5/6/2020  STEEL STRUCTURES

MECHANICS OF STEEL STRUCTURES + 
ROLLING STEEL + STANDARD STEEL SHAPES ‐
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2 

Instructor: Engr. Dr. Muhammad Aslam
Department of Civil Engineering

Submitted by: Mahwish Saleem                 
Roll No. : MCVS‐023R19‐23 
Question No. 1 - Explain the mechanics of steel structures? 
Structural Stability and Design
i. Definition of stability
Change in geometry of a structure or structural component under compression –resulting in loss
of ability to resist loading is defined as buckling.
Buckling can lead to catastrophic failure and must be accounted in design. Buckling is a strength-
related limit state
Stability is not easy to define.
 Every structure is in equilibrium –static or dynamic. If it is not in equilibrium, the body
will be in motion or a mechanism.
 A mechanism cannot resist loads and is of no use to the civil engineer.
 Stability qualifies the state of equilibrium of a structure. Whether it is in stable or unstable
equilibrium.

ii. Buckling Vs. Stability

Buckling is a phenomenon that can occur for structures under compressive loads.
BIFURCATION BUCKLING
Member or structure subjected to loads. As the load is increased, it reaches a critical value where:
 The deformation changes suddenly from state-1 to state-2.
 And, the equilibrium load-deformation path bifurcates.

 
INSTABILITY FAILURE

There is no bifurcation of the load-deformation path. The structure stiffness decreases as the loads
are increased. The change is stiffness is due to large deformations and / or material inelasticity.
 The structure stiffness decreases to zero and becomes negative.
 The load capacity is reached when the stiffness becomes zero.
 Neutral equilibrium when stiffness becomes zero and unstable equilibrium when stiffness
is negative.
 Structural stability failure –when stiffness becomes negative. 
 

 
 
 iii. Methods of Stability Analyses
Bifurcation approach–consists of writing the equation of equilibrium and solving it to determine
the onset of buckling. The bifurcation approach is appropriate for determining the critical buckling
load for a (perfect) system subjected to loads.
 The deformations are usually assumed to be small.
 The system must not have any imperfections.
 It cannot provide any information regarding the post-buckling load-deformation path.

Energy approach–consists of writing the equation expressing the complete potential energy of
the system. Analyzing this total potential energy to establish equilibrium and examine stability of
the equilibrium state. The energy approach is the best when establishing the equilibrium equation
and examining its stability
 The deformations can be small or large.
 The system can have imperfections.
 It provides information regarding the post-buckling path if large deformations are assumed
 The major limitation is that it requires the assumption of the deformation state, and it should
include all possible degrees of freedom.

Dynamic approach–consists of writing the equation of dynamic equilibrium of the system.

Solving the equation to determine the natural frequency (ω) of the system. Instability corresponds
to the reduction of ω to zero. The dynamic method is very powerful, but we will not use it in this
class at all.
 Remember, it though when you take the course in dynamics or earthquake engineering
 In this class, you will learn that the loads acting on a structure change its stiffness. This is
significant –you have not seen it before.

Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. In fact, you can use different methods to
answer different questions.

Fatigue of Steel Structures

Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by cyclic loading that results in progressive and
localised structural damage and the growth of cracks.  Once a fatigue crack has initiated, each
loading cycle will grow the crack a small amount, typically producing striations on some parts of
the fracture surface. The crack will continue to grow until it reaches a critical size, which occurs
when the stress intensity factor of the crack exceeds the fracture toughness of the material,
producing rapid propagation and typically complete fracture of the structure.

To aid in predicting the fatigue life of a component, fatigue tests are carried out using coupons to
measure the rate of crack growth by applying constant amplitude cyclic loading and averaging the
measured growth of a crack over thousands of cycles. However, there are also a number of special
cases that need to be considered where the rate of crack growth obtained from these tests needs
adjustment. Such as: the reduced rate of growth that occurs for small loads near the threshold or
after the application of an overload; and the increased rate of crack growth associated with short
cracks or after the application of an underload.
If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to initiate at stress
concentrations such as holes, persistent slip bands (PSBs), composite interfaces or grain
boundaries in metals. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much
less than the strength of the material, typically quoted as the ultimate tensile strength, or the yield
strength.

Plates and Shells 

A plate is a structural element which is characterized by two key properties. Firstly, its geometric
configuration is a three-dimensional solid whose thickness is very small when compared with other
dimensions. Secondly, the effects of the loads that are expected to be applied on it only generate
stresses whose resultants are, in practical terms, exclusively normal to the element's thickness.
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its geometry, being a three-
dimensional solid whose thickness is very small when compared with other dimensions, and in
structural terms, by the stress resultants calculated in the middle plane displaying components
which are both coplanar and normal to the surface. Essentially, a shell can be derived from a plate
by two means: by initially forming the middle surface as a singly or doubly curved surface, and
by applying loads which are coplanar to a plate's plane which generate significant stresses.

A plate (solid) can bend. Remember, a plate has only translation degrees of freedom and no
rotational degrees of freedom. Bending is not rotation, understanding this difference is important.
Plates sustain out of plane loading by bending stresses. A membrane cannot bend. It can resist
forces by in plane tension (transferring load to the supports via. tension). Membranes sustain out
of plane loading by in plane stresses.

A shell is a combination of a plate and a membrane (that is it will have bending as well as in plane
stiffness). The following is an example of membrane. The cable between the two support pillars is
the membrane.

Imagine, you take the clothes of nearby people and put it on the cable to dry the clothes. The cable
takes load by transferring loads to the supports. This is a membrane.

In more detail, the difference between a membrane and a plate is given by Moment of Resistance
parameter. We know, moment of Moment of force = force x distance. On bending, the top layers
are in compression and bottom layers are in tension.
All strained bodies resist straining by generating internal stresses (resistance). Similarly, these
tension and compression also generate resistances. The couple formed by them is the moment of
resistance. For a membrane as thickness is so small, the distance parameter in moment of force
equation is so small that it does not take up bending.

Numerical Simulation of Structural Stability

Structural systems or so-called infrastructures are an important part of modern societies.
Experimental tests for such systems are rarely applicable as they require enormous expense, and
there are many complexities in scaling down of the prototype. On the contrary, with new
developments in computer science, numerical simulation of structural systems becomes
increasingly feasible.
Modal analysis and vibration characteristics of the structural systems provide very important
information about the dynamic response and transient performance of them. Depending on the
complexity of the systems, different analytical, numerical, or direct experimental techniques can
be used for this purpose.
In the macro-scale, the dynamic characteristics of the structural system can be computed using the
experimental techniques. Earthquake engineering and seismic performance assessment of the
structures and infrastructures is another important field in risk analysis. A wide range of techniques
are present for dynamic analysis, which includes both the linear elastic and nonlinear damage
analyses. While simplified beam/column elements are mainly used for framed structures, more
advanced continuum models are usually adopted for infrastructures such as dams, nuclear power
plants, and bridges.
 Finite Element Modelling and Analysis
The finite element method (FEM) is a powerful technique developed for numerical solution of
complex problems in structural mechanics, and it remains the method of choice for complex
systems. In the FEM, the structural system is modeled by a set of appropriate finite elements
interconnected at discrete points called nodes. Elements may have physical properties such as
thickness, coefficient of thermal expansion, density, Young's modulus, shear modulus and
Poisson's ratio.
The origin of finite method can be traced to the matrix analysis of structures where the concept of
a displacement or stiffness matrix approach was introduced. Finite element concepts were
developed based on engineering methods in 1950s. The finite element method obtained its real
impetus in the 1960s and 1970s by John Argyris, and co-workers.
Straight or curved one-dimensional elements with physical properties such as axial, bending, and
torsional stiffnesses. This type of element is suitable for modeling cables, braces, trusses, beams,
stiffeners, grids and frames. Straight elements usually have two nodes, one at each end, while
curved elements will need at least three nodes including the end-nodes. The elements are
positioned at the centroidal axis of the actual members.
 Two-dimensional elements that resist only in-plane forces by membrane action (plane
stress, plane strain), and plates that resist transverse loads by transverse shear and bending
action (plates and shells). Nodes are usually placed at the element corners, and if needed
for higher accuracy, additional nodes can be placed along the element edges or even within
the element. The elements are positioned at the mid-surface of the actual layer thickness.
 Torus-shaped elements for axisymmetric problems such as membranes, thick plates, shells,
and solids. The cross-section of the elements are similar to the previously described types:
one-dimensional for thin plates and shells, and two-dimensional for solids, thick plates and
shells.
 Three-dimensional elements for modeling 3-D solids such as machine components, dams,
embankments or soil masses. Common element shapes include tetrahedrals and
hexahedrals. Nodes are placed at the vertexes and possibly in the element faces or within
the element.
Large scale commercial software packages often provide facilities for generating the mesh, and
the graphical display of input and output, which greatly facilitate the verification of both input data
and interpretation of the results.
Instability/buckling and fatigue analysis of a steel structure can be easily carried out using this
technique.
Question No. 2 - What is rolling and recrystallization temperature.
Explain the methods of rolling steel and highlight the major differences?

Rolling Process
Rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of
rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The concept is similar to the rolling
of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled.

If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known
as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process
is known as cold rolling.

In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and
cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes.
Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process
metal, typically steel, into products such as structural steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock),
bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished
casting products into finished products.

It is process in which we plastically deform the metal. Plastically deform, when material deform
beyond yielding point.

 Friction – thicker metal strip convert into thinner plate.

 Hot rolling – above recrystallization temperature.
 Cold rolling – below recrystallization temperature.
  

Recrystallization Temperature
Recrystallization is defined as the process in which grains of a crystal structure come in a new
structure or new crystal shape.

The recrystallization temperature is temperature at which recrystallization can occur for a given
material and processing conditions. This is not a set temperature and is dependent upon factors
including the following:
 Increasing annealing time decreases recrystallization temperature
 Alloys have higher recrystallization temperatures than pure metals
 Increasing amount of cold work decreases recrystallization temperature
 Smaller cold-worked grain sizes decrease the recrystallization temperature

The recrystallization temperature does not refer to a definite temperature below which
recrystallization will not occur but refers to the approximate temperature at which a highly cold
worked material completely recrystallizes in 1 hour, very pure metals seems to have low
crystallization temperature as compared with impure metal and alloys. Increasing the
annealing time, decreases the time of RT.
The recrystallization temperature is far more sensitive to changes in temperature than to variation
in time at constant temperature.

The recrystallization temperature is far more sensitive to changes in temperature than to variation
in time at constant temperature.
Recrystallization is indicated by the sharp drop in tensile strength.
For equal amounts of the cold working, more strain hardening is introduced into initially fine
grained metal than coarse grained metal. Therefore, the finer the initial grain size the lower the
recrystallization temperature.

Methods of Rolling Steel

i. HOT ROLLED STEEL

Hot rolled steel is steel that has been roll-pressed at very high temperatures—over 1,700˚F, which
is above the re-crystallization temperature for most steels. This makes the steel easier to form, and
resulting in products that are easier to work with. This is part of the reason hot rolled steel is
typically cheaper than cold rolled steel. Hot rolled steel is used when precise shapes and tolerances
are not required.

ii. COLD FORMED STEEL

Cold-formed steel (CFS) is the common term for products made by rolling or pressing steel into
semi-finished or finished goods at relatively low temperatures(cold working). Cold rolled steel is
essentially hot rolled steel that has been through further processing. Once hot rolled steel has
cooled, it is then re-rolled at room temperature to achieve more exact dimensions and better surface
qualities. In the construction industry both structural and non-structural elements are created from
thin gauges of sheet steel.

 
 Major Differences between Rolling Steel Types
When it comes down to making cold rolled steel and hot rolled steel, the process is quite similar.
They are both made from the same material. They go through a similar manufacturing process,
except for one crucial part. Cold rolled steel is rolled, or passed through at least two rollers at room
temperature until it forms the desired shape and dimension. Hot rolled steel is rolled at or above
its recrystallization temperature, which is at 1700˚ F.

Major Differences between Rolling Steel Types

HOT ROLLED STEEL COLD ROLLED STEEL

APPEARANCE
Scaly Glossy
Blue-gray finish Gray finish
Rough to touch Smooth to touch

DIMENSIONS 
Less precise More precise

STRENGTH 
Weaker Stronger
Up to 80% better yield strength
Up to 40% better tensile strength

COST 
Less expensive More expensive
Question No. 3 - Elaborate the Standard steel shapes in detail? 
1. Hot Rolled Structural Shapes
 Structural steel can be economically rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes without
appreciably changing its physical properties.
 Usually the most desirable members are those with large moments of inertia in proportion
to their areas.
 The I, T, and C shapes, so commonly used, fall into this class.
 These are the steel cross-sectional shapes that are hot rolled in the mills.

 
 
i. W Shapes
The letter “W” stands for an I-shape with the flange. The cross-section is doubly symmetric in the
form of the letter “I”.
 The width / depth ratio varies from about 0.3 to 1.0.
 The US Customary designation W16 * 40 means that the nominal depth of the section is 16
inches and the weight per unit length of the section is 40 Ibs / ft.
 Nominal height is the rounded off height to be used for commonuse.
 Actual depth of the section may be in decimals and somewhat different from this depth.
 The equivalent SI designation W410*60 means that the W-section has a nominal depth of 410
mm and a weight of 60 kgf/m.
 This kilogram-force weight per unit length can be converted in kN/m by multiplying it with
the factor 9.81/1000.

ii. S Shapes
This type of cross-sectional shape has the following properties:
 Doubly symmetric I-shapes.
 Previously called standard I-beams or American Standard beams.
 The inner edge of the flange has a slope of approximately 16.7 degrees.
 An S510*112 section means that the section is S-shape having nominal depth of 510 mm
and a weight of 112 kgf/m.
 The width / depth ratio varies from about 0.25 to 0.85.This kilogram-force weight per unit
length can be converted in kN/m by multiplying it with the factor 9.81/1000.

iii. M Shapes
An M-shape is different from W and S shapes in the following ways.
 Miscellaneous I-shapes.
 Doubly symmetric I-shapes not classified as W or S shapes.
 Relatively lightweight used for smaller spans and lesser loads.
 An M310*17.6 section means that it is M-shape section having nominal depth of 310 mm
and a weight of 17.6 kgf/m.

iv. C Shapes
The C-shapes have the following distinguishing features.
 Channel shapes with standard proportions.
 Inner flange slope is the same as that for S shapes (16.7 degrees).
 Previously called standard or American standard channels.
 A C150*19.3 section means standard channel shape with a nominal depth of 150 mm and a
weight of 19.3 kgf/m.

v. L Shapes or Angle Sections

Various types of angle sections and their salient features are given below.
 Single angle sections are in the form of letter L.
 If a = b, these are called equal angle sections, if not, unequal angle sections.
 Sides of the angle are called legs or arms.
 L89*76*12.7 is an unequal leg angle with longer leg of 89 mm, and shorter leg of 76 mm
with a leg thickness of 12.7 mm.
 Double angle sections are denoted by 2Ls.
 2L89*76*12.7 means two angles 2L89*76*12.7 placed side by side in one of the following
ways.
 vi. T Shapes
 These are called structural tees.
 These are obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes and are called WT, ST, or MT shapes,
respectively.
 A WT205*30 is a structural tee with a nominal depth of 205 mm and a weight of 30 kgf/m
and is obtained by splitting the W410*60 section.

2. Cold Formed Shapes

These sections are formed from thin high strength steel alloy plates under normal temperature.
Some of the common shapes of these sections are drawn as:
 i. Built-up Sections
Sections made by combining two or more standard hot rolled sections, joined together at intervals
with the help of direct welding, stay plates, or lacing, are called built-up sections.

ii. Steel Sections

Structural shapes are abbreviated by a certain system usually described in LRFD manual for use
in drawings, specifications, and designs.
This system has be standardized so that all steel mills can use the same identification for purposes
of ordering, billing, etc.