Paraffin Wax Deposition

(The Challenges associated and Mitigation techniques,a Review)

Subhrojit Mukherjee
B.Tech Petroleum Engineering,3rd year student
Presidency University Bengaluru Vandana Amaresh
Bengaluru,India B.Tech Petroleum Engineering,3rd year student
msubhrohit@gmail.com Presidency University Bengaluru
Bengaluru,India
vandanaamar1804@gmail.com

Utkarsha Kakoty I. INTRODUCTION

B.Tech Petroleum Engineering,3rd year student
Presidency University Bengaluru
Crude oil is a major source of energy across the globe.
Bengaluru,India
Since Industrial revolution demand for crude oil has seen a
Utkarshakakity18@gmail.com
constant surge. Oil enters the pipeline at 60-7O degree
Celsius and because the ocean water is much colder (4°C in
Abstract— deep waters), it cools down along its way up to the platform.
Objective:Paraffin wax is a soft, colorless solid obtained from Therefore, heavy hydrocarbons precipitate off the oil as it
crude oil when crude oil temperature drops below WAT(wax flows through the pipeline, since their solubility decreases as
appearance temperature), thus striking up a major flow temperature is decreased. The precipitated paraffin deposits on
assurance challenge for engineering professionals. To cater to the the tube inner wall, forming a solid layer that narrows the flow
growing energy demands, the explorers are moving towards passage and eventually reduces drastically the rate of flow.
arctic environment and ocean waters of high bathymetry, but
because of severely low temperature, as soon as the temperature
of crude drops below WAT(Wax Appearance Temperature) ,
paraffin wax is precipitated. The precipitated paraffin poses
serious threat to flow rate, which is a well-known production
problem.
Challenge: Three classes of problems associated with paraffin
deposition in petroleum production are supercritical fluid
phenomena in the reservoir, temperature changes in the
production tubing and pressure and temperature changes in
surface facilities, gathering systems, and trunk lines.
Observations: Extensive literature study suggest that paraffin
wax deposition causes severe operational problems in the oilfield
leading to reduced production rates, equipment malfunctioning
and shut downs. This problem can sometimes exacerbate to such Figure : Global Crude Oil Supply and
a highly serious difficulty that it may compel to abandon the Demand
entire field (Lasmo field, UK was abandoned at a cost of
$100,000,000). During routine maintenance or any emergency Courtesy: Thomson Reuters
situation precipitation of wax leads to wax-oil gel that could Crude oil contains significant amount of wax in the range of
include entire cross section of pipeline. The commonly used
solution techniques as found during literature studies are: Cold
3–44% which would crystallize and precipitate during
flow, Chemical additives, and different pipes and coating extraction and transportation, and result higher oil viscosity
techniques, heat applications, chemical additives, Magnetic Fluid and higher pour point values. Globally the problem of Paraffin
Conditioning (MFC) technology and use of microbial products. Wax deposition is a cause of concern for Oil and Gas
Scope of this paper: This paper presents a detailed discussion of companies because of the decrease in cavitation bubbles
various challenges posed due to paraffin wax deposition and within the production tubing, which lead to high cost of
methods used in industry to prevent wax-deposition and maintenance and low productivity of the wells.
mitigation techniques and performs a comparative study of these
techniques based on their advantages and shortcomings.
Figure 3:  Wax contents, API gravity, WAT, and pour point
Keywords— values of waxy  crude oil from diverse regions. 
 Researchers suggest approximately 85% of world’s crude oil
suffer problem due to paraffin wax. Paraffin control in
domestic production costs the petroleum industry an estimated
$41%to $5 million annually. This paper focusses on the
mechanisms of wax deposition, challenges caused due to wax
deposition and the paraffin wax management.
II. MECHANISM OF WAX DEPOSITION

A. Molecular diffusion:
Oil is considered to have a laminar flow through any pipes or
through the thin sub-layers adjacent to the pipe walls. When
oil is cooled, we find there is a temperature gradient across
this sub-laminar layer. If the temperature between these sub-
layers is considered below the level where solid waxy crystals
can be precipitated and the flowing elements of oil will
contain precipitated solid particles. The liquid phase will be in
equilibrium with the solid phase and the liquid will be
saturated with the dissolved wax crystals. The temperature Figure: Illustration of how wax molecules
profile near the wall will lead to a concentration gradient of diffuse to form the wax deposit layer
dissolved wax which will be transported toward the wall by Source: 10.15406/oajs.2018.02.00054(DOI)
molecular diffusion. When this diffusing material reaches the
solid/liquid interface, it will be precipitated out of solution. It B. Brownian diffusion:
is considered that molecular diffusion has two process: wax When small waxy crystals are suspended in oil, it will
gel formation and then the ageing of the deposited wax gel. continuously be bombarded by thermal agitated oil molecules.
This collision leads to Brownian movements of the particles.
a)Petroleum wax deposits contain some entrapped crude oil, Having concentration gradient of the particle, the Brownian
water, gums, resins, sand and asphaltenes, depending on the motion will lead to net transport , which in nature and
nature of the particular crude oil. The trapped oil in the wax mathematically described similar to diffusion. These agitated
deposit causes diffusion of wax molecules into the gel deposit oil molecules bombard precipitated wax particles which are
and counter-diffusion of oil out of the gel deposit.A fraction of then suspended in waxy-oil flows. This creates an irregular
hydrocarbons with carbon numbers above a certain value (the movement of wax particles.
critical carbon number) precipitate out of the oil as stable
crystals to form a gel with the remaining hydrocarbons trapped
in the gel network.

b) In the gel deposit, the fraction of molecules with carbon

numbers greater than the critical carbon number increases,
while that of molecules with carbon numbers lower than the
critical carbon number decreases. The diffusion and counter-
diffusion, leading to hardening of the gel deposit, increases the
size of the deposit, and increases the amount of wax in the gel
deposit; this process is called aging, the second stage of wax
deposition.

Figure: Investigation of wax deposition from oil.

Source:
C. Shear dispersion: when small particles are suspended in a
fluid that has laminar flow, particles tend to move in the
direction of surrounding fluid at the mean speed. Here, the
speed of the particle is that of the streamline at the centre.
Particles rotate with angular velocity that is half the fluid
shear rate. When particles approach the solid boundary,
both linear and angular velocities will be reduced. Due to
fluid viscosity rotating particles will impart a circulatory
motion to a layer of fluid adjacent to the particle. This
rotation motion will create a drag force on the neighboring
particles. In a shear field, each particle passes and interacts
with nearby particles in slower or faster moving
streamlines. When only two particles are present, far from
a wall and at a very low Reynolds number, these passing
encounters result in large temporary displacements. As the
particles pass, their trajectories are such that the particles
curve around one another and return to their original
streamline. Thus, there is no net lateral displacement. If the
particle concentration is high, however, then a significant
number of multiparticle interactions will occur. These
multiparticle collisions result in net lateral transport and a
dispersing of particles.
D. ) Gravity Settling:
The precipitated waxy crystals are much denser than the oil
phase. if particles were non interacting, they would settle in a
gravity field and could be deposited on the bottom of pipes or
tanks. For an initially uniform mixture in a vessel, there would
be a beginning rate of settling followed by a diminishing rate
of deposition, which asymptotically would approach zero at
complete settling.
Figure: Paraffin Wax deposition in pipeline
III. PROBLEMS CAUSED DUE TO WAX DEPOSITION
Problems related to crystallization and deposition of
paraffin waxes during production and transportation of crude
oil cause losses worth billions of dollars yearly to petroleum
industry. Paraffin wax deposition creates both technical and
economic concerns. Here we have discussed some of the
technical and economic concerns associated with paraffin
deposition.
Technical Challenges :
Some of the commonly reported Industrial problems due to
wax precipitation and deposition are:
1.Formation Damage when wax deposition occurs adjacent to
wellbore.
2. Changes in the reservoir fluid composition and fluid
rheology due to phase separation as wax solid precipitates.
3. Reduction in the interior diameter and eventual plugging of
production strings and flow channels (see Figure 4).
4. Changes in the reservoir fluid composition and fluid
rheology due to phase separation as wax solid precipitates.
5. Additional strain on pumping equipment owing to increased
pressure drop along flow channel consequent to rheological
changes as wax begins to crystallize.
6. Reduces operating capacity of entire production system.
Figure: Severity of wax deposition
7. Supercritical Solvent Effects in the Reservoir.
8. Temperature Changes in Production Tubing.
9. Pressure and Temperature Changes in Surface Facilities and
Pipelines.
10. Wax crystallization in crude oil may cause three problems:
high viscosity, leading to pressure losses; high yield stress for
restarting the flow, and deposition of wax crystallites on
surfaces.
Now we will discuss some of the major challenges caused due
to Paraffin Wax deposition.
1.Formation damage during oil recovery : Formation damage
owing to paraffin or asphaltene deposition has been a recurrent
challenge in crude oil production. Formation damage refers to
reduced formation permeability resulting in additional pressure
loss during fluid transportation through porous media. The
addition of large amount of cold fluids during acidizing or
fracturing in low Bottom hole temperature wells cause paraffin
wax deposition and hence subsequent formation damage.
Paraffin is precipitated from crude oil at an equilibrium
temperature and pressure called cloud point. Paraffin wax
contains a mixture of linear and branched chained hydrocarbon
in the range of C18H38 to C60H122, generally mixed with
organic and inorganic materials like crude oil, gums, resins,
asphaltic material, salt, sand, clay and water. The accumulation
of paraffin wax near the wellbore area and formation face
causes formation damage. Paraffin deposition when occurs in
reservoir, can severely deter production as it results in severe
formation damage.
2. Effects of Wax Deposition on the Flow Assurance of
Hydrocarbon:
The term ‘Flow Assurance’ refers to process of ensuring the
successful and economical flow of hydrocarbon stream
transported from the reservoir to the point of sale. Flow
assurance is considered in petroleum flow routes at every stage
of production. Wax poses a major flow-assurance issue that
create pressure abnormalities and causes an artificial blockage.
Wax precipitation leads to flow restriction during the oil flow,
which consequently causes problems when trying to restart the
flow. If production is halted due to some emergency situations,
then solubility and temperature of wax decreases.
3. Supercritical Solvent Effects in the Reservoir:
Reservoir fluids lie at equilibrium with the reservoir over
geologic time. The reservoir temperature typically exceeds the
critical temperature of several of the light ends, such as
methane and ethane, and associated non-hydrocarbon gases,
such as nitrogen and C02 . These '' supercritical'' components
are known to act as effective solvents for heavy ends. During
production of crude oil, a pressure gradient is established from
reservoir to surface and hence as the crude oil travels up from
the reservoir to surface it experiences continuous decrease in
pressure, which lowers the carrying capacity of the
supercritical-solvent fraction and hence the dissolved heavy
end starts precipitating. This heavy ends gets deposited in the
pore walls, reducing the mobility of the crude oil, thereby
hampering production.
4. Temperature Changes in Production Tubing:
The most common example of the paraffin problem observed
in production is paraffin deposition in production tubing. Due
to reduced temperature the supercritical solvent fraction loses
it’s carrying capacity and hence the wax precipitates on tubing
walls, reducing the flow diameter of tubing, which adversely
affects production.
Figutre: Cumulative solids precipitation vs.
temperature for a North Sea crude oil
5. Pressure and Temperature Changes in Surface Facilities and
Pipelines :
Economic Concerns:
The critical role of economics in crude oil production makes
wax deposition a significant economic concern to the industry
due to the following:
1. Developing paraffinic oil reservoirs demand higher capital
investment and operating cost, thus putting higher financial
strain on operators of such field. Paraffin deposition can also
lead to abandonment when it becomes uneconomical to
produce crude oil due to blockage of surface facilities.
2. The additional cost of paraffin wax management in small
and marginal fields can aggravate the risk factor in developing
such fields due to greater risk of abandonment of such fields.
IV. MITIGATION TECHNIQUE
Since, paraffin deposition causes huge economic and
technical challenges designing proper mitigation technique is
of paramount importance. Paraffin wax management has
broadly two categories:
1. Mitigation of deposition
2. Removal of paraffin wax deposits
There are four approaches to control wax deposition:
1. Mechanical
2. Thermal
3. Chemical
4. Microbial
MECHANICAL :
Mechanical wax removal techniques are the oldest wax
removal technique in industry.The mechanical method deals
with the phase of already deposited paraffin from inside the
pore walls of tubing and other equipment (such as flow lines,
pipeline, and separators) mechanically using devices known as
pigs, scrapers or cutters. Scrapers or cutters are economical
option and cause minimal formation damage. Scrapers may be
attached to wireline pumps or sucker rods, which will remove
the wax as the well is pumped. By forcing soluble or insoluble
pigs through surface pipelines, we can clear wax. While
soluble pigs are made of naphthalene or microcrystalline wax,
insoluble pigs are made of plastic or hard rubber.
The efficacy of the pigging process can vary extensively,
depending on pigs design, as well as other parameters. The
Pipeline-Inspection gauges (PIG) is the most widely used wax
removal technique. A PIG is launched from PIG launcher,
which is a section of pipeline, gradually reducing to normal
size of pipeline. As the PIG is launched, the launching station
is closed and the pressure-driven flow of hydrocarbon in
pipeline pushes the PIG through receiving centre. The PIG
will scrape off the wax from pipeline walls while travelling.
Advantages: The mechanical methods are economical.
The efficiency of gas-lift wells improve by using free piston is
used to remove paraffin deposition.
Use of PIG ensures low labour-cost, simplicity of operation,
less downtime as cleaning is faster.
Disadvantages : Plugging of perforations within wells as a
result of circulation of scraped paraffin wax.
Wireline scrappers may get stuck during post-cleaning
operation.
Retrieving a PIG that is stuck in pipeline is very expensive.
Figure: PIG launcher
Figure: Use of PIG
THERMAL :
The problem of wax precipitation being temperature sensitive,
thermal methods are found very effective in wax precipitation
prevention. Thermal methods for removing wax deposition
include:
• Hot oiling
• Hot watering
In hot oiling, the wax is melted by hot oil as the hot oil or
water is pumped into well at 150-300 degree Fahrenheit
through casing or tubing. Before considering the thermal
treatment we must ensure the oil in reservoir must remain well
insulated. Heat treatment should be applied as early as
possible before large paraffin wax is deposited.
Advantage : Simplicity of operation as it doesn’t require
complex instrumentation.
Disadvantage: Heat capacity of injected fluid being much
lower than heat capacity of well, the injected fluid starts
cooling faster and hence it’s effectiveness reduces if wax
deposition is at lower depth. Moreover hot oil injection may
cause formation damage over time.
CHEMICAL:
1. Crystal Wax Modifiers
Figure: Schematic representation of wax crystal
modifier crystallization with wax crystal
1.Crystal Wax Modifier
Mechanism: Wax crystal modifiers are materials that have
similar chemical structure to the wax that is precipitating. The
typical wax crystal modifiers are polymeric compounds
constituted by one or more hydrocarbon chain(s) (wax-like)
and polar portion. This type of compounds can co-precipitate
or co-crystallize with wax by occupying the position of wax
molecules on the crystal lattice through the hydrocarbon
chains; meanwhile, it also places a steric hindrance on the
crystal which can interfere the growth and aggregation of wax
crystals, and frequently reduce the pour point of crude oils.
They are also called Pour-pointy-depressants. Pour point is the
temperature at which oil will flow freely under its own weight
and specified test condition. Pederson and Ronningsen
concluded performance of wax crystal modifiers was a strong
function of ability to crystalize with wax. Below are the
discussion about some of the recently developed wax
modifier.
Ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA): Compared to other
polymers, ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymers (EVA) are the
most extensively used wax crystal modifiers. It has been
recognized that the EVA copolymers exhibit varying degree of
capacity in controlling the size of formed wax crystals. When
EVA is successfully used, the produced crystals are
considerably smaller and more numerous than those
crystallized from untreated systems. The effect of asphaltene
on the EVA performance with respect to flow properties’
enhancement of wax synthetic systems was done by Brar and
Kumar. The performance of the wax crystal modifier improves
if there is synergism between EVA and solvent.
Newly developed polymers: A synthetic polymer,
polyoctadecylmethacrylate (ODMA), was used for wax
inhibition by Wang et al. (2003). In this study, the ability of
ODMA compared to some commercial wax inhibitors with
respect to WAT depression and wax deposition was evaluated.
In the case of ODMA, the wax deposition was decreased by
more than 50 %. However, it has no discernible effect on
heavy paraffin (C35 and above) deposition, which is similar
for most of the commercial chemicals.
Advantages:
1. The performance of wax crystal modifiers is strongly
dependant on the capacity of polymer to co-crystallize with
wax; in other words, it is related not only to structure of
polymers but also to the composition of wax. For example,
EVA 30 which contains 30 wt% of vinyl acetate is the most
efficient polymer than EVA 20, 40, and 80; meanwhile, this
copolymer is more effective for the systems having high
carbon number paraffins. The efficiency of MAC polymers as
flow improvers increases with the length of side chains.
2. Wax crystal modifiers are usually used combining with
solvents, through which the wax inhibition efficiency could be
further improved.
3. Asphaltenes exhibit different effects on the performance of
wax crystal modifiers depending on the measured properties,
such as yield stress, pour point, and wax deposition.
4. Numerous polymeric wax crystal modifiers have been
experimentally investigated. However, theoretical modelling
are extremely necessary to correlate the molecular structure of
polymers with the corresponding performance to predict the
efficiency of wax inhibition.
5. Crystal Wax modifier works at molecular level and hence it
hence they are effective in concentration of parts per
million(ppm).
Limitation: Since, they have high molecular weight and
hence high [pour point, their user can be severely limited in
cold climate.
The wax crystal modifier must be used before bulk
temperature of crude oil drops below WAT.
2. EMULSIFICATION:
Adding surfactants to promote emulsification can reduce the
tendency for wax deposition. With the presence of water,
paraffin-related issues involve not only the deposition of wax
on the pipe walls, but also wax particles that may form but
stay suspended in solution. Wax and other solids may stabilize
produced oil/water mixtures, with the operational concern that
this stabilized emulsion will impede the efficient separation of
the produced fluids into a clean water and oil phases at the
surface treatment facilities.
ADVANTAGES:
• This emulsification method may be able to inhibit selectively
the deposition of higher molecular weight paraffin
components. If properly designed, such treatments then may
reduce the total amount of wax that is deposited, plus leave a
softer wax versus performing no chemical treatment.
• The CoDWaD (“Cold Disk” Wax Deposition apparatus) is a
convenient tool to examine rapidly both multiphase and
hydrodynamic effects on wax deposition.
3. Oil Well paraffin prevention Chemicals:
Paraffin deposition in oil fields is an expensive and time
consuming problem. Paraffin deposits are normally
attributed to cold temperatures, but evaporation of light
ends and gases can also cause solids to deposit from the
crude oil. Since high-wax crude oils are viscoelastic the
flow rate and pressure are also important.
ADVANTAGES
Chemical paraffin preventions have stopped paraffin
formation in lab flow tests.
Field results with chemical paraffin preventions correlate with
lab flow tests. Soluble, low molecular weight ethylene co-
polymers prevent paraffin formation in lab flow tests.
3.Chemical Solvents:
Chemical solvents are used when crude oil is highly sensitive
to surfactants. They are helpful in removing only a specific
weight of wax dependent on molecular weight, pressure and
temperature. Carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide ,
kerosene and diesel oil are some commonly used chemicals
Advantages : Inexpensive and doesn’t require complex
instrumentaion.
Disadvantage: This method is less helpful if it’s required to
dissolve wax plugs with larger mass.
4. DISPERSANTS
Dispersants are a type of surfactants that acts to disperse the
wax crystals into the produced oil or water, thereby preventing
wax deposition and effect positively on the viscosity and gel
strength. Dispersants breaks up deposited wax into smaller
particles capable of being carried in the oil stream. To
remediate deposited wax, dispersants can be used
continuously or in batch treatments. They generally have a
very low pour point making their use suitable for cold
climates. These chemicals are used in low concentrations and
can be formulated in both aqueous and hydrocarbon solutions,
making them relatively safe and inexpensive.
Advantage:
1. Solvent treatments of wax and asphaltene depositions are
often the most successful remediation methods
· 2. Mixing xylene or toluene together with an aliphatic
solvent has shown to increase the wax removal efficiency.
Addition of surfactants can also serve to enhance the
performance of the solvent by increasing the dispersion action
on the waxes. Other solvents have shown such as benzene,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, and carbon disulfide have shown a
good level of success.
Disadvantages:
1. Commercially available inhibitors tend to be of limited
efficacy.
2. PPD does not entirely prevent the wax precipitation, but
rather shifts its manifestation toward a lower temperature
3. They are costly therefore, are reserved for applications
where hot oil or hot water techniques have shown little
success.
4. Many of these solvents are not environmental friendly.
Many also possess dangerous risks related to low flash points,
such as the aromatic solvents, and corrosion problems, as seen
with chlorinated hydrocarbons.
· A green solvent ―Terpene‖, derived from natural and
renewable sources has been utilized alternative to the
conventional solvents for wax remediation.Terpenel has low
toxicity, less flammable, rapidly biodegradable and has high
solvency for organic deposit comparable to aromatic solvents.
Terpene is good surfactant which is environmental friendly.
Microbial Techniques:
• In recent decades, microbial methods have proven effective
in the mitigation and prevention of paraffin deposition, and are
considered an alternative to conventional methods. Microbial
paraffin removal is a technique that uses microbes or their
metabolic byproducts (e.g., biosurfactants and paraffin
solvents) for the control in, and removal of paraffin deposition
from, oil wells and production facilities.
• Although not widely used this technique was applied in
Mehsana Asset of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation.
Microbial treatment for the control of paraffin deposits should
be based on bacterial products which are paraffinic oil using,
non-pathogenic naturally-occurring, and the byproducts of
which are alcohols, gases, acids, emulsifiers and
biosurfactants, which cause marked changes in the
physicochemical properties of paraffinic oil and the well-bore
area .
Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. have frequently been
reported to be the most effective microorganisms in the
biodegradation of heavy hydrocarbons and the prevention of
paraffin deposition.
Advantage: This method is cost-effective and eco-friendly.
Disadvantage: This treatment can be used in wells producing
water and bottom-hole temperature less than 200 degree
Fahrenheit. This is because microbes require water to survive
and may not be able to survive extremely high temperature.
Upcoming Technologies:
Magnetic Fluid Conditioning:
This is an innovative technology, in which when a fluid is
exposed to magnetic fields, the solid precipitation from the
fluid gets affected. When the fluids in pipelines gets directed
across powerful magnets wax crystal growth is hindered and
hence solid deposition Is inhibited. Although several patents
have been derived from this technology, this is a more
expensive process due to requirements of complex
instrumentation.
Cold Flow:
Coberly(1942) suggested that wax precipitation can be
retarded by lowering the temperature of the oil containing wax
to well below wax crystallization temperature. It was also
mentioned that by adding fine particles of resins with melting
point greater than wax-crystallization temperature the resin
particles acted as nucleation site and hence it prevented wax
deposition.
Figure: Cold Flow Scheme
The figure below explains the working mechanism of this
technology. Warm oil containing dissolved wax enters the
reactor and at the same time cold oil/condensates enters the
reactor. When warm and the cold oil mixes the precipitators
precipitates as small crystal on nucleating sites and carried by
hydrocarbon without causing deposits or blockage. This
technique is still in stages of laboratory testing and
prototyping.

Figure: Cold Flow method for transporting Crude oil
containing wax.
IV CONCLUSION
Wax deposition is commonly faced challenge by Petroleum
engineers around the globe. As discussed, wax might
precipitates as a solid phase on the wall of a pipe when
temperature drops below the wax temperature. Wax
precipitation depends on temperature and hydrocarbon
composition. It hinders the pour point, viscosity and in turn
mobility of oil through the pipes creating blockage and
interruption in production. There are mostly four wax
deposition mechanisms: molecular diffusion, Brownian
diffusion, shear dispersion and gravity settling, which have
been discussed. Molecular diffusion was taken into account
for further remedy of the problems as it is the most dominant
factor. The paper also discusses paraffin wax management,
which encompasses a discussion on mechanical, thermal,
chemical and microbial wax deposition preventing methods
along with their advantage and disadvantage.
V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We sincerely acknowledge the support and guidance provided
by our faculty Mr. Anmol Bharghav towards successfully
conducting this review paper.
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