PANEL DATA ANALYSIS ON STUDENTS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN

WEST AFRICA SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

(WASSCE)

BY

OKUNBOR, JOHNSON CHRISTIAN

MATRIC NUMBER: 138791

B.Sc. Statistics (Ibadan)

A Dissertation in the Department of STATISTICS

Submitted to the Faculty of Science in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree

of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

February, 2015

1
ABSTRACT

This work focused on panel data analysis on students academic performance. This research

became important because there is need to know some of the factors responsible for the decline

in the performance of students in the west Africa Senior School Certificate Examination

(WASSCE) over the years

The study investigated the effects of student-teacher ratio and teachers years of experience on

academic achievement of selected secondary school students in Lagos, Nigeria. Simple Random

Sampling Method was used to select 10 Senior Secondary Schools in Ajeromi Ifelodun Local

Government Area of Lagos. Three research questions and hypotheses were formulated to guide

the study. The were analyzed using the fixed and random effect models at 0.05 level of

significance. Results showed that there is a significant relationship between students-teacher

ratio and academic achievement as well as the teachers’ years of experience. It can be seen from

the results that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the performance of students

in these selected schools and also , it further revealed that as the class size increases there is a

decline in the performance of the students.

Similarly, it can be seen also from the result that teachers years of experience also has a

significant influence on the performance. This suggest that as the years of experience increases,

the students are may likely perform very well.

Also, performance across the schools decreased as the class size increased. On this note, it can be

deduced that when the class size keep increase, learning process becomes difficult which in turn

affects the performance of the students.

2
From the comparison of the fixed and random effects models, the results suggested that the fixed

effects model fits the data.

Based on these findings, recommendations were made for government and stakeholders in

education on how to tackle this ugly situation.

Keywords: Student-teacher ratio, class size and performance and work experience

3
 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to the almighty God. In my greatest imagination, I never had

thought I could get to this stage in life. It was indeed, the finger of God. Also to my one and only

beloved companion and wife.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My gratitude goes to the Almighty God for His faithfulness in my life and career. May His name

be praised forever (AMEN)

My unreserved thanks goes to my amiable supervisor; Professor J.O Iyaniwura for his relentless

effort in spite of his tight schedule he has always been there for me. May the good lord enlarge

your coast and extend your days.

My profound gratitude goes to my one and only beloved companion and wife; she is one in a

million. She has been my inspiration and motivation in the course of this research project.

My thanks also goes to my beloved Pastor; Pastor Emmanuel Godfrey for his divine and

prophetic support. I am very grateful sir.

My thanks also goes to my two greatest friends who have been there for me and to ensure that I

succeed in this project work, I’m talking about Ahamefula Ephraim O. and Azuh Ikedichi

Edward.

Finally, I want to say a big thank you to my supportive parents; Mr & Mrs Victor Okunbor and

brothers and sisters.

CERTIFICATION
5
This is to certify that this research work was carried out by OKUNBOR, JOHNSON

CHRISTIAN with matriculation number 138791 in the Department of Statistics,

University of Ibadan.

Date Supervisor

Professor J.O. Iyaniwura

Department of Statistics,

University of Ibadan,

Ibadan, Nigeria.

Date Ag. Head of Department

Dr. (Mrs.) Adedayo A. Adepoju,

B.Sc. (Ilorin), M.Sc., Ph.D. (Ibadan)

Department of Statistics,

University of Ibadan,

6
 Ibadan, Nigeria.

Date External Examiner

Prof. T.O. Obilade,

Department of Mathematical Statistics,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife,

Osun State, Nigeria.

7
Contents

ABSTRACT i

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

CERTIFICATION v

CONTENTS vi

LISTS OF TABLES vii

ITRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem 2

1.2 Objective of the study 2

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Hypothesis of the study 3

1.5 Significance of the study 4

1.6 Scope of the study 4

LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.0 Theoretical background 6

2.1 Problem of learning 10

2.2 Students-teacher ratio 13

2.3 Sex differences 14

2.4 Teacher Teaching experience 15

3.0 Methodology 17

8
3.1 Panel data Model 18

3.1.1 Definition of concept 18

3.1.2 Types of Panel data 18

3.1.3 Benefits of panel data 19

3.1.4 Balanced and unbalanced panel 19

3.1.5 Drawbacks of panel data 19

3.1.6 Techniqes 19

3.1.7Pooled model 22

Chapter Four

4.0 Introduction 25

4.1 Data presentation 26

4.2 Model Specification 31

4.3 Estimation and discussion of results 32

4.4 Hausman test 47

Chapter Five

5.1 Summary of findings 48

5.2 Recommendation 50

5.3 Contribution to knowledge 50

5.4 Recommendation for further studies 51

5.5 Conclusion 51

REFERENCES 52

APPENDICES 54

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CHAPTER ONE

10
INTRODUCTION

The hope of every country of the world to develop human capital for effective functioning of the

society is hinged on education, being an instrument of change. Education in Nigeria, is an

invaluable instrument of political, social, economic, scientific and technological development.

Among the levels of education in Nigeria, secondary education which is the pivot of the entire

educational system is fast losing its relevance which among other factors is due to unsatisfactory

and poor performance of students in public examinations.

Most governments of the world commit a high percentage of their budget to resource inputs in

the education sector. They make decisions about providing resources inputs to enhance student

achievement and performance. However, not all these decisions are easy to take especially in

Nigeria where poor management complicate the problem. Resources are scarce, especially in low

income countries, policy makers can ill- afford the consequences of miss allocations.

The government has introduced Education Sector Reforms (ESR) and National Plan of

Action (2001-2015) for the improvement of quality of education through improving the states of

various recourse inputs like revision of curricula, teacher training and provision of better

facilities in the public schools.

Secondary schools not only occupy a strategic place in the educational system in Nigeria,

they are also the foundation of higher knowledge in tertiary institutions. It is an investment as

well as an instrument that can be used to achieve a more rapid economic, social, political,

technological, scientific and cultural development in a country. It is rather unfortunate that the

secondary schools today are not measuring up to standard expected of them. There has been

public outcry over the persistently poor performance of secondary school students n public

examinations.

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According to Nwokocha & Amadike (2005), academic performance of students is the yardstick

for testing educational quality of a nation. Hence, it is expedient to maintain a high performance

in internal and mostly external examinations.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The poor trend in the performance of students that sat for the West Africa Examination Council

(WAEC) has been a thing of concern to educators, parents and government. The deficiencies

leading to the downward trend of teaching /learning are enormous. Students are finding it more

tasking to pay attention to pay attention to the teaching of subject like Mathematics in their

schools- they claim that the subject is too difficult to learn. The number of students who offer to

learn subjects in the real sense and make career of it is diminishing progressively, as they have

begun to lose interest in it.

Even the number of students and teachers are getting smaller and smaller every year. It is based

on these factors that this study is designed to address the situation of poor performance of

students in WAEC in some selected secondary schools (Public Schools) in Lagos; Ajeromi

Ifelodun LGA as a case study. The study also looked out for the factors responsible for the poor

performance and the way out.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objectives of this work are:

 To determine the factors responsible for poor performance of students in the Senior

School Certificate Examination in the selected secondary schools.

 Carry out a comparative analysis using the Logistic Regression Model and the Panel Data

Model

12
  To examine the adequacy of these models in predicting students performance

 To recommend possible solutions for solving these problems.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions are used for the study:

1) What are factors responsible for the difficulty in the teaching/learning process in these

selected secondary schools?

2) What are the major factors responsible for the poor performance of students in Senior

School Certificate Examination?

3) What strategy could be adopted to enhance better teaching and learning process in these

schools?

1.4 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

There are three hypotheses to be tested in this study. They are:

Hypothesis one

H0: There is no significant relationship between the years of teaching experiences of teachers and

performance of students

H1: There is a significant relationship between the years of teaching experiences of teachers and

performance of students

Hypothesis two

H0: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ academic qualification and

performance of students

H1: There is a significant relationship between teachers’ academic qualification and performance

of students

13
Hypothesis three

H0: There is no significant relationship between teacher to students’ ratio and academic

performance

H1: There is a significant relationship between teacher to students ratio and academic

performance.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The result of this study will aid the effective implementation of the Nigeria education policies

that emphasizes on teachers qualification, years of teaching experience and the UNESCO policy

on Teacher-Students ratio (this policy

stipulates that the maximum number of students that should be in a secondary class is 25). It will

also foster the curriculum review and development for the benefit of appropriate coverage of

subject’s content and scope.

It will also assist students to recognize that the bulk of key subjects learning is vested on their

innate urge and willingness to perform and do well. All other activities and enterprises by them

emanate from the basic principle that learning or teaching is child-centered.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This subject is delimited to ten secondary schools in Ajeromi Ifelodun Local Government Area

of Lagos State, namely: Alakoto High School, Ajeromi Ifelodun Secondary School, Newland

Senior Secondary School, Adeolu Senior Secondary School, Expressway Senior

Secondary School, Oluwa Memorial High School, Ojoku High School, Tin-can Senior

High School, Ojora Senior School and Reservation Mokoya Senior High School, Tolu.

14
The concerned grade is number of students that scored five credits and above including

English Language and Mathematics.

CHAPTER TWO

15
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Graetz (2006) conducted a study on socio-economic status of the parents of students using

multiple regression method and concluded that the socio economic background has a great

impact on student’s academic performance, main source of educational imbalance among

students and student’s academic success contingent very strongly on parent’s socio economic

standard. Considine and Zappala (2002) also having the same views as Graetz (1995), in their

study on the influence of social and economic disadvantage in the academic performance of

school students noticed, where the parents or guardians have social, educational and economical

advantage definitely strengthen the higher level success in future. But it is also noted that these

parents make available sufficient psychological and emotional shore up to their children by

providing good educational and learning environment that produce confidence and the

improvement of skills needed for success.

On other hand Pedrosa et.al (2006) in their study on social and educational background pointed

out those students who mostly come from deprived socio-economic and educational background

performed relatively better than others coming from higher socio-economic and educational area.

They named this phenomena educational elasticity. It is obvious and true that the criteria for

categorizing socio-economic standard in different countries are different depending of their

norms and values. The criteria for low socio-economic status for developed country will be

different from the criteria of developing nations and same will be in the case of developing and

under developing countries. “The total income of families, monthly or annually and their

expenditures also put a great effect on the learning and academic opportunities accessible to

16
youngsters and their chances of educational success. Furthermore, he also pointed that due to

residential stratification and segregation, the students belonging to low-income backgrounds

usually attend schools with lower funding levels, and this situation reduced achievement

motivation of the students and high risk of educational malfunction in future life endeavors”

(Escarce, 2003).

Considine & Zappala (2002) observed that children comes from those families having low

income make known more subsequent models in terms of learning outcomes; low literacy level,

low retention rate, problems in school behaviour and more difficulty in their studies and mostly

display negative attitude towards studies and school. The view point of Considine and Zappala is

more strengthen by this statement of Eamon, According to Eamon (2005) “Those students

usually come out from low socio-economic status or area show low performance in studies and

obtained low scores as compared to the other students or their counter parts”.

It is also assumed that children learning outcome and educational performance are strongly

affected by the standard and type of educational institution in which students get their education.

The educational environment of the school one attends sets the parameters of students’ learning

outcomes. Considine and Zappala (2002) quoted Sparkles (1999) showed that schools

environment and teachers expectations from their students also have strong influence on student

performance. Most of the teachers working in poor schools or schools having run short of basic

facilities often have low performance expectations from their students and when students know

that their teachers have low performance expectations from them, hence it leads to poor

performance by the students. Kwesiga (2002) approved that performance of the students is also

influenced by the school in which they studied but he also said that number of facilities a school

17
offers usually determine the quality of the school, which in turn affect the performance and

accomplishment of its students. Sentamu (2003) argue that schools influence educational process

in content organization, teacher and teaching learning and in the end evaluation of the all. All

these educationists and researchers agreed with this principle that schools put strong effect on

academic performance and educational attainment of students.

Also, Jaiyeoba et al (2001) worked on school quality factors and secondary school students’

achievement in mathematics in South-West and North-Central Nigeria. They found that the

availability and accessibility of instructional materials by students could result into better

achievement in Mathematics and if otherwise, reverse will be the case.

Kassim et al (2011) worked on path-analytic study of students’ home background, academic

motivation, self-concept on attitude and achievement in senior secondary mathematics in Ogun

State, Nigeria. They find out that parent’s education, motivation and self-concept has a

significant influence on students’ attitude towards mathematics.

These and many more reasons are why the Nigeria government believed that the subject should

be taken seriously in our school system and Nigeria in her march towards technological

development has not only made Mathematics a compulsory subject in the curriculum of the

primary and secondary school levels of her educational system (Federal Republic of Nigeria,

2004) but also as a prerequisite to the study science courses in her colleges, polytechnics and

universities (JAMB Brochure 1992-2007).

18
The importance and usefulness of Mathematics as a subject and tool have been underlined

greatly by everyone in the society. Many writers have competently dealt with lot of materials to

accentuate the widespread application of Mathematics in all forms of life. Ilori (1989)

extensively outlined various significant perspectives in which Mathematics plays major roles.

Ilori quoted Newnian (1973) and summarized his point of view that “Mathematics is playing

much role in science subjects”. He further stated that “the world is becoming more technical and

scientific every year and people who wish to keep in touch with new development and inventions

need a wider knowledge of Mathematics which lies behind Science and technology.

Emedo (1991) spent some space to describe the roles of Mathematics essential in life-living, life-

values, value judgments, manipulations in the science, Economics, Engineering, Agriculture,

Forestry, etc. the list being inexhaustible.

In 50 State survey, Darling-Hammond (2000) found that students’ demographic characteristics

(poverty, minority status, and language background) are strongly related to their academic

outcomes in reading and mathematics at the state level. In predicting students’ performance

levels, however, demographic features appeared less influential than teacher quality variables,

namely, holding full certification and a major degree in the field.

Adewunmi (2000), in his study on the relationship between supervisory climate and

teacher student performance in secondary schools in A/Ibom State, using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation in his analysis found a significant positive relationship between supervisory

climate and students’ performance. There is a consensus among the scholars, researchers and

19
educationists that the lower the class size or teacher/pupil ratio, the better the performance of the

students in the school. Many studies have pointed out the significance of teacher/student ratio

(Ojoawo, 1989; Bolton, 1998; Johnson, 2000; Febunmi, 2000; Fabunmi, Peter and Isaiah, 2007;

Mantle and Marcus, 2008).

2.1 THE PROBLEMS OF LEARNING

This is another bare fact of truth that needs no controversy or debate. All human beings in

the universe today agree within and among themselves that the subject is rather more demanding

and hard to learn compared to other science subjects. Moreover, Mathematics is described as the

language of the sciences. It is the nature of Mathematics to constitute “headache” to all

categories of learners with no exception: no wonders many fear the subject while other dread it

like a disease.

Over the years, the investigations of the factors that affected academic achievement of

students in Mathematics have attracted the interest and concern of teachers, psychologists,

researchers, parents and school administrators in Nigeria (Sogbetan, 1981).

This is because of the public outcries concerning the poor performance of students

especially in Mathematics in the country (Igbokwe, 2003). Some of the factors identified are low

socio-economic status of the family, students, poor family structure, poor study habit intellectual

ability, parents’ education income and occupations as well as the age of the mother at the birth of

the child (Sogbetan et al., 1981). Emeke (1984) has attributed the cause of poor academic

performance to a combination of personal and institutional factors. Personal factors relate to the

20
individual’s intelligence knowledge and ability while institutional factors are family or parental

influences, societal influences and school related factors among others. Ajila and Olutola (2000)

categorize problems responsible for students’ poor performance as their environment, which

include availability of suitable learning environment, adequacy of educational infrastructure like

textbooks and society at large among others.

A fundamental and yet cursory view of the factors capable of affecting the attainment in

Mathematics by students in secondary schools reveals that there are more than a handful.

Pederson (1986) re-iterated this by saying that research studies have identified several variables

that are related to mathematics achievement. Some of the variables are:

 Parent’s socio-economic and educational status.

 School administration

 Instructional aides and methods

 Sex and gender differences

 Types of school (private or public)

 Size of class

 Changes in curriculum

 Textbooks availability

 Environmental/Home factors

 Career interest

 Teachers academic qualification

 Teachers years of teaching experience

21
 Ijeoma (1984) in an attempts to enumerate the problems of teaching and learning of

Mathematics classified past studies into:

 Teaching aides and their effectiveness in promoting teaching and learning of

Mathematics.

 The role of Mathematics Association in promoting teaching methodology.

 Students’ negative attitude such as fear and dislike for Mathematics.

 Knowledge of the subject and teaching experience of the teachers as they affect

learning

 Mathematics curriculum and the need for occasional review.

 The use of second language in teaching of Mathematics.

Since no one study is able to cover all the grounds and factors listed at one go, this

research will accommodate such areas as are of great interest to and selected by the

researcher. For this reason, the following factors will be grouped together for the purpose

of this research.

 Sex differences

 School type

 Socio-economic status of parents and their education.

 Attitude and willingness of students in learning Mathematics.

 Teachers attitude

 Teachers years of teaching experience

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2.2. STUDENTS-TEACHER RATIO

As school population increases class sizes also increase, the performances of students become an

issue. Class size has become a phenomenon often mentioned in the educational literature as an

influence on student’s feelings and achievement, on administration, quality and school budgets.

Class size is almost an administrative decision over which teachers have little or no control. Most

researchers start from the assumption that size of the class would prove a significant determinant

of the degree of success of students. In fact, with the exception of a few, man studies have

reported that under ideal situation, class size itself appears to be an important factor. The first

issue that calls for immediate clarification is what number of students should constitute a large

group and what should be described as a small group? In describing a small group, the researcher

observed that they have few teachers with small pools of talent; offer limited range of subjects

and characteristically finding it hard to justify costly investment on libraries.. their pupil’s lack

competition and interest with relatively few peers as they get stuck with same teacher fro an

entire school career.

Large class size on the other had is often impersonal, having broader curricula with

teachers being given wider support, while students may suffer discipline problems as teachers

cannot get to know their students very easily. They find it easy to stream students according to

ability while commitment to work may stand a test of time. In terms of numerical strength, the

National Policy on Education (1977 revised in 1981) specified 20 in pre-primary, 30 in primary

and maximum of 40 in secondary schools. These directive appear unrealistic in urban areas as a

result fog hi population.

23
 Therefore, considering the vitality of the problem, this study investigates the effects of

student-teacher ratio on academic achievement of students in Mathematics.

2.3 SEX DIFFERENCES

This is a socio-psychological and natural factor which has received observation and

several investigations to discover whether male students excel female students or vice versa. The

women liberation syndrome has already found its contention or argumentativeness into the field

of science and mathematics. What a man can do, a woman can do it better has become a handy

slogan by the women liberation leagues for quite some ages ago. This female call for freedom

has already reached schools and educational system. We now have that a number of studies have

been conducted to find out the influenced sex on academic achievement (Flagbagen, et al.,

1975).

Typically, no sex differences achievement have been found through junior high school in

England (Armstrong, 1981). However, by the end of high school, males have higher achievement

scores and are frequently reported as doing better on cognitive tests as well. Many large-scale

studies have found sex differences in Mathematics achievement. In 1960, for example. Project

TALENT reported no sex differences in Mathematics at grade 12 level (Flagbagan, et al., 1964).

The international study of achievement in Mathematics (Hussen, 1967) found clear differences in

favor of boys in most of the twelve countries studied. The National Longitudinal Study of

Mathematics Abilities (NLSMA) conducted research on sex differences between 1962 and 1967

in a report of some NLSMA data noted that male did better than female on the higher cognitive

tasks.

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 A possible reason for observed sex differences on Mathematics test performance is that

there may be a differential learning and practice of mathematics outside of school (Fox, 1980).

In Nigeria Okurumeh (1980) while discussing the issue of sex differences in his study

substantiated that male are more noted for energy, achievement striving and enterprising than

female.

2.4 TEACHERS’ TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Teacher characteristics such as years of teaching experience have been investigated to

determine their effect on student outcomes (Sanders and River, 1996). A more recent analysis by

Wenglinsky (2000) used multilevel structural equation modeling to analyze data from the NAEP

and found that teachers with a major or minor in the subject area they are assigned to teach

produce greater gains in student achievement in both mathematics and science. This remained

true even after controlling for teacher professional development teacher classroom practices,

class size and student demographics, interestingly, Hawk et al., (1985) found that students with

mathematics teachers assigned in-field scored higher and had great gains than students with

mathematics teachers assigned out-of-field which indicates a connection of content-knowledge

but not necessarily applying pedagogical knowledge to other content areas.

However, teachers experience is a topic of potential concern to policy makers because

experienced teachers often try to move to districts schools and classroom with a more privileged

student body and higher resources.

Thus, if teachers’ experience is related to student achievement and more experienced

teachers are able to some extent select the schools and district in which they teach, or even their

teaching assignments within a school, poor students and students at risk of educational failure

25
may end up being doubly disadvantage because they are more likely to be taught by

inexperienced teachers Greenwald et al., (1996) found in their meta-analytical study that

teaching experience had a positive and significant effect on student achievement. Hawkins et al.,

(1998) found evidence that although teaching experience appears to be related to student

achievement, the relationship may not be linear students whose teachers had fewer than 5 years

of experience has lower level of mathematics achievement as measured by the NAEP

mathematics assessment but there were no differences in mathematics achievement among

students whose teachers had more than 5 years of experience.

Other researchers have disagreed with these findings. Hanushek (1997) wrote that 71

percent of the students he reviews did not find any result to support a relationship between

teaching experience and student achievement.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHOODLOGY

INTRODUCTION

3.0 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE AND DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

The target population comprised of senior secondary school students WAEC results in

Ajeromi Ifelodun Local Government Area, Lagos State. A total number of 10 schools (public

schools) were sampled out of 25 public schools in the local Government Area. A total of 11,100

Students from the ten schools, between 2008 to 2014, sat for the WASSCE.

The data for this research were collected directly from the following schools: Alakoto

High School, Ajeromi Ifelodun Secondary School, Newland Senior Secondary School, Adeolu

Senior Secondary School, Expressway Senior Secondary School, Oluwa Memorial High School,

Ojoku High School, Tin-can Senior High School, Ojora Senior School and Reservation Mokoya

Senior High School, Tolu. Questionnaires for collecting information on teachers and

administrators of the schools under study were administered. The variables of interest are;

proportion/number of students that scores five credits and above including English and

Mathematics, Teachers’ academic qualification, teachers’ years of experience and

teacher/students ratio. The dependent variable is the proportion/number of students that had five

credits and above including English Language and Mathematics.

27
3.1 PANEL DATA MODELS

3.1.1 Definitions and Concepts

Panel data consists of a group of cross-sectional units (people, households, firms, states,

countries) who are observed overtime.

Panel data allows you to control for variables you cannot observe or measure like cultural factors

or difference in business practices across companies; or variables that changes over time but not

across entities (i.e. national policies, federal regulations, international agreements, etc.). this is, it

accounts for individual heterogeneity. Levels of analysis (i.e. students, schools, districts, states)

suitable for multilevel or hierarchical modeling.

Notations: N = number of cross-sectional (individual) units

T = number of time periods

3.1.2 Types of panel data

i. Small N, Large T (e.g. several schools over a long period of time)

ii. Large N, Small T (e.g. thousands of households observed over short period).

iii. Large N, Large T (e.g. cross-country study of economic growth).

3.1.3 Benefits: Panel data allows us to

i. Control for unobserved individual differences, or heterogeneity

ii. Study dynamic adjustments

iii. Measure the effects of policy changes

28
3.1.4 Balance and unbalance panel

 Balance panel – the number of time-series observation is equal across individuals

 Unbalance panel – The number of time-series observations is different across

individuals.

3.1.5 Drawbacks: Some drawbacks are;

i. Data collection issues (i.e. sampling design, coverage)

ii. Non-response in the case of micro panel dependency or cross-country dependency in the

case of macro panels (i.e. correlation between countries)

3.1.6 Techniques: In this work, we shall focus on two techniques frequently used to analyze

panel data.

A. Fixed effect: Fixed effect (FE) whenever you are only interested in analyzing the impact of

variables that varies over time. The fixed effects model controls for all time –invariant

differences between the individuals, so the estimated coefficients of the fixed-effects models are

not biased because of omitted time-invariant characteristics (e.g. culture, religion, gender, race,

etc).

One side effect of the features of fixed-effects models is that they cannot be used to investigate

time-invariant causes of the dependent variables.

The equation of the fixed effects mode is:

Yit  1  it   i  it

Where

29
     1...n  is the unknown intercept for each entity (n entity-specific intercepts)

Yit is the dependent variable where   entity and t= time.

 it represents one independent variable

1 is the coefficient of the independent variable

Another way to see this model is by using binary variables. So thje equation for the fixed effects

model becomes:

Yit   0  1 1,it  ...   k  k ,it  Y2 E2  ...  Yn En  uit

Where

Yit is the dependent variable where i = entity and t = time.

Xk,it represents the ktk independent variable for entity i at time t

k is the coefficient of the ktk independent variable

uit is the error term peculiar to entity i and time t

En is the entity n. Since they are binary (dummies) you have n-1 entities included in the

model.

Y2 is the coefficient of the binary regressors (entities).

30
You could add time effects on the entity effects model to have a time and entity fixed effects

regression model:

Yit   0  1 1,it  ...   k  k ,it  E2  ...  Yn En   2T2  ...   tTt  uit

Yit is the dependent variable where I = entity and t = time.

Xk,it represents independent variables

k is the coefficient of the independent variables

uit is the error term

En is the entity n. Since they are binary (dummies) you have n-1 entities included in the

model.

Y2 is the coefficient of the binary regressors (entities)

Tt is time as binary variable (dummy), so we have t-1 time periods

t is the coefficient for the binary regressors.

Control for time effects whenever unexpected variation or special event may affect the outcome

variable.

31
3.1.7 pooled Model

A pooled model is one where the data on different individuals are simply pooled together with no

provision for the individual differences that might lead to different coefficients.+

Model Specification:

Yit   'it   uit , uit ~IID (0,  2 ) I = 1,…, N and t=1,…, T

u

Where

Yit Represent the tth observation on the dependent variable for the ith individual

 'it = (1 (  it (2) ...it ( k ) ) is a k-dimensional vector of explanatory variables.

NT = total number of observations

 Is a k- dimensional column vector of regression coefficients (including the constant

term) assumed to be constant for all individual s in all time periods, and do not allow for possible

individual heterogeneity. This characteristic makes the model to be called a pooled model.

The most common way of organizing the data is by decision units.

32
 1 x 2i1 ... x k i1 
 yi1   
y  2 k
1 x i 2 ... x i 2 
 i2  .
.  . . 
y  xi    ui1 
. . . 
.  .
 
.   . .  ui  u.i 2 
   . 
 yiT  1 x 2 ... x k   .in 
 iT iT 

Often the data are stacked to form

 y1   1 
y   
 2  2
.  . 
y   x1  u1    
.      . 
.  x   x.2  ui  u.2  . 
   .   .   
 yN   .XN   .UN    k 

(NT x 1) (NT x K) (NT x 1)

The standard linear model can be expressed as

Assumptions:

i. E(uit) = 0 --Zero mean

Var (uit) =  u --homoscedasticity

2
ii.

iii. Cov (uit,ujs) = E (uit,ujs) = 0 for i  j or t  s --all error are uncorrelated

iv. Cov (uit , x ( k )it ) = 0 --errors are uncorrelated with the explanatory

variables

Under this assumptions:

33
  The model is not different from the multiple linear regression model

The least squares estimator of  is applicable and it is consistent,   ( x ' x) x ' y

1


 The usual t and F statistics are valid in large samples for hypothesis testing and interval

estimation.

(k )
If we also assume that xit ' s are non-random, the least squares is the minimum variance linear

unbiased estimator in finite samples.

The least squares estimator, when applied to the pooled model, is referred to as pooled least

squares. That is, the data for different individuals are pooled together, and the equation is

estimated using least squares.

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, analysis and interpretation of the data collected from the field work is carried out.

The questionnaire drawn on this study is well tested and the responses from the respondents

would be analyzed. This chapter is broadly divided into data analysis and interpretation. The data

include both secondary and primary data. The secondary data includes the results of students that

sat for the WASSCE ranging from 2008 to 2014 and the data on average number of students per

class. The primary data was collected through a research questionnaire that reveals information

about the teachers (such as teachers qualification and years of experience) across the various

schools.

35
4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

The tables below shows the data collected for this research work.

TABLE 1: TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS THAT REGISTERED FOR WASSCE IN

EACH SCHOOL FROM 2008 TO 2014

S/N SCHOOLS 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 TOTAL
1 ADEOLU 276 142 198 156 99 110 135 1,116
2 ALAKOTO 315 285 249 305 310 330 336 2,130
3 CREEK 196 132 165 134 105 123 187 1,042
4 EXPRESS 59 79 142 84 77 98 97 636
5 MOKOYA 98 59 78 89 95 79 112 610
6 NEWLAND 210 238 200 178 215 200 245 1,486
7 OJOKU 198 120 185 200 158 198 205 1,264
8 OJORA 112 98 78 79 90 110 125 692
9 OLUWA 180 196 205 221 213 198 210 1,423
10 OSHODI 129 148 169 102 98 150 175 971
TOTAL 1,773 1,497 1,669 1,543 1,460 1,596 1,827 11400
SOURCE: Compiled by the author from schools under study

TABLE 2: TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS THAT SAT FOR WASSCE IN EACH

SCHOOL FROM 2008 TO 2014

36
 S/N SCHOOLS 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 TOTAL
1 ADEOLU 276 142 198 156 99 110 135 1,120
2 ALAKOTO 305 265 246 304 295 325 330 2,070
3 CREEK 180 121 155 134 100 120 180 990
4 EXPRESS 59 79 142 84 75 93 97 629
5 MOKOYA 98 59 78 89 95 79 112 610
6 NEWLAND 201 226 200 178 211 200 245 1,461
7 OJOKU 190 117 185 200 152 196 205 1,245
8 OJORA 112 98 78 79 86 106 125 684
9 OLUWA 142 186 205 216 201 198 210 1,358
10 OSHODI 129 142 169 102 96 150 175 963
TOTAL 1,692 1,435 1,669 1,548 1,460 1,577 1,814 11,100
Source: Compiled by the author from schools under study

TABLE 3: TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS THAT HAD 5 CREDITS AND ABOVE

INCLUDING ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICS

S/ SCHOOLS 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 TOTA PERCENTA

N L GE
1 ADEOLU 1 15 56 - 75 75 96 318 28.49
2 ALAKOTO 98 75 89 75 95 120 136 705 35.06
3 CREEK 60 75 55 76 49 70 56 324 32.73
4 EXPRESS 15 10 47 39 30 39 48 228 36.25
5 MOKOYA 36 23 23 34 26 41 37 220 36.07
6 NEWLAND 67 99 97 87 85 91 98 624 42.71
7 OJOKU 94 89 79 89 90 87 97 625 50.20
8 OJORA 45 98 78 79 90 49 54 493 39.60
9 OLUWA 50 74 99 100 98 97 75 593 43.67

37
 10 OSHODI 54 71 81 47 98 85 95 536 58.46
TOTAL 520 629 704 626 736 754 792
PERCENTA 30.7 43.8 42.1 40.4 50.4 47.8 43.6

GE 3 3 8 3 1 1 6
Sourrce: Compiled by the author from schools under study

TABLE 4: TOTAL NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS THAT SAT FOR THE

WASSCE FROM 2008-2014

S SCHOO 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

/ LS

N
M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
1 ADEOL 145 131 79 63 98 100 79 77 48 51 52 58 70 65

U
2 ALAKO 149 156 138 127 121 125 150 154 98 107 178 14 18 14

TO 7 7 3
3 CREEK 87 93 71 50 93 62 74 60 54 46 64 56 98 92
4 EXPRES 34 25 36 43 64 78 39 45 43 32 54 39 50 47

S
5 MOKOY 45 53 32 27 39 39 46 43 50 45 36 43 52 60

A
6 NEWLA 95 106 127 99 100 100 87 91 99 112 110 90 14 10

ND 0 5
7 OJOKU 101 89 67 50 89 96 109 91 78 74 107 89 10 10

0 5

38
8 OJORA 65 47 59 39 45 33 50 29 40 46 48 58 67 58
9 OLUWA 76 66 100 86 95 110 120 96 98 103 97 10 10 11

1 0 0
1 OSHODI 68 61 62 80 78 91 55 47 54 42 84 66 98 77

0
TOTAL

Source: Compiled by the author from schools under study

TABLE 5: TOTAL NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS THAT HAD FIVE

CREDITS AND ABOVE INCLUDING ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICS

S SCHOO 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

/ LS

N
M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
1 ADEOL 1 - 9 6 24 32 - - 39 36 46 50 54 42

U
2 ALAKO 51 47 34 41 45 44 35 40 43 52 70 50 71 65

TO
3 CREEK 27 33 40 35 31 24 41 35 23 26 37 33 22 34
4 EXPRES 11 4 3 7 24 24 14 25 18 12 23 16 21 27

S
5 MOKOY 15 21 12 11 14 19 17 17 14 12 15 26 18 19

A
6 NEWLA 38 29 57 42 51 46 38 49 41 44 50 41 57 41

ND
7 OJOKU 53 41 54 35 35 44 38 41 46 44 52 35 43 54
8 OJORA 29 16 54 45 41 37 49 30 33 46 32 17 31 23
9 OLUWA 29 21 44 30 43 56 54 46 41 57 51 46 33 42
1 OSHODI 23 31 32 39 36 45 29 28 51 47 46 39 54 41

39
0
TOTAL

Source: Compiled by the author from schools under study

4.2 THE MODEL

yit    i xit (1)   2 xit (2)  ...   k xit ( k )  ui  t  vit

Where

Yit = Response variable

 i = the parameters to be estimated

ui = School effect

t = time effect

vit = combine effects

4.3 Estimation and Discussion of Results

In this section, the performance of the students were estimated based on the parameters in the

models. The fixed and random effect models were used to analyzed the data, comparison were

made between the two models (i.e. fixed and random effects). the result presented in this section

were obtained from the information on number of students that had atleast five credits and above

including mathematics and English language, students-teacher ratio and years of experience of

the teachers,

40
Figure 4.1: Graphs showing the performance of students across schools

41
 1 2 3 4
70
60
50
40
30

5 6 7 8
70
60
PERF
50
40
30

2008 2010 2012 2014 2008 2010 2012 2014

9 10
70
60
50
40
30

2008 2010 2012 2014 2008 2010 2012 2014

YR
Graphs by SCH

Figure 4.1 shows that there is a decline in the performance of the students across the various

schools.

42
Figure 4.1: Combined graphs showing the decline in the performance of the ten schools

70
60
PERF
50
40
30

2008 2010 2012 2014

YR

sch = 1 sch = 2
sch = 3 sch = 4
sch = 5 sch = 6
sch = 7 sch = 8
sch = 9 sch = 10

43
\

\\

Table 4.1: Regression of students performance on students-teacher ratio

Table 4.1 shows the result of an OLS regression of students performance on students-teacher

ratio. The coefficient of the students-teacher ratio is negative (i.e. -0.9985649) this shows that

the students performance follows a downward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the

students-teacher ratio may tend to a decrease in the performance of the students. R-square =

0.6804 and Adjusted R-square = 0.6757; this shows that approximately 68% of the performance

of the students is explained by the students-teacher ratio. The model is significant at 5%

44
Table 4.2: Regression of students performance on work experience

Table 4.2 shows the result of an OLS regression of students performance on teachers work

experience. The coefficient of the work experience is positive (i.e. 6.541269) this shows that the

students performance follows a upward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the years of

experience of the teachers may tend to an increase in the performance of the students. R-square

= 0.5850 and Adjusted R-square = 0.5789; this shows that approximately 58% of the

performance of the students is explained by the work experience of the teachers. The model is

significant at 5%

45
Table 4.3: Comparing the fixed effects using the schools as dummies

Table 4.3 shows the Fixed Effect (FE) of students performance on students-teacher ratio. The

coefficient of the students-teacher ratio is negative (i.e. -1.104872) this shows that the students

46
performance across the ten schools follows a downward trend and it suggest that an increase in

the students-teacher ratio may tend to a decrease in the performance of the students across the

school. R-square = 0.7907 and Adjusted R-square = 0.7552; this shows that approximately

79% of the performance of the students is explained by the students-teacher ratio. The model is

significant at 5%

Table 4.4: Comparing the fixed effects using the schools as dummies

Table 4.4 shows the Fixed Effect (FE) of students performance on teachers work experience. The

coefficient of the work experience is positive (i.e. 7.843629) this shows that the students

47
performance across the ten schools follows an upward trend and it suggest that an increase in the

years of experience of the teachers may tend to an increase in the performance of the students

across the school. R-square = 0.7683 and Adjusted R-square = 0.7291; this shows that

approximately 77% of the performance of the students is explained by the work experience of

the teachers. The model is significant at 5%

Table 4.5: Comparing the fixed effects using the years as dummies

Table 4.5 shows the Fixed Effect (FE) of students performance on teachers work experience. The

coefficient of the work experience is positive (i.e. 0.2161726) this shows that the students

performance within the years follows an upward trend and it suggest that an increase in the

students-teacher ratio may tend to an increase in the performance of the students within the

48
years. R-square = 0.9313 and Adjusted R-square = 0.9235; this shows that approximately 93%

of the performance of the students is explained by the work experience of the teachers. The

model is significant at 5%

Table 4.7

49
Table 4.6: Fixed effects; n entity-specific intercepts

Since p-value = 0.029, it suggest that the model is ok and all the coefficients in the model are

different from zero. This implies that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the

students performance. The interclass correlation (i.e. rho =0.34539354) suggest that 34.5% of

the variance is due to differences across panels.

50
Table 4.7: Fixed effects; n entity-specific intercepts

Since p-value = 0.000, it suggest that the model is ok and all the coefficients in the model are

different from zero. This implies that teachers work experience has a significant influence on the

students performance. The interclass correlation (i.e. rho =0.45498322) suggest that 45.5% of

the variance is due to differences across panels.

51
Table 4.8: Random effects; n entity-specific intercepts

Since p-value = 0.000, it suggest that the model is ok and all the coefficients in the model are

different from zero. This implies that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the

students performance. The interclass correlation (i.e. rho =0) suggest that 0% of the variance is

due to differences across panels.

52
Table 4.9: Random effects; n entity-specific intercepts

Since p-value = 0.000, it suggest that the model is ok and all the coefficients in the model are

different from zero. This implies that work experience of teachers has a significant influence on

the students performance. The interclass correlation (i.e. rho =0) suggest that 0% of the variance

is due to differences across panels.

53
Table 4.9a: Regression of students performance on students-teacher ratio and work experience

under the fixed effects

Table 4.9a shows the result of regression of students performance on students-teacher ratio. The

coefficient of the students-teacher ratio is negative (i.e. -0.6467842) this shows that the students

performance follows a downward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the students-

teacher ratio may tend to a decrease in the performance of the students. Since p-value = 000 at

5% suggest that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the students performance.

Similarly, table 4.9a also shows the result regression of students performance on teachers work

experience. The coefficient of the work experience is positive (i.e. 3.935454) this shows that the

students performance follows a upward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the years of

experience of the teachers may tend to an increase in the performance of the students. Since p-

54
value = 000 at 5% suggest that teachers work experience has a significant influence on the

students performance.

Table 4.9b: Regression of students performance on students-teacher ratio and work experience

under the random effects

Table 4.9a shows the result of regression of students performance on students-teacher ratio. The

coefficient of the students-teacher ratio is negative (i.e. -0.7167219) this shows that the students

performance follows a downward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the students-

teacher ratio may tend to a decrease in the performance of the students. Since p-value = 000 at

5% suggest that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the students performance.

55
Similarly, table 4.9a also shows the result regression of students performance on teachers work

experience. The coefficient of the work experience is positive (i.e. 2.486119) this shows that the

students performance follows a upward trend and it also suggest that an increase in the years of

experience of the teachers may tend to an increase in the performance of the students. Since p-

value = 000 at 5% suggest that teachers work experience has a significant influence on the

students performance.

4,4 Hausman Test

H0 : FIXED EFFECT FITS THE DATA

H1 : RANDOM EFFECT FITS THE DATA

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE: 5%

Chi-square = 1.842

Degree of freedom = 4

p-value = 0.7648

Decision: We do not reject H0, hence it suggest that fixed effect model fits the data.

56
Chapter Five

5.1 Summary of findings

The summary of the findings and analysis carried out in the previous chapter is is

presented in this chapter. Analysis was based on the evaluation of the performance

of students.

Findings from hypothesis shows that there is significant relationship between teacher-student
ratio and academic achievement of students in WASSCE. This findings was supported by Bayo
(2005) who opined that smaller classes benefit all pupils because of individual attention from
teachers, but low-attaining pupil’s benefit more at the secondary school level. Pupils in large
classes drift off task because of too much instrument from the teacher to the whole class
instead of individual attention, and low-attaining students are most affected. Students benefit
in late regards from being in small classes during early grades. Longer periods in small classes
resulted in more increases in achievement in later grades for all students. In reading and
science, low achievers benefit more from being in small classes. The benefits of small class sizes
reduce the student achievement gap in reading and science in later grades.

The ratio of students to teaching staff compares the number of students (in full-time
equivalent) to the number of teacher) in full-time equivalent) at a given level of Education and
similar types of institutions.

57
 However, this ratio does not take into account the amount of instruction time for
student compared to the length of a teacher’s working day, nor how much time spend teaching.
It therefore cannot be interpreted in terms of class size.

Furthermore, Finn (2003) concluded that the students became occupied in the small
class size, both academically and socially. Therefore, there strong engagement caused academic
achievement improvement.

Finding from the hypothesis revealed that there is a significant relationship between teacher’s
years of experience and academic achievement of students in WASSCE . This findings was
supported according to Oriaife in Maduewesi (2005), quality assurance is a baseline standard in
education which can be measured on a scale of reference. It is an expression of standard or a
means by which a certain set standard in education can be achieved.

It could easily be deduced therefore that quality assurance in education is a totality of

the combination of such indispensable variables as quality teachers, teacher’s years of
experience, quality instructional materials and quality infrastructure (classrooms, seats, tables,
chalkboards etc). Others include; favourable teacher/pubis ratio, favorable pupils/classroom
ratio and quality instructional supervision. All these and roe surely results to quality product
(Student) who is exposed to a balanced and result oriented education, especially secondary
education. He is well prepared to face not just the challenges of tertiary education, but the
challenge of providing middle level technical and administrative service in any sector of the
Nigeria economy.

This finding collaborates with NPE (2007) that no educational system can rise beyond
the quality of its teachers. There is also a significant relationship in quantity and quality of
teachers and students’ academic performance. Therefore, in order to find solution to the
problems hindering effective functioning of secondary education, a look must be taken at the
quality of teacher interaction and deliver. Situations weather some teachers are not masters of
the subject they teach, cannot communicate effectively, show dedication and commitment to
duty do not augur well for education. Some teachers are unqualified in terms of not having the
required teacher training or in extreme cases teaching a subject for which one is not trained.
58
Nothing has changed as teachers still present themselves as the repertoire of knowledge and
the students the dormant recipients with the rote method continuing. The response of students
to good classroom instruction is in itself gratifying to the teacher.

Findings of the hypothesis also show that the fixed effect model ok for the data.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

The study recommends to the following;

 School authorities: There is also the need to keep enlightening the parents of the
importance of the student-teacher ratio on the academic attainment of their children.
This is necessary so that parents can understand the implications and consequences of
overcrowded classes and thus mobilize al resources to curtail the problems arising from
the situation.
 Parents: Appropriate parental counseling programmes needs to be organized for
parents that will educate them on how to motivate their children to cultivate good
maintenance culture in order to enhance their academic performance.
 Government: Employment should be strictly for those that study education and
competent in the field. More, so, there should be pre service training and in-service
training for every staff at an interval period of time.

5.3 Contribution to knowledge

The process of modeling students performance over time is an issue that cannot be
over emphasized due to its importance in every area of modeling that involves
specifying the relationship that exist between two or more variables. This work is
very important as it gives researchers an idea of trend in the performance of
students both in the secondary and tertiary levels.

59
5.4 Recommendation for future studies

This work has been able to check the influence of students-teacher ratio and years
of experience of teachers on academic performance of students who sat for
WASSCE using panel data analysis

Further research should determine government impact in terms of funding of

education both in the secondary and tertiary.

5.5: Conclusion

This work focused on panel data analysis on students academic performance. This
research became important because there is need to know some of the factors
responsible for the decline in the performance of students in the west Africa Senior
School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) over the years. It can be seen from the
results that students-teacher ratio has a significant influence on the performance of
students in these selected schools and also , it further revealed that as the class size
increases there is a decline in the performance of the students.

Similarly, it can be seen also from the result that teachers years of experience also
has a significant influence on the performance. This suggest that as the years of
experience increases, the students are may likely perform very well.

Also, performance across the schools decreased as the class size increased. On this
note, it can be deduced that when the class size keep increase, learning process
becomes difficult which in turn affects the performance of the students.

From the comparison of the fixed and random effects models, the results suggested
that the fixed effects model fits the data.
60
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better learning outcome in Osun

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Adedeji, S.O.(1998). Resource provision and utilisation and academic performance

in pre vocational secondary

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Ibadan

Adewunmi, S.A. (2000). The relationship between supervisory climate and

teacher-studentperformance in

secondary school in Oyo State, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, Department of

Educational Management.

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Akanle, O. B. (2007). Socio-economic factors influencing students’ academic

performance in Nigeria some explanation from a local survey.

Brandom Bartels‘’Beyond’’ Fixed Versus Random Effects’’: A frame work for

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Christopher F. Baum: An introduction to modern econometrics

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Andrew, Jennifer Hill

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Kossaert, G; S. Doumen; E. Buyse; K. Verschueren (2011). "Predicting Students' Academic

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Magnuson, Katherine (November 2007). "Maternal Education and Children's Academic

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Rassiter, Kerry (July 1995). "The Relationship between Young Children's Academic
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62
Appendices

Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &

Performance - Adeolu
300

250

200
Frequency

150

100

50

0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

63
 Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &
Performance - Creek
180
160
140
120
Frequency

100
80
60
40
20
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &

Performance - Alakoto
350
300
250
Frequency

200
150
100
50
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

64
 Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &
Performance - Express
160
140
120
100
Frequency

80
60
40
20
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &

Performance - Mokoya
120

100

80
Frequency

60

40

20

0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

65
 Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &
Performance - Ojoku
250

200
Frequency

150

100

50

0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

66
 Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &
Performance - Ojora
140
120
100
Frequency

80
60
40
20
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Graphical Representation of Students' that Sat for WASSCE &

Performance - Oshodi
180
160
140
120
Frequency

100
80
60
40
20
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

67
68