery pack must meet the power requirements, that is, the maximum
power of the motor. The number of battery packs can be expressed as:

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where Rb_dis is the discharged internal resistance of the battery pack, in Ω;Voc is the open
circuit voltage of the battery pack, in V.Secondly, the capacity of the battery pack should meet
the driving range of the vehicle, so the number of battery packs can be calculated as:

where ,Ebat is the energy consumed of the battery per km, in kW/km; Ldis is the driving range,
in km;Ubat is the voltage of battery pack, in V;Dsoc is the battery discharge depth, in %;ηm is
the assembly efficiency of the motor and controller;Cbat is the rated capacity of a battery cell, in
Ah.

2.4 Hybrid vs Electric vs Petrol/Diesel vs Gas vs Fuel Cell Vehicles

Comparison, & Differences Between These Car Types

2.4.1 A brief summary – Hybrid vs Electric vs Petrol/Diesel vs Gas vs Fuel Cell Vehicles
A brief summary of these different types of vehicles is:
Hybrid – there two main types of hybrid cars … 1. Regular hybrid, and 2. Plug in hybrids.
Regular hybrids run primarily on fossil fuels, but can get some electrical energy from
regenerative braking. Plug in hybrids have a chargeable electric motor, and then can switch to a
petrol motor for added range
Electric – technically there’s various types of electric cars, but, the main type is the full electric
vehicle with an electric battery that is charged when the car is plugged in.
Petrol/Diesel – fuelled by regular gasoline or diesel. Has an internal combustion engine
Gas – fuelled by natural gas … CNG or LNG. Has an internal combustion engine
Fuel Cell – the main type of fuel cell is the Hydrogen fuel cell. Hydrogen is produced generally
with fossil fuels, and then the hydrogen and oxygen undergo an electrochemical reaction and
produce electricity for an electric motor
Petrol/Diesel Vehicle

 Works with an internal combustion engine, fuel tank and tailpipe

 Fueled by either regular gasoline or diesel
 No electricity for an energy source, or electric motor
 Re-fill stations are widely available, and re-filling is quick
 Cheaper upfront cost than hybrid, electric and fuel cell vehicles
 More expensive re-fuelling costs
 Produces the most pollution and greenhouse gases of all the vehicles
 Many models and brands available

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Gas Vehicle

 Works with an internal combustion engine, gas tank, and tail pipe
 A natural gas vehicle (NGV) is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed
natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG). Natural gas vehicles should not be
confused with vehicles powered by LPG (mainly propane), which is a fuel with a
fundamentally different composition
 Re-fill stations are widely available, and re-filling is quick
 Cheaper upfront cost than hybrid, electric and fuel cell vehicles
 Natural gas tanks can be retrofitted to some regular petrol vehicles
 In some places, natural gas is more cheaper than petrol as a fuel
 Natural gas produces less pollution and greenhouse gases than petrol or diesel, but more
than electricity and hydrogen while the car is running
 Many models and brands available
Hybrid Vehicle
 A pure hybrid car has petrol as it’s primary fuel, and has a primary motor which is a
petrol motor
 It does use some electricity with an electric motor to supplement the petrol fuel system,
but this is more for fuel efficiency. It isn’t classified as an electric car
 It gets electric energy from regenerative braking to help re-charge the battery – i.e
collecting heat energy when the car brakes
 Travels longer distances than a fully electric vehicle
 More expensive than conventional cars, but less emissions usually because of fuel
efficiency
 HEV examples are the Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Camry Hybrid

Plug In Hybrid Vehicle

 There are plug in hybrid cars that can get electric energy from regenerative braking, and
also an external electrical charging outlet
 Plug in charging can take an extended time to charge
 Charging can be done at home
 The petrol engine extends the range of the car by also recharging the battery as it gets low
 Short range trips can be done purely on electric power
 Some plug in hybrids are primarily petrol, some are primarily electric
 Similar to battery electric vehicles but also have a conventional gasoline or diesel engine.
This allows them to drive short distances on electricity-only, switching to liquid fuel for
longer trips
 Produces less emissions than a conventional gasoline vehicle, but not as clean as all
electric vehicles
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  Travels longer distances than a fully electric vehicle
 The Toyota Prius favours petrol, while the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV favors electricity

Fully Electric/Battery Electric Vehicle

 Full electric vehicles, or battery electric vehicles, are fully electric, meaning they are only
powered by electricity and do not have a petrol engine, fuel tank or exhaust pipe
 They use an external electrical charging outlet to charge the battery which powers the
engine, and regenerative braking
 Must be plugged in for extended periods of time to charge – doesn’t re-fill instantly like
gasoline or fuel cell cars
 Charging can be done at home
 Produces less emissions than a conventional gasoline vehicle
 When battery electric EVs are powered by the cleanest electricity grids, greenhouse gas
emissions from EVs are comparable to a car getting over 100 miles per gallon. When
charged exclusively with renewable electricity like solar or wind, charging and operating
an EV can be nearly emission free.
 For travelling shorter distances
 Examples are the BMW i3 and the Nissan Leaf

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 2.5 latest hybrid car in the current market
Table 2 latest hybrid car in the current market

Car Technology Fuel Electric Transmissio Length x Range

n Width x
Height (m3)
1.5 L Gasoline 288 V Electric 1 - speed 4.275 x 1.695 EPA Rated:
DOHC I4; CR- Motor; 40 hp; 30 planetary gear x 1.491 20.4 kmpl
13.5:1; kW @ 940 rpm
Torque: 102 Torque: 305 Nm
Nm @ 4000 @ 0 rpm
rpm; 58 hp,
43 kW @
NHW10 (1997-2001) 4000 rpm
1.5 L Gasoline 500 V Electric 1 - speed 4.450 x 1.725 EPA Rated
DOHC I4 VVT- Motor; 67 hp; 50 planetary gear x 1.490 19.77 kmpl
I; Torque: kW @ 1200 rpm
115 Nm @ Torque: 400 Nm
4200 rpm 76 @ 0 rpm
hp; 57 kW @
5000 rpm

Toyota Prius (XW20): 2nd

Generation (2004-2009)
1.5L Gasoline 520V Electric E-CVT 4.000 x 1.690 EPA Rated:
DOHC 16- Motor; 60 hp; 45 x 1.450 21.04 kmpl
valve I4 VVT- kW Torque: 169
I; CR- 13.4:1; Nm
Torque: 111
Nm @ 4000
Toyota Prius c (2011-present) rpm 73 hp;
54 kW @
4800 rpm

1.8 L Gasoline 650 V Electric 1-speed 4.460 x 1.745 EPA rated:

4-cylinder Motor; 80 hp; 60 planetary gear x 1.490 40.38 kmpl
DOHC I4 VVT- kW Torque: 207
I; CR- 13:1; 98 Nm Hybrid
hp 73 kW @ mode:
5200 rpm; 21.26 kmpl
Torque: 142 6
Nm @ 4000
Toyota Prius Plug-In Hybrid rpm
(2012present)

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 1.4 L Gasoline Two Electric CVT 4.498 x 1.788 Extended
DOHC I4; CR- Motors - 111 kW x 1.438 Range:
10.5:1; 84 hp; (drive motor) ; 54 563.27 km
63 kW @ kW (generator
4800 rpm; motor); 149 hp;
Torque: NA Torque: 368 Nm

Chevrolet Volt (2011present)

Not A synchronous NA 3.800 x 1.840 On Battery:
Applicable motor: 16 kW x 1.200 110 km
Torque: 50 Nm
Solar Power:
600W

Astrolab - Venturi Automobiles

Not Electro Motor: 16 NA 2.860 x 1.850 On Battery:

Applicable kW/21 Bhp x 1.750 50 km
Torque: 50 Nm
Solar roof: 8 m2
Solar Power: 72
W Wind Power:
300W

Eclectic - Venturi Automobiles

1.3 L LDA DC Brushless CVT 4.376 x 1.695 EPA rated:

series I4 8 Motor; 144 V; 13 x 1.425 17.54 kmpl
valve SOHC i- hp; 9.7 kW @
VTEC ; 98 hp; 1500 rpm;
73 kW @ Torque: 79 Nm
5800 rpm; @ 1000 rpm
Torque: 167
Nm @ 1000-
1700 rpm

Honda Insight (ZE2) (20102014)

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 1.3 L i- 10 kW motor; CVT 3.900 x 1.695 21.24 kmpl
VTEC+IMA; Torque: 78 Nm x 1.525
CR- 10.8:1; 65
kW ; Torque:
121 Nm

Honda Jazz Hybrid

1.5 L Gasoline DC Brushless CVT 4.080 x 1.740 EPA rated:

SOHC 16- Motor; 14 hp; 10 x 1.395 15.73 kmpl
valve iVTEC; kW @ 1500 rpm
111 hp; 83 Torque: 79 Nm
kW @ 6000 @ 1000 rpm
rpm; Torque:
144 Nm @
4800 rpm

Honda CR-Z (ZF-1) (2010present)

1.4 L Gasoline DC brushless PM CVT 4.525 x 1.755 EPA rated:

SOHC motor 108172 V; x 1.430 18.7 kmpl
iVTEC+IMA 23 hp; 17 kW @
I4; CR- 1546-3000 rpm;
10.8:1; 110 Torque: 105.75
hp @ 5500 Nm @ 500-1546
rpm; Torque: rpm
172.19 Nm @
1000-3500
Honda Civic Hybrid: 3rd rpm
Generation (2011present)

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 3.Conclusion
A hybrid car is one that uses more than one means of propulsion - that means combining a petrol
or diesel engine with an electric motor or other matching energy systems. The main advantages
of a hybrid are that it should consume less fuel and emit less CO2 than a comparable
conventional petrol or diesel-engine vehicle, but they have less power, poorer handling and can
be expensive. the most common type of hybrid vehicle is Hybrid electric vehicle which
combines ic engine with electric motor . based on the their arrangement and degree of
hybridization, they can be classified in to different types. Nowadays different car companies are
manufacturing various models of hybrid car, but due to their expensiveness they are limited to be
used by everyone.

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 4 References
1 C. C. Chan, BThe state of the art of electric and hybrid vehicles,[ Proc. IEEE, vol. 90, no. 2,
pp. 247–275, Feb. 2002.

2.Karan C. Prajapati 1,*, Ravi Patel 2 and Rachit Sagar 3. Hybrid Vehicle, International Journal
of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) ISSN: 2278-0181 Vol. 3 Issue 12, December-
2014

3. M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory
and Design, CRC Press, 2005

4.Moulik,B.;Karbaschian,M.A.;Soff ker,D.SizeandParameterAdjustmentofaHybridHydraulicPow
ertrain Using a Global Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithm. In Proceedings of the IEEE
Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Beijing, China, 15–18 October 2013.

5.Samuel E. de Lucena (September 6th 2011). A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Technology, Electric Vehicles - The Benefits and Barriers, Seref Soylu, IntechOpen, DOI:
10.5772/18046.

6.https://www.emobilitysimplified.com/2019/12/ev-types-bev-vs-plugin-hybrid-fuelcell.php

7. https://www.blogs.umass.edu/p139eck/2012/10/24/types-of-hybrid-vehicles/
9.https://www.seminarsonly.com/Labels/Hybrid-Electric-Vehicle-PDF.php

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