Course: Curriculum Development (8603)

9
Semester: Autumn, 2019

Level: B.Ed (One and half year)

Assignment NO 01

io
Q.1 Analyze various definitions of curriculum and write a comprehensive definition of
curriculu. Evaluate the curriculum development process in Pakistan at the university level.

The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a

ud
specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by
a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly
educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills
students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards or learning
objectives they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments
and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a
course; and the tests, assessments, and other methods used to evaluate student learning. An
St
individual teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons,
assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a particular course.

Curriculum Evaluation
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to determine whether or not the newly adopted
U

curriculum is producing the intended results and meeting the objectives that it has set forth, and
it is an essential component in the process of adopting and implementing any new curriculum in
any educational setting. Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is to gather data that will help
in identifying areas in need of improvement or change.
IO

Why Is It Necessary?
There are several parties, or stakeholders, interested in the process and results of curriculum
evaluation.
A

 Parents are interested because they want to be assured that their children are being
provided with a sound, effective education.
 Teachers are interested because they want to know that what they are teaching in the
classroom will effectively help them cover the standards and achieve the results they
know parents and administration are expecting.
 The general public is interested because they need to be sure that their local schools are
doing their best to provide solid and effective educational programs for the children in the
area.
  Administrators are interested because they need feedback on the effectiveness of their

9
curricular decisions.
 Curriculum publishers are interested because they can use the data and feedback from a
curriculum evaluation to drive changes and upgrades in the materials they provide.

In the end, the goal is always to make sure that students are being provided with the best

io
education possible. Because the curriculum is a huge part of this, curriculum evaluation is a
means of deciding whether or not the chosen curriculum is going to bring the school closer to
that goal.

Models for Curriculum Evaluation

ud
Let's take a closer look at several of the models available for curriculum evaluation:
The Tyler Model
The Tyler model, a curriculum evaluation model that takes into account information from the
active learner and pays close attention to how well the goals and objectives of the curriculum are
supported by the experiences and activities provided, was named after its creator, Ralph Tyler,
and focuses on four main areas:
St
 The purpose of the curriculum being evaluated (the objectives)
 The experiences that are provided to support that purpose (the strategies and content)
 How these experiences are organized (organization of the content)
 How the outcomes are evaluated (assessment)

It has been criticized, however, for its simplicity and because assessment is a final step rather
than an ongoing part of the process.
U

The Taba Model

The Taba model, a curriculum evaluation model emphasizing inductive reasoning, was created
by Hilda Taba who believed that true curriculum should be developed by the teacher, rather than
IO

decided upon by administration or another authority. The Taba model, also called the ''Inductive
Approach,'' uses a series of stages or steps, which can be applied in both the development and
evaluation of curriculum.
These stages are:
A

1. Deciding on objectives
2. Selecting content

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or
problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to
be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the
members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify,
the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.
(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

9
Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and
functions of team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the curriculum development
team, and (3) principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the

io
areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an
effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a

ud
needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and
by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP -
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the
data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between
knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and
St
identification of the characteristics of the target audience.

"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"

Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in
curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught).
Steps include:
U

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and
prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended
IO

outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able
to do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended
outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4)
an overview of learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of
A

learning behaviours is included in the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from
FAO population education materials.

(5) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a
real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the
primary questions are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to
know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and

9
practiced?"

The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of
the content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is
provided in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are

io
linked with content.

(6) Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help
the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's

ud
components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this
section.

Additional topics include:

1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;

2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
St
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

3.

Q.2Compare the recommendations regarding curriculum reforms contained in the last two
U

educational policies and highlight the main differences.

Curriculum Reform
Curriculum reform that changes the shape and nature of postsecondary degrees must reflect
IO

generally acknowledged academic standards of excellence; skills, knowledge, and understanding

to help students prepare for the future; and the goals and mission of the institution. No effort at
reform can succeed without adequate support for the faculty who have primary responsibility for
the curriculum, nor can it succeed unless it addresses the needs of a diverse student population.
The goals of higher education curricula should include mastery of basic skills, active
A

participation in the learning process, in-depth study, critical thinking, understanding of a

discipline's characteristic methods, and a coherent and relevant course of study. The goals should
also be consistent with NEA principles such as faculty control, equal access to quality education
for all students, and multicultural understanding.
Any effort at curriculum revision should be designed to prepare all students for effective
citizenship and participation in an increasingly diverse society. A common body of intellectual
reference must be inclusive of multicultural and multinational perspectives. A diverse student
population enriches the knowledge base of all students.
 NEA recommends the following:

9
o Curricula must express the goals and mission of individual institutions and address the needs of
students.
o In designing the college's curriculum and schedule, the faculty should take the responsibility to
ensure that it is suited to the needs of a diverse society, and that it is flexible enough to allow

io
access for different kinds of students (adult learners, students who work, part-time students,
transfers, and nontraditional students).
o Curricula must be flexible enough to allow for the incorporation of new technologies and modes
of delivery while maintaining a constant focus on quality.
o Faculty should be responsible for periodic review of curricula within their disciplines or related

ud
disciplines.
o Comments generated and materials compiled in the context of a faculty-driven curriculum
review should be used solely for that purpose and should not be used for discontinuance of
programs or courses.
o Teaching and curriculum development are major parts of the faculty's role. Those faculty
involved should be adequately compensated for these activities.
St
o General education courses are an important part of the core curriculum, and as such, institutions
should provide the necessary staff and resources to ensure student success.
o Major curriculum revisions and articulation agreements at colleges and universities should
involve consultation with faculty members at other educational institutions affected by the
changes.

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education
U

(public and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties,
students, physical infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also
includes the institutions that are directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating
IO

such institutions (like government ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations,
textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and regulations that guide the individual
and institutional interactions within the set up are also part of the education system.

Education system of Pakistan:

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating
A

41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public
institutions and 80,057 private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private
sector while 69% are public institutes.

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by
education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on
education. In this regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to
increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational
institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of

9
literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in
Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental
human right in the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of

io
opportunity, remain endemic.

Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving
its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:

ud
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015,
children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary
schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of
students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing
enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in
net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in
St
Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.

Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is
aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all
levels of education not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female
literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-
13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for
females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70%
U

and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.

B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal
IO

primary education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and
quality of education as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary
education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education.
Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it
up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4
A

million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56%
are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the
year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among
males.

C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which
promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national
examination system under state responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal

9
included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP
to 5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary
schools.

io
(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all
secondary enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.

Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the

ud
development of education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major
problems such as:

1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it
seems that it will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial
management issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
St
2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision
of education are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are
deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is
difficult and would require a change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary
education is difficult to achieve.

3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural
constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their
U

daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit
family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of
urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important
factor.
IO

4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in
richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and
government schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.

5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the
A

promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational
institutions were blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA.
This may have to contribute not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.

6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89%
education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11%
comprises of development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.
 7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and

9
vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is
not sufficient and many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The
population of a state is one of the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset
once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which affects
the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority handling by

io
the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor
quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.

An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no

ud
mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.
 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging
national cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the
quality of teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’
training. As a result teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as it
St
would be with a well-trained teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism,
missing basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females,
insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.

Solutions
There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals.
U

An analysis of education policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas,
but practically there are some shortcomings also.
It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system
in the country, but a uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the
IO

country. This will provide equal opportunity to the students of rural areas to compete with
students of urban areas in the job market.
Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a
major problem for them, it seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal
education be adopted. Government as well as non-government sector should work together to
promote education in rural areas.
A

The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by
feudal lords of Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper
education is provided in those schools.
The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is
important to make the already existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so
that skilled youth could be produced.
Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be
strengthened. Special policy planning units should be established in provinces’ education
departments for implementation of educational policies and formulation of new policies
whenever needed. The provincial education departments need to work out financial resources

9
required for realising the compliance of Article 25-A.
Federal Government should play a supportive role vis-à-vis the provinces for the early
compliance of the constitutional obligation laid down in Article 25-A. Special grants can be
provided to the provinces where the literacy rate is low.
Pakistan is not the only country which is facing challenges regarding promotion of literacy and

io
meeting EFA and MDGs commitments. Education remains a subject which is paid least attention
in the whole South Asian region. UNDP report 2014 suggests that there has been an
improvement in other elements of human development such as life expectancy, per capita
income and human development index value (in past 3 years); but there has been no progress in
the number of schooling years. The expected average for years of schooling in 2010 was 10.6
years but the actual average of schooling remained 4.7 for all South Asian countries. In the year

ud
2013 the expected average of number of years increased to 11.2 but the actual average of years
of schooling of South Asian countries remained 4.7. Regional cooperation mechanism can also
be developed to promote literacy in South Asian region. Sharing success stories, making
country-specific modifications and their implementation can generate positive results.
St
Q.3Select any subject from the curriculum of B.Ed 1.5 AIOU and identify the different
foundations of the curriculum from it. Also, highlight the focused foundation that is
reflected at this level of the curriculum with examples.

different foundations of the curriculum

The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum

U

Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching

and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to
achieve students’ learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can
IO

absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum
development:
A

1. Behaviorism
Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter
is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and
repetition are common.
For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many
are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational
system.
2. Cognitivism

9
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

 How do learners process and store information?

io
 How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
 How much information can they absorb?
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and
popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning,
among others.

ud
3. Humanism
Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’
theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.

In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on
St
the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short,
curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are affected
by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals.

A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must be
crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.
U

4. Sociology and Curriculum

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the
school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the
IO

people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as
families and friends as well as communities.

Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and
to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s
country but in the world as well.
A

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and
interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion
of knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or
mandated by the United Nations.

However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and
preserves its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the
country’s responsibility to ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.
focused foundation that is reflected at this level of the curriculum

9
conflicts among those things desired that may not be perceived by those who desire them.

Students want interesting classes; as they get older they want to deal with things they
feel are relevant to their future, free of the major problems of life, e.g. poverty, ill-health,

io
etc. This may mean studying things that get them into the university, if they see this as a
stepping stone to future success. They may also want to learn about things and develop
relationships with others that help address deeply felt concerns about their identity and
the value of living. Some simply want any kind of curriculum that will allow them to
pursue their own private agendas instead.

ud
Parents want their children to be well-cared for and taught things they, the parents,
esteem. They want the school to teach the students what they, the parents, believe
prepares them for the future. Most prefer this to be done in an atmosphere of interest and
congeniality. Parents also want to be esteemed for what their children do and become.

Teachers want to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests and
skills in and esteem for what they, as teachers, esteem. Teachers also want to work at
St
discovering and codifying the effective practices of their profession. They want to enjoy
the esteem of their peers. Teachers often belong to subject-matter interest groups which
pursue their own goals of securing and enhancing their particular disciplinary interests in
the curriculum.

Administrators want to feel they have been instrumental in bringing about school
outcomes they esteem. (Recall Chapter 2) Their relationship to students is often indirect
but the concern is there nonetheless. Administrators tend to have a bigger stake in public
U

and peer esteem since, unlike parents, students, and teachers, their future prospects are
more dependent upon such esteem. Administrators tend to be more career-oriented than
teachers because they are generally not protected by tenure rules and are more removed
from the substantial interpersonal rewards ? and pains ? that close interaction with
IO

students provides.

School Board members, since they are not paid for their efforts, tend either to
represent outside interest groups, or to pursue relatively indivisible benefits through their
participation. There is often a sense of noblesse oblige in that board members come from
A

more comfortable backgrounds than other members of their districts and see their board
membership as a kind of public service. There is also a great deal of personal satisfaction
and community esteem to be gotten with board membership.

Outside interest groups may have concerns which vary in the pursuit from divisible to
indivisible, from positional to absolute benefits. We will see that the most important of
these,for understanding the curriculum of the public schools, are the colleges and
universities and interest groups within them, the subject-matter interest groups, and
certain political and moral movements in our society. In the average American
community, many different groups will be found to have a curricular agenda for the
 schools. They include: The American Legion, The League of Women Voters, The

9
National Association of Manufacturers, The National Rifle Association, The Boy Scouts
of America, local churches, and many, many others.

By this time the reader should be more informed than to expect that an easy harmony, if harmony
at all, can be achieved among the various stakeholders in the school curriculum. We can already

io
discern within each group of stakeholders both individual and social interests. These often
conflict.

In the attempt to reconcile personal and social interests within groups, as well as conflicts among
groups, we will discover the dynamics of the formation of the curriculum. Curriculum is
conceived, nurtured and comes to maturity in a conflictual environment

ud
Q.4 Evaluate the following stages in the process of curriculum development with examples:

a)Formulation of objectives

Research objectives are the goals that you set in your study, that you want to achieve through
St
your study. It informs the readers what you want to research and how far you want to go. It also
informs the readers about the scope and extent of the study. The most important point to consider
is the clarity of the research objectives.

Characteristics of the research objectives

Clear
Clarity is the main focus of the research objectives. The way you word your research objectives
U

tell a lot about your research. The wording should have to be very clear and very well defined.
Not only other people will get to know about your research from the research objectives but you
too need to look at the objectives to make several decisions about your research. Make simple
sentences but clear and avoid complexities in wording.
IO

Complete
Each phrase in the research objectives should have a sense of completeness. Broken sentences
and incomplete objectives can lead you into trouble later on. Here completeness is necessary
because you will be able to decide the extent of your research from your research objectives. A
complete research objective should have information about the population to be studied.
A

Specific
Your research objectives should specifically focus on the what, how when and where questions
and there should be no loopholes.

Identify the main variables of the study

In the research objectives the researcher decides about the main variables of the study. The
variables are the measurable concepts or quantities that will majorly impact your research. The
variables should be well-defined in this phase of the research. You should decide about the
dependent variables, independent variables as well as the control variables, if the research is an

9
experimental research.

Identify the direction of the relationship

Some research studies have hypothesis, in hypothesis testing studies the researcher should define
the direction in which he want to test the variables. This is only done in hypothesis testing

io
studies, in other studies the researcher only mentions the variables.

b)Selection and organization of content

ud
Content pages are organized to be useful to a wide range of users. They provide a definition and
simple overview to the topic, as well as linked references to the most important information
about that topic that is available on the Web or in print. They can also contain additional detail
that is useful for specific audiences, or to explore questions that are a source of active debate
within the profession.
Because of the way that Usability BoK content is managed using a database, it is possible in the
future to use particular chunks of content from a Topic page. For example, if a user indicates that
St
they are an HR manager or journalist, rather than a usability practitioner, they may have the
option to see only the 'overview' (title, definition, and simple description) for each Topic, as a
way of matching the content to their experience and need for information.

Content Selection and Organization

You are working on a course design, and now it is time to decide on the content and how to
organize it. As is often the case, we have far more to say about a topic than we can possibly
U

cover in a term. One rule of thumb is to have students spending from 8-10 hours per week on
your course, including in-class time. So how to decide? Following are some tips to help with
these time-consuming yet crucial tasks.
IO

Finding Content

 Check in your department for past syllabi if you are offering a pre-existing course.
Also be sure to check your institution’s course calendar and read the course description to
ensure that your course meets that stated description.
A

 Locate similar courses at other institutions if your course is new (or you would like
some new ideas). Talk to your colleagues in your discipline area or go to the Web to find
courses.
 Review textbooks in your discipline area. This can be a very easy way to locate not
only possible content to cover but also ready-made organizational structures. Publishers
will send out texts for you to review. Keep your students in mind when choosing texts –
not only their abilities and past experience with the topic areas but also their time
limitations.
 If texts are not available or not appropriate, you may need to create a reading
package or course notes. It will take more time to compile this type of resource, so set
 aside a few months for this activity. Also, be sure to factor in the time that may be needed

9
to receive copyright clearance for copying and selling published materials

Selecting Content

Set some type of criteria to help select appropriate content for your course. Course design

io
literature suggests the following criteria. Course content should:

 Fit with your course learning goals

 Have importance in the discipline
 Be based on or related to research
 Appeal to student interests

ud
 Not overlap excessively with student past experience or knowledge
 Be multi-functional (help teach more than one concept, skill, or problem)
 Stimulate search for meaning
 Encourage further investigation
 Show interrelationships among concepts

Organizing Content
St
Many variations on concept mapping techniques exist to help you decide on an organizational
structure for your content. The key idea is to name, in a word or two, the major topics or
concepts for your course, then try to visually place them on the page. You can use a hierarchical
approach or put the concept in the centre of the page and work out from there. Put the words into
boxes or bubbles and connect them with lines or arrows to show how the material connects. You
may also want to put verbs on the connectors to clarify the relationships between ideas. For an
even more flexible approach, try using an index card or sticky note for each concept, instead of
U

boxes on one sheet of paper, and physically move them around until you see an organization that
makes sense. For more linear thinkers, creating lists of headings and subheadings is equally
effective.
IO

Some suggestions for ordering the topics or concepts include:

 Topic by topic – There are no set relationships amongst the topics, so the ordering is not
critical. This works well for courses that revolve around current issues, for example.
 Chronological – Moving from past to present is a very common and easy to implement
organizational pattern.
A

 Causal – The course presents a number of events or issues that culminate in some final
effect or solution.
 Cumulative – Each concept builds on the previous one(s).
 Problem-centred – Problems, questions, or cases represent the principal
organizing features of the course.
 Spiral – Key topics or concepts are revisited throughout the course, with new
information or insight developing each time.
Within each class, also consider how to organize your material so that students can both learn

9
and retain it. Different philosophies of learning are represented. Some ideas to consider are:

 Start with what students already know and then move to the abstract model or theory.
 Start with concrete examples, such as cases, news items, or other real-world situations,
then generate the abstract concepts.

io
 Start with a solution, conclusion, or model and work backwards to the question.
 Give students time to reflect, individually or through discussion, on what and how they
are learning.
 Build in practice time, with feedback, either in class or on assignments so that students
learn to work with the concepts and can receive assistance with problem areas.

ud
c)Selection and organization of methods

Methods of Organization
In the world of business, methods of organization can be used to convey an idea, relay
information, assemble a procedure and seal a deal. Methods of organization create order and
St
direct the thoughts of the audience interacting with the information. Whether it is creating a
report, sorting data, presenting an idea or organizing facts, choosing a method of organization
sets the stage for decision-making.

Chronological Order of Information

Chronological order places each piece of information into a sequence of dates or time frames.
This method of organization is helpful when reviewing historical data or explaining why or how
U

a particular result occurred over time. It can also be used to highlight the need for a particular
project to occur because of a sequence of events. For example, the need to update, replace or
IO

rebuild a technology infrastructure can be presented using chronology to pinpoint purchase dates
and previous changes.
Order of Importance
A

Organizing data by order of importance helps build the strength of an argument or idea. Each
new piece of information presented builds on the last piece to result in a logical conclusion.
Organizing by importance also works when presenting the most important piece of information
first followed by less important information. Using the most important piece of information first
can capture the attention of the listener while less important pieces of information support the
initial question or idea.
For instance, a presentation designed to sell a medical product might open with the most

9
important fact, such as how many people might be helped by using the product, followed by
information supporting the product facts.
Comparison and Contrast

io
A simple chart of comparison is a method of organization used when a decision must be made
among several products, techniques or job candidates. This method of organization identifies the
similarities and differences among the products or items being discussed. Comparison and

ud
contrast is a method that uses visual tools such as diagrams, charts or lists to convey information.
Geographical Organization Method

Location and geography provide guideposts for sequencing events or organizing business data.
Geography can be used to break down sales data by state, region or city, organize a meeting or
arrange travel plans. Spatial or location information can help organize the placement of a
St
company's various departments within a building and identify more efficient work arrangements
between each group.
Inductive Method of Organization

The inductive method of organization orders information by complexity and places facts before
conclusions and recommendations. Facts are presented as an investigation of the parts and pieces
U

of a problem or issue. Conclusions and recommendations are drawn from the investigation of the
facts. The inductive organization method is useful when rumors or previously drawn conclusions
IO

have caused confusion in the minds of a target audience.

d) Curriculum Evaluation:
A

Curriculum Evaluation:
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to determine whether or not the newly adopted
curriculum is producing the intended results and meeting the objectives that it has set forth, and
it is an essential component in the process of adopting and implementing any new curriculum in
any educational setting. Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is to gather data that will help
in identifying areas in need of improvement or change.

 Parents are interested because they want to be assured that their children are being
provided with a sound, effective education.
  Teachers are interested because they want to know that what they are teaching in the

9
classroom will effectively help them cover the standards and achieve the results they
know parents and administration are expecting.
 The general public is interested because they need to be sure that their local schools are
doing their best to provide solid and effective educational programs for the children in the
area.

io
 Administrators are interested because they need feedback on the effectiveness of their
curricular decisions.
 Curriculum publishers are interested because they can use the data and feedback from a
curriculum evaluation to drive changes and upgrades in the materials they provide.

ud
Q.5 Compare and contrast the humanistic model and process model of the curriculum.

Scientific Approach
St
The scientific approach is probably the oldest approach to curriculum evaluation as it dates from
modernism and the emphasis on the scientific method of the 19th to 20th century. This approach
to curriculum evaluation focuses on using quantitative data generate by the learners. This allows
for statistical analysis. Furthermore, the results are compared in order to determine the level of
success. This comparison is at the heart of decision-making when this approach is employed.

There are natural issues with such a heavy emphasis on numerical data. For one, the students
narrative is missing. A lickert scale analysis is not as rich in content as an interview. Another
issue is the assumption of similar circumstances. The diversity in student ability and even in
U

teaching ability makes it difficult to assume that students are facing similar challenges and
circumstances.
IO

Humanistic Approach

In a more post-modern worldview the Humanistic approach looks at the individual rather than
the numbers. Data is much more qualitative in nature. The rationale behind this is that life has
multiple perspectives to it and quantitative data only provides one perspective.
A

Humanistic evaluators want to understand the complexities of the environment they are assessing.
This involves capturing narratives through interviews and focus groups. Observation is used not
to count frequencies but to take notes of what is happening in the classroom.

The major issues with this approach is the smaller sample size that is required. It is not feasible
to interview 400 students but perhaps 20 is doable. In contrast, conducting a survey with 400
students should not be a challenge for a scientific evaluator. Furthermore, there are questions as
to the objectivity of the results.
Since qualitative data is processed by the researcher their own perspective can filter what they

9
report when they share the perspective of the respondents, In contrast, scientific approaches are
more objective in that computer processes and reports the results.

Examples of Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective is an approach to psychology that emphasizes empathy and stresses

io
the good in human behavior. In politics and social theory, this approach calls for human rights
and equality. In counseling and therapy, this approach allows an psychologist to focus on ways
to help improve an individual's self-image or self-actualization - the things that make them feel
worthwhile.
Humanistic Perspective Approach

ud
Here are some examples of humanistic perspective.
 A person feels like his or her life is bland and boring. A humanistic perspective would
encourage the person to do some soul-searching and determine what is missing - a hobby?
Friendships? A relationship? Whatever it takes for the person to feel fully self-actualized is
what should be sought as treatment.
 The humanistic perspective encourages gestalt therapy, a special type of therapy that
St
encourages an individual not to allow the past to affect the present, and focuses on the here
and now rather than anything else.
 Family therapy is another example of the humanistic perspective. This type of therapy
allows families to talk about their relationships with one another in order to encourage and
strengthen those relationships, especially when families are going through difficult times
such as periods of substance abuse or divorce.
 Another example of the humanistic perspective is for a person to focus on their strengths
rather than their faults. The individual is encouraged not look past his or her flaws as he or
U

she works toward a more satisfied, more complete life.

 In the humanistic perspective, it is generally regarded that all people have similar needs
throughout the world, emphasizing the similarities between all members of the human race
rather than the many differences. It is an approach that believes human relationships and
IO

interactions are of paramount importance.

 Cultural differences are not viewed in the humanistic perspective as being a result of the
differences in human nature; rather, they are viewed as valid alternative ways of
approaching life. This allows the humanistic perspective to underscore the value of all
humans.
A

 The humanistic perspective includes the idea of self-help - that a person can be responsible
for their own happiness, and that an unhappy or dissatisfied person can make changes to his
or her whole life that will result in their eventual happiness and self-actualization.
 Sensitivity training at a place of employment is an example of the humanistic perspective,
where individuals are taught to view those with whom they work as having the same needs
and desires as themselves. It is a way of downplaying differences in physicality, culture, skin
color, and belief, among other things.
 Instead of a medicine- or research-centered approach to therapy, the humanistic perspective
encourages an approach that focuses on the individual person, and their individual needs and
wants.
 The humanistic perspective believes that people seek value, meaning, and creativity in all

9
they do. It understands that people have goals, and that reaching these goals is very
important. It also understands that individuals are able to make choices that affect them and
others, and so those choices carry with them a sense of responsibility.

Product and Process Models

io
Curriculum models can be broken down into two very broad models, the product model and
the process model. Luckily, these two models are just as they sound.

 The Product Model - You may see this in portions of your curriculum. This model is
focused on results, like grades or reaching an objective. The majority of the weight is

ud
focused more on the finished product than what is happening in the learning process.
 The Process Model - Conversely, this process model focuses on how things happen in
the learning and is more open-ended. Curriculum focusing on the process model
emphasizes how students are learning, what their thinking is, and how it will impact
future learning.
 To dive in a bit further before we look at specific models, let's talk about how some
curriculum models are framed. Five broad categories can be used to define the focus of
curriculum models:
St
1. Subject- or discipline-centered - In this framework, the curriculum is organized around
subjects, like math or science.
2. Integrated - Just like it sounds, this framework pulls many subjects together. We see this
model used in problem-based learning and experiential learning.
3. Spiral - In this framework, the content is presented several times across the span of the
school year. Seen mostly in math, using this design allows students to be introduced and
then revisit material often.
U

4. Inquiry- or problem-based - Not to be confused with integrated models, this curriculum

focuses on a central problem or question. In this frame, all curriculum is problem-based,
while in integrated it may or may not be.
IO

5. Experiential - Using this framework allows students to participate in real-life ways with
their work such as, experimenting with hypothesis, working through problems, and
finding solutions.

You may recognize some of the above frames in your own lesson plans. Now, let's look at three
models we also see in our current curriculum.
A