Digestion Resonance

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Animals are not able to synthesise their own food, therefore they depend on ready-made food for their
nutritional requirements. The term nutrition refers to the sum total of all the processes related with the
conversion of the raw foodstuff into the stuff of the body to supply energy for different metabolic activities and
also for the repair and growth. In other word we can define nutrition as the process by which an organism
derives energy to work and other materials, required for growth and maintenance of the various activities of
life.
Digestion :
The process by which complex food is converted into simplest food with the help of digestive enzymes
(Hydrolytic enzymes) is called digestion. Hence process of digestion is a hydrolytic process.
Types of Digestion :
(1) Intracellular : When the process of digestion occurs within the cell in the food vacuole. Examples:
Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata and free living platyhelminthes.
(2) Extracellular : When the process of digestion occurs outside the cell. Examples Coelenterates and
phylum platyhelminthes to phylum chordata.
Digestive System of Human Body :

Digestion in vertebrates occurs in the digestive tract or alimentary canal. The various parts involved in diges-
tion can be broadly grouped in two groups -
(1) Digestive tract or alimentary canal
(2) Digestive glands
Digestive tract or alimentary canal

On the basis of the embryonic origin, the alimentary canal of vertebrates can be divided into three parts -
(1) Fore gut / Stomodaeum : Ectodermal. It includes buccal cavity / oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach and small part of duodenum.
(2) Mid gut / Mesodaeum : Endodermal. It includes small intestine, and large intestine.
(3) Hind gut / Proctodaeum: Ectodermal. It includes anal canal and anus.
Parts of alimentary canal and its histology :

Mouth : The mouth is a transverse slit bounded by two movable lips or labia, upper lip and lower lip. Upper
lip has small ridges on the sides. a tubercle in the middle and a vertical groove (philtrum) above.
Vestibule :
It is a narrow space between lips and gums in front and gums and cheeks on the sides. Its lining contains
mucous glands. In the vestibule, a small median fold of mucous membrane, the superior labial frenulum,
connects the middle of the upper lip to the gum and usually a similar but smaller inferior labial frenulum
connects the middle of the lower lip to the gum.
NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 1

Buccopharyngeal cavity :
It includes anterior buccal cavity lined by stratified squamous epithelial cells and posterior pharyngeal cavity
lined by columnar epithelial cells. Pharynx is a vertical canal beyond the soft palate. The food and air
passages cross here. Pharynx may be divided into three parts; Nasopharynx, Oropharynx and Laryngophar-
ynx. Main structure of Buccopharyngeal cavity are –
(1) Palate : The roof of buccal cavity is called Palate. Palate is distinguished into three regions -
(i) Hard palate : Anterior, bony portion formed of maxilla and palatine bones in human. Hard palate have
transverse ridges called palatine rugae. Such rugae or ridges are more developed in carnivorous mam-
mals because their function is to firmly grip the food and prevent it from slipping out the cavity.
(ii) Soft palate : Posterior soft part, made up of connective tissue and muscles.
(iii) Vellum palati/uvula : Posterior most part of soft palate, which hangs in the region of pharynx. It closes
the internal nostrils during degglutition.
(2) Palatine glands : Numerous mucous glands. Chiefly present in soft palate, secretes mucous for
lubrication.
(3) Naso-palatine duct : One pair, present in rabbit, extends from nasal passage to the buccal passage,
contains Jacobson's organ concerned with olfaction.

(4) Vibrissae: A tuft of hairs on upper lip of rabbit.
(5) Hare-cleft : A cleft on the upper lip of rabbit, which makes it bilobed.
(6) Tongue (linguae) :
Ectodermal,
Highly muscular (mesodermal) and protrusible present on the floor of buccopharyngeal cavity the cells
present are stratified squamous epithelial cells.
The upper surface of the tongue has small projects called papillae. Some of which bears taste buds.
Taste papillae are of following types-
(i) Circumvallate : Circular, largest, 8 to12 in number, present in the posterior part of the tongue extending
from one side to another. They possess taste buds. These are the largest of all the papillae.
(ii) Fungiform : Mushroom shaped (Fungi - shaped), numerous, present at the anterior margins and tip of
the tongue. They have 200 taste buds.
(iii) Foliate : Leaf like flat, less 8-10 in number, present at the posterior margin of the tongue. They are
absent in human and found in rabbit.
(iv) Filiform : Conical shaped, smallest and most numerous distributed throughout tongue. They are
without taste buds.
Hence, in human taste is recognized with the help of circumvallate and fungiform taste papillae. In
man the anterior end of tongue feels sweet taste, posterior part feel bitter taste, sides feel sour taste
and a small part behind the anterior end feel salty taste.
Functions of tongue : Important function of tongue are as follows -
(i) Acts as universal toothbrush, as it helps in tooth cleaning.
(ii) Helps in speaking.
(iii) Helps in degglutition.
(iv) Helps in mixing saliva with food.
(v) Helps in taste detection.
(vi) In dog helps in regulation of body
temperature. The phenomenon is called as
"Panting".
(vii) In frog and other animals, it helps
in prey capturing
(7) Teeth : Teeth are differentiated into vari
ous types:
Differentiation of teeth : Morphologically, teeth can be distinguished as homodont or heterodont.
(i) Homodont : When all the teeth are structurally and functionally similar.
(ii) Heterodont : When the teeth are different in structure and functions. They are distinguished into four
types incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
(a) Incisors : They are single-rooted monocuspid and long, curved and sharp-edged. They are adapted for
cutting or cropping and biting.
(b) Canines : There is one pointed canine in each half of upper jaw and each half of lower jaw next to the
incisors. They are meant for piercing, tearing and offence and defence. They are single rooted and
monocuspid.
(c) Premolars : They have one root and two cusps (bicuspid). They are meant for crushing, grinding and
chewing.
(d) Molars: They have more than two roots (upper molars have three roots and lower molars have two roots)
and 4 cuspid.
Attachment of teeth : On the basis of attachment of teeth at their bases with the jaw bones, teeth can be
differentiated into -
(i) Acrodont : Teeth are attached to the free surface or summit of the jaw bone, as in a shark or frog. Such
teeth are apt to break off easily but are replaced.
(ii) Pleurodont : In this condition, common in urodeles and lizards, teeth are attached to the inner side of
jaw bone by their base as well as one side.
(iii) Thecodont : Such teeth are characteristic of mammals. Teeth have well developed roots implanted in
deep individual pits or sockets called alveoli or theca, in the jaw bone.
Succession of teeth : According to their replacement (succession), teeth can be divided into 3 categories:
polyphyodont, diphyodont and monophyodont.
(i) Polyphyodont : In lower vertebrates, teeth can be replaced an indefinite number of times during life. e.g.,
- Fishes, amphibia, reptilia.
(ii) Diphyodont: In most mammals teeth develop during life in two successive sets, a condition known as
diphyodont. Teeth of the first set are known as deciduous teeth or milk teeth or lacteal teeth whereas
the second set is called permanent teeth.
(iii) Monophyodont : In some mammals such as platypus, marsupials, moles, sirenians, toothed whale
etc. only one set of teeth develops known as monophyodont condition.
Structure of teeth : Teeth divided into three parts -
(i) Root : Inner most, attached to the bone with the help of cement (hyaluronic acid).
(ii) Neck : Middle, small, covered with gum. Gum provides strength to the teeth.
(iii) Apex or crown : External exposed part of teeth. Longest part, white in colour.
A small cavity present inside teeth called as pulp cavity or dentine pulp cavity. It contains blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, nerve fibres, connective tissue etc. and provides nutrition to odontoblast cells or osteoblast
cells.
The odontoblast cells are mesodermal in embryonic origin forming immediate covering of the pulp cavity.
The cells secrete dentine/ivory.
Bulk of tooth in a mammal is formed of dentine. Dentine is a layer of inorganic substances (62-69%), which
surrounds the odontoblast cells. It is mesodermal in origin.
Enamel, secreted by Ameloblast/Enameloblast cells, forms the outermost covering. It is ectodermal and
made up of 92% of inorganic substances, hence considered as hardest part of the body.
The inorganic substances present are [Ca3(PO4)2,Ca(OH)2.H2o] Calcium phosphate (85%), Calcium
hydroxide and Calcium Carbonate. Cement/Cementum attaches the tooth root to the bone.
Milk teeth or deciduous or temporary teeth :
Are 20 in number, 10 each in upper jaw and in the lower jaw. The milk teeth begin to erupt when the child is
about 6 months old and should all be present by the end of 24 months. The permanent teeth begin to replace
the milk teeth in the 6 years of age, these teeth are 32 and usually complete by 24 years. Milk teeth of man
includes 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 molars (premolars are absent) temporary teeth (2,1,0,2) Permanent
teeth are 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, 12 molars (2,1,2,3)
Dental formula : Each mammalian species is characterized by its own specific dentition with a definite
number and arrangement of teeth. Hence, dentition is of taxonomic importance. It is expressed by a dental
formula as below -
Dental formulae of some common mammals :
3.1.4.3 3.1.3.1
Horse and pig 2 44 Cat 2 30
3.1.4.3 3.1.2.1
3.1.4.2 1.0.2.3
Dog 2 42 Squirrel 2 22
3.1.4.3 1.0.1.3
2.1.3.3 1.0.0.3
Lemur 2 36 Rat 2 16
2.1.3.3 1.0.0.3
2.1.2.3 1.0.0.3
Man (adult set ) 2 32 Elephant 2 14
2.1.2.3 0.0.0.3
0.0.3.3 2.1.0.2
Cow 2 32 Human (milk set ) 2 20
3.1.3.3 2.1.0.2

Oral cavity leads into a short pharynx which serves as a comman passage for food and air, A cartilagi-
nous flap called epiglotis prevents the entry of food into glottis (opening of wind pipe) during swallowing.
Oesophagus (food tube)

Morphology : Single, ectodermal, dorsal to trachea, approximately 25 cm long. passes through thoracic
cavity and opens into stomach present in abdominal cavity. Oesophagus anteriorly opens into pharynx and
posteriorly into stomach.
Function : Conduction of food.
Stomach
Structure :
Single oval, elongated, unilobed and J shaped
and present within abdominal cavity below dia-
phragm.
It consists of three parts as cardiac into which
oesophagus opens, fundic, pyloric which opens
into the first part of small intestine.
Two types of valves are present in the stomach
viz. Cardiac sphincter valve between oesopha-
gus and stomach and pyloric sphincter valve
between stomach and duodenum.
In new born baby cardiac sphincter is much less developed that is why regurgitation of gastric contents is
very common.
Inner surface of stomach is raised into numeros longitudinal folds called gastric rugae.
(i) Anterior part : (Cardiac) cells present are mucous neck cells secreting mucous.
(ii) Middle part : (Fundic gastric)/Main gastric glands in human has four distinct types of cells -
(a) Peptic or zymogenic or chief or central cells : Secretes two digestive proenzymes pepsinogen and
prorennin.
(b) Oxyntic or parietal cells : Secretes HCl and castle's intrinsic factor required for the absorption of
vitamin B12. Hyperacidity is abnormally high degree of acidity due to the secretion of large quantity of
HCl i.e. gastric juice.
(c) Mucous neck cells: Secretes alkaline mucous.
(d) Argentaffin cells or Kultchitsky or enterochromaffin cells : Responsible for the secretion of vaso-
constrictor serotonin. It plays a role regulation of muscular movements.
(iii) Posterior part : (Pyloric) gastric glands in human-cells are mucous neck cells secreting mucous and
some cells, called "gastrin" or "G" cells, secrete a hormone, named gastrin, which increases the motil-
ity of gastric wall and stimulates gastric glands for active secretion.
Functions :
(l) Storage of food.
(2) Churning of food to mix with gastric juice.

Small intestine:
Structure:
Endodermal, longest part of alimen-
tary canal present in the abdominal cav-
ity, supported by a peritoneal membrane
called mesentery.
Wall of jejunum and ileum has circular
or spiral internal fold called fold of
kerckring or valvulae conniventes.
Also numerous finger like projection
called villi project from the wall of lumen,
increasing internal surface area about ten
time.
The distal end of ileum leads into the
large intestine by ileo-caecal valve in man.
Parts : It is approximately 6.25 metres in human. It is divisible into three parts duodenum, jejunum and
ileum.

(3) Glands of small intestine: Various glands found in small intestine.
Glands of small intestine

Crypts
Brunne r's Gland Pa ye r's Pa tche s of
Le iberkuhn
Found in duodenum only. These are lymph K nown as intestinal gland.
A lkaline mucus secreting nodules . They produce S ecrete succus e ntericus
gland so known as mucus lym phocyte s. i.e. inte stina l juice .
gland. Lymphocytes are
phagocytic in nature
whic h des troy harmful
bacteria.
Function : Digestion and absorption of food.

Large intestine :
Large intestine, the name large intestine is due to large diameter (4-6 cm).
Structure : Endodermal, approximately 1.5-1.75 metre long.
Parts : They are following -
(i) Caecum : It is small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic microorganism. It is Spirally coiled 6 cm
long in human. Its posterior end is present as a blind sac in abdominal cavity called vermiform appen-
dix. Vermiform appendix is vestigeal and narrow finger like in structure.
(ii) Colon : Single endodermal approximately 1.3 m long in human distinguished into four limbs as ascend-
ing, transverse, descending and pelvic or sigmoid limb. Colon is concerned with absorption of water of
undigested food, 5% salts, vitamins etc. hence concerned with faeces formation. Colon bacteria also
synthesized vit. B12
(iii) Rectum : Single small dilated sac like in human. It is concerned with storage of faeces. Rectum has
strong sphincter muscle in its wall. The sphincter keeps the canal as well as anus, closed when not
used for defecation.
Function : Absorption of water from undigested food.
(iv) Anal canal and anus : Anal canal connects rectum with anus and it is about 3 cm. long. Anus is the
terminal inferior opening of alimentary canal.

Histology:
The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers namely serosa, muscularis,
sub-mucosa and mucosa.
Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin mesothelium (epithelium of visceral organs) with
some connective tissues.
Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular and an outer longitudinal
layer. An oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions.
The sub-mucosal layer is formed of loose connectivetissues containing nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
In duodenum, glands are also present in sub-mucosa.
The innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the mucosa. This layer forms irregular folds
(rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called villi in the small intestine.
The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a brush border
appearance. These modifications increase the surface area enormously. Villi are supplied with a network
of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal. Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
secrete mucus that help in lubrication.

Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the bases of villi in the
intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn). All the four layers show modifications in different parts of the alimentary
canal.
The various types of digestive glands present in mammals are salivary glands, gastric glands, intestinal
glands, pancreas and liver. The digestive glands secrete digestive juices. Parasympathetic nervous system
increases the secretion of digestive juice whereas sympathetic nervous system decreases it.
(a) Salivary glands : The three pairs of salivary glands present in humans are as follows -
(1) Parotid : One-pair, largest salivary gland present below pinna. A stenson's duct arises from each gland,
opening in vestibule between the 2nd molar teeth of upper jaw and cheeks. Parotid glands secrete
enzymes. Viral infection of parotid glands causes "Mumps" (by paramyxo virus).
(2) Sub-mandibular / sub-maxillary : One-pair, present at the junction of upper and lower jaw in cheek
region. A wharton's duct arises from each gland and opens on lower jaw.
(3) Sub-lingual : One-pair, present in the floor of buccopharyngeal cavity. 6-8 ducts, called ducts of rivinus
or Bartholin's duct arises from these glands and opens below tongue on the floor of buccopharyngeal
cavity.
Saliva / salivary juice : The secretion of salivary glands is called saliva or salivary juice. Some of the
characteristics are as follows -
(1) Amount: 1.0-1.5 litre/day
(2) Chemical nature: Slightly acidic.
(3) pH : 6.3 - 6.8
(4) Control of secretion: Autonomic reflex (parasympathetic nervous system increases salivation while sym-
pathetic nervous system inhibit secretion.)
(5) Chemical composition: Water (99.5%), mucous (acts as lubricant), salts (NaCI, NaHCO3 etc.), enzymes
(ptyalin, lysozyme) etc.
Functions : Salivary juice and its enzymes -
(1) Makes the medium slightly acidic for the action of its enzyme.

(2) Help in taste detection, deglutition, speaking etc.
(3) Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Limit Dextrin
(4) Bacteria (living) Bacteria killed.
(b) Gastric glands :

There are approximately 35 million of gastric glands present in human stomach and grouped into three
categories as already described along with stomach. The gastric gland secretes gastric juice.
Gastric juice
(1) Amount : 1-1.5 liters/day.
(2) Chemical nature: Highly acidic
(3) pH : 1.0 - 3.5 (due to presence of HCl)
(4) Control of secretion: By gastrin hormone.
(5) Chemical composition: Water (99%), mucous, inorganic salts, castle's intrinsic factor, HCI (0.5%,
conc) and enzymes prorennin and pepsinogen and gastric lipase.
Functions of gastric juice and its enzymes
(1) Inactivates the action of ptyalin.
(2) Makes the medium acidic for the action of gastric enzymes.
(3) HCl kills micro organisms.
(4) HCl kills the living organism (prey etc.) if ingested.
HCl
(5) Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (active).
HCl
(6) Prorennin (inactive) Rennin (active).
Pep sin
(7) Proteins + Peptones pH 1 3
Polypeptides + Oligopeptides
Re nnin
(8) Casein (milk protein) ca 2
Paracasienate
above phenomenon is called "curding of milk".
(9) Lipids Lipase Triglycerides + Monoglycerides.
(10) HCl is antiseptic.

(11) It act as preservative.
Lactose intolerance : Among mammals, man alone takes milk even after becoming adult. In some humans,
secretion of lactase decreases or ceases with age. This condition is called lactose intolerance. Lactose
intolerant persons fail to digest lactose of milk. In their large intestine, lactose is fermented by bacteria,
producing gases and acids.
(c) Intestinal glands :

Intestinal glands in mammals is a collective name for crypts of Lieberkuhn (secretes alkaline enzymatic
juice) and Brunner's glands (secretes mucous). Intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice
Succus entericus (intestinal juice)
(1) Amount: 1.5 - 2.0 L /day.
(2) Chemical nature: Alkaline.

(3) pH : 7.6 - 8.3
(4) Control of secretion: Nervous and hormonal (Enterocrinin, Duocrinin etc.)
(5) Chemical composition: Water (99%), mucous, inorganic salts, enzymes etc.
Function of Intestinal juice and its enzymes :
(1) Inhibits the action of gastric enzymes.
(2) Makes the medium alkaline for the action of it's enzymes.
Amylase
(3) Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Limit dextrin.
(Maltase)
(4) Maltose -glucosidas e Glucose + Glucose.
Isomaltose
(5) Isomaltose Glucose + Glucose.
(Lactase)
(6) Lactose (milk sugar) -galactosi dase Glucose + Galactose.
Sucrase / Invertase
(7) Sucrose (cane sugar) - fructosida se
Glucose + Fructose.
Erepsin
(8) Polypeptides + Oligopeptides Amino - peptidase Amino acids.
Enterokina se
(9) Trypsinogen (inactive) Trypsin (active).
Lipase
(10) Lipids Fatty acids + Glycerol + Monoglycerides.
Phospholip ase
(11) Phospholipids phosphorous + Fatty acids + Glycerol + Monoglycerides.
Phosphetas e
(12) Organic phosphate Free phosphate.
Polynucleo tidase
(13) Nucleic acid Nucleotides.
Nucleosida se
(14) Nucleosides Nitrogenous bases.
(d) Pancreas :
Single, endodermal, flat, leaf-like yellowish, heterocrine (mixed) gland, present between the ascending and
descending limb of duodenum and opens into duodenum through pancreatic duct. It can be divided into
following parts -
Exocrine : It is the major part (about 85%) of pancreas. The exocrine tissue of the pancreas consists of
rounded lobules (acini) that secrete an alkaline pancreatic juice. The juice is carried by the main pancreatic
duct, also called duct of Wirsung, into the duodenum through the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of
vater). An accessory pancreatic duct, also named duct of Santorini, may sometimes lead directly into the
duodenum.
Endocrine : Minor part (15% only) also called as islets of Langerhans scattered in the exocrine part. It
consist of four various type of cells, as cells, cells, cells and PP cells. -cells secretes glucagon
hormone, -cells secretes insulin hormone and cells secrets somatostatin. The PP cells secrete pancreatic
polypeptide hormone to control somatostatin. The secretion passes directly into blood.
Pancreatic juice
(1) Amount: 1-1.5 L /day
(2) Chemical nature: alkaline

(3) pH: 7.1-8.2
(4) Control of secretion: Hormonal and normal mechanism.
Secretin hormones stimulate the production of more alkaline pancreatic juice but low in enzyme content.
Pancreozymin or Cholecystokinin stimulates the production of enzyme rich pancreatic juice.
(5) Chemical composition: Water (99%), enzymes and salts.
Functions of pancreas and its enzymes :
(1) The islets' of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon hormones.
(2) The exocrine part of pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.
(3) Elastase: It act upon elastin protein.
Enterokina se of
(4) Trypsinogen Intestinal juice Trypsin.
Trypsin
(5) Trypsinogen Autocataly sis Trypsin.
Trypsin
(6) Chymotrypsinogen Autocataly sis chymotrypsin.
Trypsin
(7) Polypeptides + Peptones Pancreatic protease
Tripeptides + Dipeptides + Oligopeptides.
Amy lopsin
(8) Starch (Pancreati c amylase) Maltose + Isomaltose + Limit dextrin
Steapsin
(9) Emulsified Lipids (Pancreati c lipase ) Fatty acids + Glycerol + Monoglycerides
Nuclease
(10) Nucleic acid Nucleotides + Nucleosides
Nucleosida se
(11) Nucleosides Purines + Pyrimidines.
Cymotrypsi n
(12) Polypeptides Oligopeptides.
(e) Liver :
Structure :
The liver is largest and heaviest gland in the body. It is divided into two main lobes: right and left lobes
separated by the falciform ligament.
A pear-shaped sac, the gall bladder is attached to the posterior surface of the liver by connective tissue.
The right and left hepatic ducts join to form the common hepatic duct. The latter joins the cystic duct,
which arises from the gall bladder.
The cystic duct and common hepatic duct join to form common bile duct or ductus cholidochus which
passes downwards posteriorly to join the main pancreatic duct to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla (am-
pulla of Vater). The ampulla opens into the duodenum. The opening is guarded by the sphincter of Oddi.
The sphincter of Boyden surrounds the opening of the bile duct before it is joined with the pancreatic duct.
The basic structural and functional unit of the liver is the hepatic lobule. Each lobule is covered by a thin

connective tissue sheath called Glisson’s capsule.
Each lobule is composed of plates of polyhedral, glycogen-rich cells, the hepatocytes, arranged radially
around a central vein. Hepatocytes around central vein are arranged in cord like arrangement. Between the
plates are radial blood sinusoids. The sinusoids are lined with scattered phagocytic kupffer cells that eat
bacteria and foreign substance.
Functions of liver : Liver, the largest gland of vertebrate body, is an essential organ, which performs many
functions -
(1) It secretes bile which is a complex watery fluid containing bile salts (Na taurocholate and Na glycocho-
late), bile pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin), cholesterol, mucin, lecithin and fats etc. It breaks and
emulsifies the fat.
(2) In the liver, haemoglobin of the worn out erythrocytes breaks down to bile pigments bilirubin and biliverdin.
(3) Excess quantities of carbohydrates (glucose) are converted to glycogen (Glycogenesis) in the presence
of insulin in the liver cells, and stored therein.
(4) Glycogen is a reserve food material, which is changed into glucose (Glycogenolysis) and released into
the blood at concentrations maintained constant by the liver. In this way, blood-sugar level is maintained
under diverse dietary conditions.
(5) Under abnormal conditions, liver can convert proteins and fats into glucose by complex chemical reac-
tions. Formation of this "new sugar" i.e. from non-carbohydrate sources, is called gluconeogenesis.
(6) In the embryo, red blood cells are manufactured by the liver. In the adult, liver stores inorganic salts of
iron, copper and vitamin B12 (anti-anaemic factor) and thus helps in the formation of red blood cells and
haemoglobin.
(7) Fibrinogen, prothrombin and certain other blood coagulation factors are formed in the liver.
(8) The plasma proteins serum albumin and serum globulin are synthesized by the liver.
(9) Liver synthesizes vitamin A from the provitamins A (carotenoid pigments). Liver cells also store fat-soluble
vitamin A, D, E and K. Besides, it is the principal storage organ for vitamin B12.
(10) The liver is the site of detoxification of different toxic substances either produced in the body or taken
along with food.
(11) Kupffer cells in the liver sinusoids phagocytose and remove bacteria, worn-out blood elements and
foreign particles.

Gall bladder :
The gall bladder is a slate-blue, pear-shaped sac connected with an supported from liver by a small
omentum or ligament. Its distal part is called fundus, while the narrow part, continued as cystic duct, is
called the neck.
Bile :
(1) Amount: 800-1000 ml daily. On the average about 700 ml.
(2) Source: Secreted by hepatic cells
(3) Storage site: Gall bladder
(4) Colour: Greenish-blue
(5) Chemical nature: Alkaline
(6) pH : 7.6-8.6
Functions of bile :
(1) Emulsification of fats.
(2) Helps in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
(3) Increases alkalinity to make the medium suitable for enzymatic action.
(4) Elimination of excess of bile pigments.
(5) Stercobilin and urobilin (urobilin found in urine) is formed by bilirubin and biliverdin is responsible for
colouration of faeces.
The process of digestion involves following steps -

(1) Ingestion : It is the intake of food most of the animals capture the prey/food with the help of mouth or
tongue.
(2) Mastication: The process occurs in the buccopharyngeal cavity of mammals with the help of teeth.
During this process food is broken down into small pieces, which increases its surface area.
(3) Deglutition / swallowing : The passage of food from buccopharyngeal cavity to oesophagus/stomach.
In mammals bolus of the masticated food is formed in buccopharyngeal cavity which easily slides into
oesophagus. It is a voluntary reflex mechanism.
Peristalsis is alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles produces the wave
of contraction due to which the food passes from front to backward direction in the lumen of alimentary
canal. The phenomenon is called as peristalsis.
Antiperistalsis is the peristaltic wave occuring in the reverse direction. It occurs in alimentary canal and
results in vomiting. The phenomenon is called as "Regurgitation".
(4) Digestion : The process of digestion is accomplished by mechanical and chemical processes.
Oral cavity :
The buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food and facilitation of swallowing. The teeth
and the tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix up the food thoroughly. Mucus in saliva helps in
lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus. The bolus is then conveyed into the
pharynx and then into the oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of muscular contractions
called peristalsis. The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.
The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes (Na+, K+ , Cl – , HCO– ) and enzymes, salivary
amylase and lysozyme. The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic
action of the carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase. About 30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed
here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a disaccharide – maltose. Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an
antibacterial agent that prevents infections.
Sali var y Amylase

Starch pH 6.8
Maltose
Stomach :
The mucosa of stomach has gastric glands. Gastric glands have three major types of cells namely -
(i) mucus neck cells which secrete mucus;
(ii) peptic or chief cells which secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen; and
(iii) parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (factor essential for absorption of vitamin
B12).
The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours. The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the
stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is called the chyme.
The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets converted into the active enzyme
pepsin, the proteolytic enzyme of the stomach. Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones
(peptides).
The mucus and bicarbonates present in the gastric juice play an important role in lubrication and protection
of the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.
HCl provides the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins.
Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice of infants which helps in the digestion of milk
proteins. Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric glands.
Small Intestine :
The bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions released into the small intestine.
Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato-pancreatic duct. The pancreatic juice contains
inactive enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases and nucleases.
Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal mucosa into active
trypsin, which in turn activates the other enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin and bili-verdin), bile salts, cholesterol
and phospholipids but no enzymes. Bile helps in emulsification of fats, i.e., breaking down of the fats into
very small micelles. Bile also activates lipases.
The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus. The secretions of the brush
border cells of the mucosa alongwith the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice or
succus entericus.
This juice contains a variety of enzymes like disaccharidases (e.g. maltase), dipeptidases, lipases,
nucleosidases, etc.
The mucus alongwith the bicarbonates from the pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa from acid as well
as provide an alkaline medium (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities. Sub-mucosal glands (Brunner’s glands) also
help in this.
Proteins, proteoses and peptones (partially hydrolysed proteins) in the chyme reaching the intestine are
acted upon by the proteolytic enzymes of pancreatic juice as given below:
Pr oteins
Tryp sin/ Chymotryp sin
Peptones Dipeptides
Carboxypeptidase
Pr oteoses
Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.
Amylase
Polysaccha rides (starch) Disaccharides

Fats are broken down by lipases with the help of bile into di-and monoglycerides.
Lipases
Fats Diglycerid es Monoglycer ides
Nucleases in the pancreatic juice acts on nucleic acids to form nucleotides and nucleosides
Neucleases
Nucleicaci ds Nucleotide s Nucleoside s
The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the end products of the above reactions to form the re-
spective simple absorbable forms. These final steps in digestion occur very close to the mucosal epithe-
lial cells of the intestine.
Dipeptidas es
Dipeptides Amino acids
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Nucleotida ses Nucleosida ses

Nucleotide s Nucleoside s Sugars bases
Lipases
Di and Monoglycer ides Fatty acid Glycerol
The breakdown of biomacromolecules mentioned above occurs in the duodenum region of the small intestine.
The simple substances thus formed are absorbed in the jejunum and ileum regions of the small intestine.
The undigested and unabsorbed substances are passed on to the large intestine.
Large intestine :
No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine. The functions of large intestine are:
(i) Absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs;
(ii) Secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste (undigested) particles together and lubricating it
for an easy passage.
The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces enters into the caecum of the large intestine through
ileo-caecal valve, which prevents the back flow of the faecal matter. It is temporarily stored in the rectum till
defaecation.
Note : The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract are under neural and hormonal control for proper
coordination of different parts. The sight, smell and/or the presence of food in the oral cavity can stimulate the
secretion of saliva. Gastric and intestinal secretions are also, similarly, stimulated by neural signals. The
muscular activities of different parts of the alimentary canal can also be moderated by neural mechanisms,
both local and through CNS. Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by the local
hormones produced by the gastric and intestinal mucosa.

Summary of physiology of digestion (Major gastrointestinal enzyme in mammals)
Name of digestive
Name of
Name of gland juice & optimum Site of action Substrates Products
enzyme
pH
Ptyalin / Dextrins, maltose,
Salivary Starch, dextrins,
Saliva (6.3 - 6.8) Salivary Mouth isomaltose and limit
glands glycogen
amylase dextrin.
Peptones, paracasein
Pepsin
Stomach Proteins, casein (curd).
Rennin
Gastric glands Gastric Juice (1-3) Stomach (Milk) Casein Proteoses
Gastric
Stomach Fats Paracasein
lipase
Fatty acid and Glycerol
Liver Bile juice (7.6-8.6) No enzymes Duodenum Fat Makes the food
alkaline, emulsifies fat
and kills the harmful
bacteria.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS :

Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal mucosa into
the blood or lymph. It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
Small amounts of monosacharides like glucose, amino acids and some of electrolytes like chloride ions
are generally absorbed by simple diffusion. The passage of these substances into the blood depends upon
the concentration gradients.
However, some of the substances like fructose and some amino acids are absorbed with the help of the
carrier ions like Na+. This mechanism is called the facilitated transport.
Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient and hence requires energy. Various nutrients
like amino acids, monosacharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this
mechanism.
Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are first incorporated into
small droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They are re-formed into very small
protein coated fat globules called the chylomicrons which are transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals)
in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed substances into the blood stream.
Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.
A summary of absorption (sites of absorption and substances absorbed) is given in Table
The Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System
Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Certain drugs Absorption of water, Principal organ for Absorption of water,
coming in contact simple sugars, and absorption of nutrients. some minerals and
with the mucosa of alcohol etc. takes The digestion is completed drugs takes place.
mouth and lower place. here and the final products
side of the tongue of digestion such as
are absorbed into glucose, fructose, fatty
the blood acids, glycerol and amino
capillaries lining acids are absorbed through
them. the mucosa into the blood
stream and lymph.
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their activities. This process is
called assimilation. The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum initiate a neural
reflex causing an urge or desire for its removal. The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal
opening (defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass peristaltic movement.
DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM :
Gastroenteritis : The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to bacterial or
viral infections. The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like tape worm, round worm,
thread worm, hook worm, pin worm, etc.
Jaundice : The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments.
Vomiting : It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is controlled by the
vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
Diarrhoea : The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the faecal discharge is
known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
Constipation : In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel movements occur
irregularly.
Indigestion : In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The causes
of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
Hormonal control of digestion :

All of them are polypeptide hormones.
Gastrointestinal hormones in mammals

Hormone Source Stimulus for secretion of Target organ of Action
Hormone Hormone action
Gastrin Mucosa of pyloric Distension of stomach on Stomach Stimulates secretion of gastric juice.
stomach food entry Constricts cardiac sphincter.
Enterogastrone Duodenal pithelium Chyme entry into duodenum Stomach Slows gastric contractions to delay its
emptying.
Stops secretion of gastric juice.
Secretin Duodenal epithelium Acidic chyme entry into Pancreas Release of sodium bicarbonate in
duodenum pancreatic
Liver juice.
Stomach Steps up secretion of bile.
Inhibits secretion of gastrin.
Cholecystokinin Duodenal epithelium Presence of fats in duodenum Pancreas Release of enzymes in pancreatic juice.
(pancreozymin) Gall Bladder Release of bile from gall bladder.
Villikinin Intestinal epithelium Food in small intestine Intestine Accelerates movements of villi.
Duocrinin Intestinal epithelium Acidic chyme in intestine Intestine (Brunner's Release of viscous mucous from
(Duodenal mucosa) gland) Brunner's glands.
Enterocrinin Intestinal epithelium Acidic chyme in intestine Intestine (crypts of Release of enzymes from Lieberkuhn's
(Duodenal mucosa) Lieberkuhn's) crypts.
Nutrition
The substance used for nutrition are called nutrients.Nutreology is the study of food and their use in diet and
therapy.
Types of nutrition :
(1) Autotrophic / Holophytic : The individuals, which synthesizes their own food. It can be grouped into two
following categories -
(i) Photoautotrophs : The individual, which synthesizes their own food from CO2 and H2O in presence of
sunlight. Examples - Green plants, euglena, green sulphur bacteria, chlorobium.
(ii) Chemoautotrophs : The individuals which synthesizes their food with the help of chemical. Examples
- Sulphur bacteria, nitrite bacteria, nitrate bacteria, nitrosomonas, nitrifying bacteria-nitrosomonas,
nitrobacter etc.
(2) Heterotrophic : The animals derive organic food materials by consuming bodies or products of other
living or dead plants or animals. Heterotrophs are of following three types on the basis of their mode of
feeding.
(i) Holotrophic or Holozoic : These individuals ingest mostly solid food. Example - Animals.
(ii) Saprotrophic or Saprobiotic : They feed on dead organic matter. They absorb food through their
body surface, organic fluids formed due to putrefaction of dead organism. Example - Bacteria, fungi,
some protozoans etc.
(iii) Parasitic : These individuals derive their food from the body of their host. These may live inside or
upon the bodies of their hosts, or may only periodically visit them for feeding. e.g., Ectoparasites (Lice)
and endoparasites (Ascaris, Taenia solium).
(3) Myxotrophic nutrition : They carry out autotrophic as well as heterotrophic nutrition. Example -
Euglena.
Modes of animal nutrition :

On the basis of food, holozoic or holotrophic or ingestive nutritionally animals are classified into following -
(1) Herbivorous : The animal which exclusively feeds on plants. Their length of alimentary canal is more
as compared to others. Examples - Tadpole larva of frog, rabbit, cow, horse, sheep etc.
(2) Carnivorous : The animal which kills and feeds on other animals. The length of their alimentary canal
is minimum. Examples - Tiger, lion etc.
(3) Omnivorous: The animal which can take both plant and animal product as food. They have maximum
type of digestive enzymes. Example - Human, Dog, Prawn.
(4) Insectivorous : The animal which feeds on insects. Example - Frog, Common bats, wall lizards.
(5) Detritus : Animals feed chiefly upon organic matters present in the humus. Examples - Earthworm.
(6) Coprophagus or pseudorumination or refection : Animals which feeds on their own faeces. Example
- Rabbit, Guinea pig
Feeding mechanism :
(1) Feeding mechanism in liquid feeders (fluid feeders) are as follows -
(i) Diffusion : Many parasitic organisms (protozoans, tapeworm) absorb the dissolved organic food through
general body surface.
(ii) Pinocytosis (cell drinking) : Ingestion of liquid food by invagination through surface of body. Pinocyto-
sis channels are formed at body surface to enclose the fluid food from surrounding medium. Lower ends
of channels are pinched off as pinocytic vesicle or pinosomes.
(iii) Blood sucking : Their mouthparts are modified for sucking blood. Examples - Vampire bat, mosquito
etc.
(2) Feeding mechanism in microphagus animals (filter feeders) : The food of such animals (parame-
cium, sponges, corals, bivalves, tadpole etc.) is suspended in water fluid and they have filtering devices
(clusters of pseudopodia, cilia, flagella, sheets of mucous etc.) or feeding on small microscopic animals
like - Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
Nutritional requirements :
(1) Food : All living organism needs food. Animals are unable to synthesize their own food hence they obtain
it from outside sources. Animals require food for three main purposes, such as food as a fuel which
provides energy and material for body maintenance, food for movement of body includes muscles con-
traction etc., food for growth as well as for the synthesis of body substances.

(2) Components of food: These are of following types -
(i) Carbohydrates: They are made up of C : H : 0, having general formula (CH2O)n. They are the chief
source of energy. The source of carbohydrates in our food is cereals and pulses.
Specific features :
(1) Storage site: Chiefly liver and muscles.
(2) Daily requirement: 500 gm approx.
(3) Source : Chiefly cereals (rice, wheat, maize), pulses, potato, fruits, sugarcane, milk, honey, sugar etc.
(4) Caloric value: 4.1 k cal./gm
Functions of carbohydrates
(1) Carbohydrates, especially glucose, are the main respiratory fuels.
(2) Ribose and deoxyribose sugars are components of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Galactose is a
structural component of medullary sheath.
(3) Monosugars act as monomers for the formation of disaccharides and polysaccharides.
(4) Starch and glycogen, serve as reserve fuel.
(5) Excess of glucose may also be changed into fats (lipogenesis) and stored in liver, adipose tissue and
mesenteries.
(ii) Lipids :
Types of Lipid in the body

Types of Lipid Functions
Triglycerides (fats and oils) Protection, insulation, energy storage
Phospholipids Major lipid component of cell membranes
Steroids
Cholesterol Minor component of all animal cell
membranes, precursor of bile salts,
vitamin D, and steriod hormones
Other lipids
Fatty acids Catabolized to generate adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) or used to synthesize
triglycerides and phospholipids.
Lipoproteins Transport lipids in the blood, carry

trigycerides and cholesterol to tissues,
and remove excess cholesterol from the
blood.
(iii) Proteins :
(1) Source: Chief source is pulses, egg, milk, meat, fish, leafy vegetables, soyabean, ground nut etc.
(2) Daily requirement: 70-100 gm. (3) Caloric value: 5.6 k cal/gm.
(iv) Vitamins :
Definition : Vitamin are complex organic compounds needed daily in minute quantities and act as growth
and metabolic regulatory substances.

Sources : Vitamins can only be synthesized by green plants, hence animals depend for their vitamin require-
ment upon the plants. Human body manufactures vitamin D using ultraviolet rays of sunlight and can store A,
D, E, K and B12 The chemical compositions of vitamins are known and it is possible to synthesize them.
Importance: The vitamins are not a sources of energy. They regulate the various metabolic processes.
They mostly act as the constituents of coenzymes in the cells.
Types : Vitamins are divided into two groups -
(a) Fat soluble vitamin : A, D, E and K.
(b) Water soluble vitamin : B complex and C.
Fat soluble vitamins

Name of Sources Functions Name of Symptoms Other
vitamins and Deficiency Features
chemical Disease
formula
Vitamin Aor Butter, liver oils, Part of visual Xerophthalmia Drying of eyeball Synthesized
Retinol or anti egg yolk, mango pigment, Night blindness or Unable to see in and stored in
xero-phthalmic and orange, carrot, maintenance of nyctalopia dim light the liver.
or anti infection yellow, green epithelia and Keratomalacia Epithelium Destroyed by
vitamin vegetables. prevention of Dermatosis keratinised strong light.
C20H29O keratinization of Dry scaly skin
epithelium.
Beta carotene
act as
Antioxidants.
Vitamin D or Cod liver oil, Facilitates Rickets in Deformities of Synthesized in
Ergocalciferol butter, fish, eggs, absorption of children bones like the body on
or sunshine milk, brain, lung, calcium and Osteomalacia in bowlegs, pigeon exposure of
vitamin or anti and spleen. phosphorus by adults. chest skin
ricket vitamin intestine and Weak bones (7-hydroxy
C28H44O their retention liable to easy cholesterol)
in body and fracture to light.
deposition in Destroyed by
bones. oral
contraceptives
Vitamin E or Fresh green Antioxidant Anaemia Destruction of Destroyed by

a.Tocopherol vegetables, meat, and some role Sterility RBC. UV- rays.
or anti sterility yolk, vegetable in ETS. DNA / Muscular atrophy In male causes It is also used
vitamin oils, butter and RNA/RBC sterility and in for curing
C29H46O2 cheese, peanuts formation female abortion tumour and
wheat germs promote wound may occur. Effect cancer
healing. not proved in
man.
Degeneration of
muscles
Vitamin K or Fresh green Synthesis of Haemorrhage Reduced ability Vitamin K is
Phylloquinone vegetables, prothrombin for of blood to clot synthesised by
or tomatoes, liver, normal clotting and also leads to intestinal
anti soyabean, cheese, of blood. haemorrhages. microbes
haemorrhagic egg.
present in the
vitamin
intestine.
C31H46O2
Destroyed by-
prolonged use
of antibiotics.

Water soluble vitamins
Nam e of Vitam ins and Sources Function Nam e of Sym ptom s Other
Chem ical Formula Deficiency features
Disease
Vitamin B1 or Thiamine or Branrice, Act as an Beri- beri, Loss of Destroyed by

anti neuritic or antiberiberi w hole w heat enzyme in Cardiovascular appetite and cooking
CI2H16N4SO flour, egg, cellular atrophy w eight,
meat, liver respiration, role retarded
yeast etc. in nutrition of grow th,
nerve cells. muscular
Essential for dystrophy.
carbohydrate Nerves
metabolism, become
protein extremely
synthesis and irritable, Heart
control w ater enlargement
balance in body.
Major component
of co-enzyme
carboxylase.
Vitamin B2 or G or yellow Cheese, egg, Required for cell Cheilosis Cracking of Stored in liver,
enzyme or Riboflavin or yeast, meat, grow th. skin at Excess of this
Lactoflavin or ovaflavin liver, cereals, Form pair of cornersof is eliminated in
or hepatoflavin green, coenzyme (FMN, mouth urine.
C12H26 N4O6 vegetable. FAD). It is associated
Glossitis Inflammation of w ith the
tongue physiology of
vision
Keratitis Inflammation of
skin
Vitamin B3 Yeast factor All foods, Part of Burning feet Nerve It occurs in all
or pantothenic acid or more in yeast, coenzyme A. syndrome, degeneration types of plants
antigreying factor on kidney, liver, needed for cell Nervous and animal
chick antidermatitis factor egg. meat, respiration, disorder tissues.
C9 H17O5N milk, ground necessary for It's def iciency
nut normal skin and cause greying
nerves. of hair
Vitamin B5 or Niacin or Fresh meat, It is an essential Pellagra, Rough skin It is

Nicotinic acid or pellagra liver, fish milk, component of Dermatitis, characterised
preventing factor cereals, NAD and NADP Diarrhoea Inflammation of by 3D's i.e.
C6 H5 NO2 pulses, yeast thus form Dementia skin w hich dermatitis
etc. coenzymes in (3-D becomes scaly diarrhoea and
metabolism of syndrome) and papillated, dementia
carbohydrates, Dehydration, Destroyed by-
used in normal Neural cooking.
functioning of deterioration Pellagra
gastrointestinal w hich may preventing
tract and lead to factor, also
nervous system madness called
Goldberger's p-
p factor,
It is also
synthesized
by colon
bacteria
Vitamin B6 or pyrido-xine Brew er's It is essential Anaemia Nausea, Lack Term B6 w as
or anti dermatitis factor yeast, liver, component of Dermatitis, of RBC(blood) coined by
C8 H11O3N egg. yolk, coenzyme paralysis, Disturbance of Gyorgy.
kidney, milk, pyridoxal Mental disorder central Destroyed by
and phosphate, used nervous cooking and
vegetables. for curing system, Skin oral
tuberculosis. leisons contraceptives
use

Vitamin H or B7 Bateman and Yeast, 150-300 mg It acts as Dermatitis Scaly and itchy It is synthesized
or Biotin or Allison (1916) vegetables and coenzymes and skin by intestinal
coenzyme R or egg yolk essential for fat bacteria,
Avidin synthesis and Destroyed by-
C10H16N2O3S energy prolonged use
production. of antibiotics
Folic Acid or Day (1935) Green 0.4 mg It forms Megaloblastic Enlarged RBC's It is also
Vitamin M or vegetable coenzymes and anaemia, synthesized by
folacin or Anti (spinach) play essential role intestinal
anaemic factor Banana, orange in cell Sprue Ulceration of bacteria,
and liver metabolism, mouth Destroyed by
Necessary for cooking.
erythropoiesis,
required for DNA
synthesis.
Vitamin B12 or Rickets (1948) Meat, egg. liver, 0.003 mg Required for Pernicious Reduced It is also known
Cyanocobalami fish, chromosome anaemia formation of as anti
ne or Animal synthesized by duplication and erythrocytes in pernicious
protein factor intestinal formation of blood bone marrow factor, also
(APF) or bacteria. corpuscles. synthesized by
extrinsic factor intestinal
of castle bacteria in
C6H66O14N14PCo human colon,
Destroyed by-
excessive heat
Vitamin C or Szent Gyorgyi Citrus fruits 40-50 mg Functions as part Scurvy. Spongy and Required by
Ascorbic Acid (1928) such as lemon, of oxidation- bleeding gums, primates, all
C6H6O6 mango, amla, reduction system. fragile blood other
plumes, guava. Helps in secretion vessels and vertebrates and
of collagen, bones. some other
cement dentine. invertebrates.
Helps body to can synthesize
develop vitamin C. It is
resistance to the earliest
diseases. Helps known vitamin.
absorptionof Ca Destroyed by
and Fe in the heating.
intestine. Wound
healing.
(vii) Mineral elements : They forms approximately 4% of body weight. They are essential to regulate the
various metabolic activities of the animals. The various types of mineral are group into two categories as
minor element. Examples - Ca, S, P, Na etc. and trace element examples - Cu, Zn, Mn etc. Some of these
minerals are described as follows -

Balanced diet :
The diet which contain the various nutrients in such proportions as can satisfy all the various needs of our
body, is called a "balanced diet". The proportion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats to fulfill energy require-
ment is 4 : 1 : 1 i.e. 65% of energy is obtained from carbohydrates and 10-20% each from proteins and fats.
This amount of energy is fulfilled by intake of 400-600 gm of carbohydrates, 80-100 gm of proteins and 50-60
gm of fats. The balanced diet must also contain sufficient amount of minerals and vitamins.
Balanced diet for morderately active adult indian

Recommended amounts
Name of food
(gms. Per day)
Adult man Adult woman
(1) Cereals (Wheat/Rice) 520 440
(2) Pulses 50 45
(3) Milk 200 150
(4) Meat/Fish or Egg 30 30
(5) Fats (Oil, Butter, Ghee) 45 25
(6) Sugar/Molasses 35 20
(7) Root and Tubers (Raddish, Potato, etc.) 60 50
(8) Green leafy vegetables 40 100
(9) Other vegetables 70 40
Metabolic rates :
(1) Basal metabolic rate : Amount of energy required daily by a person to maintain its basal metabolism
and is about 1600 k cal/day.
(2) Routine metabolic rate : Amount of energy required daily by a person to do his routine work. It is about
2800 k cal/day for males and 2300 k cal/day for female.
(3) Active metabolic rate : Amount of energy required daily by a person to maintain its high metabolic rate
during heavy physical work and is about 4000 to 6000 k cal/day for males and 4500 k cal/day for
females. It has been scientifically determined that a child of 4-6 years approximately requires 1500, a
child of 13-15 years requires 2500 and a youth of 16-18 year requires 3000 k cal of energy per day.

Diseases due to deficiency of nutrition (Malnutrition)
Name of the Deficie ncy De ficient Nutrie nt Symptoms
Anaemia (microcytic) Fe Haemoglobin and number of erythrocytes gets reduced.
Megaloblastic anaemia Folic acid and B 12 Presence of immature erythrocytes in blood.

Pernicious anaemia VitaminB 12 Immature RBC without Hb. This may be fatal unless treated
with vitamin B 12 injection.
Xerophthalmia Thickened, keratinised, opaque ulcerated cornea. Prime
Vitamin A
cause of blindness in India, especially among children.
Night Blindness Less rhodopsin in rod cells of retina. So no vision in dim
Vitamin A
light.
Rickets (in children) W eak, soft, thin bones due to poor deposition of Ca and P.
VitaminD Bent long bones and painful swelling on wrist, elbow and
knee joints.
Osteomalacia (adults) VitaminD W eak bones of vertebral column, pelvis gets bent and
deformed by body weight.
Sprue Folacin Ulceration of mouth, inflammation of bowel, indigestion,

diarrhoea, weakness.
Pigeons breast Vit.-D Incomplete ossification at the end of limb bone, deformed
ribs leading to pigeons breast.
Beri - beri Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Reduces aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. So peripheral
nerves are inflammed causing pain, numbness and
weakness of limb muscles. Paralysis.
Fluid accumulation in tissues or oedema of hands and legs.
Cardiac oedema.
Scurvy Vitamin C Fragile blood vessels because of defective collagen fibres in
their walls. Bleeding gums, teeth fall, bones fragile. W ound
healing delayed, vitamin C is recommended in serious injury.
Bleeding disease Vitamin K Delayed blood clotting (s) so profuse bleeding.

(Hypoprothrombin anaemia)
Marasmus Protein / Malnutrition Growth and replacement of tissue proteins impaired so
emaciated body with thin limbs and prominent ribs, dry, thin
and wrinkled skin, Diarrhoea. It affects infant under one year
of age.
Kwashiorkor Protein Wasting muscles, thin limbs, Retarded growth of body and
brain, Oedema,
Pellagra Nicotinamide Swollen lips, thick pigmented skin of hands and legs.
Irritability.
Osteoporosis Ca Weakning of bones, tooth decay.
Goitre I2 Enlargement of thyroid gland.
Muscular cramps NaCl Pulling of muscles due to dehydration.
Dental cramps Fluorine Tooth decay.
Regulation of food intake :

Hunger : Hunger is defined as the intrinsic (involuntary) desire or craving for food. Hunger is associated with
a number of objective sensations. For instance, food deprival for many hours causes intense rhythmic
hunger contractions in stomach, which even causes intense pain (hunger pangs) send sensory impulses to
a "hunger or feeding centre", located in the lateral regions of hypothalamus.
When glucose levels fall in blood, hunger centre is stimulated. Hunger centre transmits impulses to wall of
stomach and wall of empty stomach start contraction or hunger pangs. After taking meal satiety centre
which is located in hypothalamus stimulates and feeding is stopped. During high fever person does not feel
like taking meal because high temperature shuts off the appetite centre.

Thirst : Subconscious desire for water is called thirst. It is also induced by a hypothalamic "thirst centre".
When amount of water decreases in body fluids (blood, lymph, tissue fluid, cerebrospinal fluid etc.) due to
fever, exercise and sweating, copious urination, diarrhoea, etc. This induces the feeling of thirst. Presum-
ably, a fall in glucose level in the blood also induces thirst.
Additional Information
In carnivores, last premolars in upper jaw and first molars in lower jaw may have very sharp cusps for
cracking bones and shearing tendons. These are called carnassial teeth.
Tonsillectomy - Surgical removal of tonsil.
Cheek pouches - In some rodents (squirrel, rat) certain old world monkey, the vestibule extends to form
cheek pouches for temporary storage of masticated food.
Elephant tusk is the upper incisors.
Pyorrhoea infected gums and tooth socketS.
The number of teeth that grows once and twice in humans life is.12 and 20 respectively.
Jacobson organ (Vomeronasal organs) - This organ serve to smell food and recognize its chemical nature.
They also help enemy recognition, locating members to opposite sex, courtship etc. It is found in
reptiles such as lizards, snakes and sphenodon.
Greenish faecal matter passed by infant in first two days of birth due to sterilized intestine is called
meconium.
National institute of nutrition is located in Hyderabad.
Gastritis - Iriflammation of stomach.
Amount of rennin decreases with age, then the curdling of milk is done by pepsin and chymotrypsin.
Oesophagus does not secrete any enzyme.
The study of alimentary canal is called Gastro-Enterology.
Bursa fabricious is also called cloacal thymus, is a lymphoid mass in the cloaca of birds. It is site of
differentiation of B- lymphocytes. So a part of immune system.
Carnivores, cattles and other cud-chewing mammals lack ptyalin enzymes in their saliva.
Trypsin is called universal enzyme as found from protozoans to mammals.
Nucleases of pancreatic juice digest about 80% of nucleic acid.
Pancreatic juice is called as "complete digestive juice" as it is protease enzymes can break all type of
peptide bonds.
Amylases act on glycoside linkages.
Blood is digested by trypsin.
Galactosemia is a disease of children in which amount of galactose increases in blood. Such children are
kept on milk free diet.
Sphincter of boyden is absent in rabbit and frog.
Cholecystectomy - Surgical removal of gall bladder.

Bile is alkaline in man but acidic in cats and dogs.
Choleretic are substance which increase bile secretion from liver e.g. bile salts.
Cholagogues are substances which causes the contraction of the gall bladder.
Obstructive jaundice is the condition when hepatic or common bile duct may be obstructed and failing to
be excreted bile by the bile capillaries.
White revolution - Increased milk production.
Blue revolution - Increased fish production.
Yellow revolution - Increased oil production.
The foul & flatus odourof the faeces is due fo presence of gases such as CH4, NH3., H2S, CO2 etc. and
presence of indole, skatole and mercaptones amines formed due to decarboxylation of tryptophan amino
acid.
Villus is the unit of apsorption of food.
The enzymes that converts glucose to glucose 6 phosphate is hexokinase.
Human insulin is known as Humulin.
Glycogen is also called .as "animal starch".
Vertebrates cannot digest keratin protein of hair, nails, fibroin protein Of silk fibers etc, but certain insects
can digest these proteins so damages silken and woolen garments.
An alcoholic is always deficient of vitamin C.
Most of the B-complex vitamins are coenzymes.
The most complex amino acid having double rings structure is tryptophan.
Somatostatin is secreted from salivary and Brunner’s glands that plays a role in growth, repair and
regeneration.
Liver is also called reticular glands because its lobules branches and anastomose with one another to
form a network
Rate of absorption of glucose, galactose fructose through the mucosal cells. If absorption glucose is
assumed 100 then absorption of galactose and fructose is 110 and 43 respectively.
During prolonged fasting body first uses carbohydrates, next fat is withdrawn and proteins are metabo-
lized at the last.
Essential fatty acids : arachidonic acid, linoleic acid Linolenic acid. Deficiency of these leads to phryno-
derma.
Antioxidants are chemicals which decreases oxidative damage to tissues. certain vitamins like vitamin E,
C and vitamin A acts like antioxidants.

Type (I) : Very Short Answer Type Questions : [01 Mark Each]
1. Define emulsification.
2. Dental formula of human.
3. What is micelle?
4. Indentify True of False
(i) Duct of Santorini is accessory pancreatic duct that opens separately into duodenum.
(ii) Rugaes are present in stomach and hard palate.
(iii) Jacobson’s are olfactory organ present in buccal cavity of human.
(iv) Macrocytic anaemia is due to deficiency of folic acid.
(v) Na+ absorbed with the help of glucose.
Type (II) : Short Answer Type Questions : [02 Marks Each]
5. Write short note on :
(i) Putrefication (ii) Flatus (iii) Belching (iv) Marusmus (v) Osteoporosis
6. Give reason :
(i) Why protein digestive enzymes are secreted in inactive form?
(ii) Why does bread piece taste sweeter when you chew it well?
7. Two main function of HCl.
8. Match the following.
(i) Castle factor (a) Paracaseinate
(ii) Rennin (b) Release bile juice
(iii) Chyle (c) Vita.B12
(iv) Benedict test (d) Milky
(v) CCk-PZ (e) Protein
9. Fill in the blanks.
(i) ..........is enzyme but does not digest any food material.
(ii) Bile salt .......... the fat while ............. neutralize flcidic chyme.
(iii) ........ the main digestive part of cellulose act........... is true stomach of ruminent.
(iv) DNAase is another name of ........ that hydrolyse.............. .
10. Give answer in maximum two lines.
(i) Why does mucosal epithelia remain protected from HCl.
(ii) What will happen if villi are not found in intestine.
(iii) Two poisonous substance which are detoxifide by liver.
Type (III) : Long Answer Type Questions: [03 Mark Each]
11. What are exopeptidase? Give example and functions?
12. Explain hunger, its controlling centre and at least one theory of hunger.
13. Composition of pancreatic juice?

Type (IV) : Very Long Answer Type Questions: [05 Mark Each]
14. Explain source and deficiency disease of fat soluble vitamins.
15. Structure, T.S. (Transverse section) and 10 major functions of liver.
16. Explain briefly the following :
(i) Hormones of digestive system.
(ii) Unsaturated fatty acids.
(iii) Hepatopancreas.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Digestive System
1. Dental formula of rabbit is
1023 3023 1023 2023

(1) (2) (3) (4)
1023 3023 2023 1023
2. The hardest substance of vertebrate body is

(1) Keratin (2) Enamel (3) Dentine (4) Chondrin
3. One common secretion of the salivary and Brunner’s glands that plays a role in growth, repair and
regeneration is -
(1) Enterogastrone (2) Urogastrone (3) Neurotensin (4) Somatostatin
4. Digestive enzymes are
(1) Hydrolase (2) Oxido-reductase (3) Transferase (4) None of these
5. In mammals the teeth are
(i) of different type
(ii) Embedded in the cup-like socket of the jaw bones
(iii) Only two set, present throughout life
These conditions are referred as
(1) Heterodont, Thecodont and diphyodont (2) Thecodont, heterodont and diphyodont
(3) Diphyodont, thecodont and heterodont (4) Heterodont, diphyodont and thecodont
6. The function of tongue is to
(1) Help in the act of swallowing (2) Help in mixing saliva with the food
(3) Help in speaking (4) All the above
7. Taste buds for bitter taste are found on tongue at
(1) Tip (2) On basal surface (3) Posterior part (4) Lateral sides
8. In rabbit, the digestion of cellulose takes place in
(1) Colon (2) lleum (3) Caecum (4) Rectum
9. The length of the alimentary canal is more in herbivorous animals than the carnivorous because
(1) Herbivorous diet contains more fat to digest
(2) Herbivorous diet contains more proteins to digest
(3) Herbivorous diet contains more carbohydrates particularly cellulose which takes more time to digest
(4) Herbivorous diet contains more vitamins to digest

10. Brunner’s glands secrete
(1) Alkaline mucus (2) Acidic mucus (3) Neutral mucus (4) Water
11. Pulp cavity of teeth is lined by
(1) Odontoblast (2) Chondroblast (3) Osteoblast (4) Amyloblast
12. In the wall of alimentary canal which are/is true sequence from outer to inner
(1) Serosa, longitudinal muscle, mucosa, sub mucosa
(2) Mucosa, serosa, long muscle
(3) Serosa, long muscle, circular muscle, sub-mucosa, mucosa
(4) Serosa, long muscle, sub-mucosa, mucosa
13. HCl is secreted by
(1) Zymogen cells (2) Oxyntic cells (3) Kupffer cells (4) Mucous cells
14. “Chief cells” or “Zymogen cells” secrete the enzymes of the gastric juice, are found in the
(1) Isthmus of the gland (2) Neck of the tubular gland
(3) Base of the tubular region (4) All the above
15. The mucosal lining of the oesophagus of mammals is made up of
(1) Simple columnar epithelium (2) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
(3) Simple cuboidal epithelium (4) Stratified columnar epithelium
16. Which one of the following is the correct pairing of the site of action and the substrate of rennin
(1) Stomach-Casein (2) Stomach-Fat
(3) Small intestine-Protein (4) Mouth-Starch
17. Acid secretion in stomach is stimulated by
(1) Gastrin (2) Histamine (3) Vagal discharge (4) All of these
18. Narrower distal end of stomach is called
(1) Cardiac (2) Duodenum (3) Pharynx (4) Pylorus
19. Pylorus is situated at the junction of
(1) Oesophagus and stomach (2) Stomach and duodenum
(3) Duodenum and ileum (4) Ileum and rectum
20. Stomach in vertebrates is the main site for digestion of
(1) Proteins (2) Carbohydrates (3) Fats (4) Nucleic acids
21. Both the crown and root of a tooth is covered by a layer of bony hard substance called
(1) Enamel (2) Dentine (3) Bony socket (4) Cementum
22. Valve of kerkrings is another name for
(1) Plicae circulares (2) Plicae semilunares (3) Plicae valvulates (4) All of the these
23. Pepsinogen is secreted by
(1) Chief cells (2) Parietal cells (3) Gastric glands (4) Intestinal cells
24. Intestinal villi are mainly concerned with
(1) Assimilation (2) Secretion (3) Ultrafilteration (4) Absorption
25. Distinct microvilli are present on all of the following except
(1) Cells lining the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney
(2) Follicular cells of the thyroid gland
(3) Absorptive cells of the intestinal epithelium
(4) Mucous cells of the salivary glands

26. Crypt of Lieberkuhn is example for
(1)Simple tubular gland (2) Coiled tubular gland
(3) Compound alveolar gland (4) Compound tubular gland
27. Peyer’s patches are found on the ileum in
(1) Fishes (2) Reptiles (3) Birds (4) Mammals
28. Peyer’s patches contain
(1) Mucous (2) Sebum (3) Lymphocytes (4) Red blood cells
29. The muscular contraction in the alimentary canal is known as
(1) Systole (2) Diastole (3) Peristalsis (4) Metachronal
30. Intestinal villi are more numerous and larger in posterior part of small intestine than in anterior part because-
(1) Digestion is faster in posterior part (2) Blood supply is poor in posterior part
(3) There is more digested food in posterior part (4) Blood supply is rich in posterior part
31. Lacteals are central lymph vessels which are found in
(1) Liver (2) Pancreas (3) Villi (4) Spleen
Digestive Glands
32. A good source of lipase is
(1) Saliva (2) Pancreatic juice (3) Bile (4) Gastric juice
33. Fat digeston is facilitated by
(1) Bile juice (2) Pancreatic juice (3) Gastric juice (4) None of these
34. Liver sinusoids are lined by
(1) Parenchymal cells (2) Endothelial cells (3) Kupffer cells (4) Goblet cells
35. In horses, rabbits hares, the cellulose gets digested in the
(1) Caecum (2) Stomach (3) Appendix (4) Rumen
36. Pancreatic juice contains
(1) Trypsin, lipase, maltase (2) Pepsin, tryspin, maltase
(3) Trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase (4) Trypsin, pepsin, amylase
37. Enzyme released from kidney is
(1) Rennin (2) Uricase (3) Pepsin (4) None of these
38. Liver in our body stores
(1) Vitamin A (2) Vitamin D (3) Vitamin B12 (4) All of these
39. pH of gastric juice is -
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8
40. In pancreas, pancreatic juice and hormones are secreted by
(1) same cells (2) Different cells
(3) Same cells at different times (4) None of these
41. Which of the following is the chracteristic of mammalian liver is -
(1) Kupffer’s cells and leucocytes (2) Leucocytes and canaliculae
(3) Glisson’s capsules and kupffer cells (4) Glisson’s capsules and leucocytes
42. Rennin acts on milk proteins and converts
(1) Caseinogen into casein (2) Casein into paracasein
(3) Caseinogen into paracasein (4) Paracasein into caseinogen

43. Succus entericus is the name given to
(1) Junction between ileum and large intestine (2) Intestinal juice
(3) Swelling in the gut (4) Appendix
44. Islets of Langerhans are present in
(1) Pancreas (2) Ileum (3) Oesophagus (4) Stomach
45. The number of salivary glands in man is -
(1) Two pairs (2) Three pairs (3) Four pairs (4) Five pairs
46. The enzymes responsible for the digestiion of starch in food of man is present in
(1) The salivary and gastric secretions (2) The salivary and pancreatic secretions
(3) The gastric and pancreatic secretions (4) The gastric and duodenal secretions
47. Which of the following shows correct pairing for salivary glands in man
(1) Parotid Wharton’s duct ; submaxillary duct of Stensen ; sublingual duct of Revinus
(2) Parotid duct of Revinus ; submaxillary duct of Stensen ; sublingual Wharton’s duct
(3) Parotid duct of Revinus ; submaxillary Wharton’s duct ; sublingual duct of Stensen
(4) Parotid duct of Stensen ; submaxillary Wharton’s duct ; sublingual duct of Revinus
48. In man, the bile juice secreted on average per day is
(1) 700 ml (2) 1200 ml (3) 400 ml (4) 1500 ml
49. The bile secreted by the liver cells passes into the gall bladder through
(1) Hepato-pancreatic duct (2) Cystic duct
(3) Hepatic duct (4) Hepato-gall duct
50. The functional unit for the absorption of digested food is
(1) Crysts of Lieberkuhn (2) Peyer’s patches
(3) Villi (4) Brunner’s gland
51. Which one of the following is the correct matching set of gland and its secretion
(1) Pituitary gland - Thyroxin (2) Salivary gland - Amylase
(3) Adrenal cortex - Vasopressin (4) Islets of Langerhans - Secretin
52. Gastric juice contains
(1) Pepsin, rennin, lipase (2) Pepsin, amylase, rennin
(3) Pepsin, amylase, trypsin (4) Lipase, rennin, trypsin
53. Deamination occurs in liver to
(1) Get rid of urea from blood (2) Synthesis amino acids
(3) Make use of excess amino acid (4) Convert proteins to urea and uric acid
54. Succus entericus is secreted by
(1) Islets of Langerhans (2) Gastric gland
(3) Uterine crypt and endometrium (4) Crypts of Leiberkuhn and Brunner’s gland
55. Which word best describes the action of bile on fats
(1) Neutralisation (2) Digests (3) Emulsification (4) Absorbs
56. Surgical removal of gall bladder in human beings would lead to
(1) Impairment of the digestion of fat
(2) Increased acidity in the intestine
(3) Jaundice
(4) None of the above

57. Ammonia is formed during digestion in
(1) Liver (2) Small intestine (3) Large intestine (4) Stomach
58. Which one of the following pairs of the kind of cells and their secretion of correctly matched
(1) Oxyntic cells - A secretion with pH between 2.0 and 3.0
(2) Alpha cells of islets of Langerhans - Secretion that decreases blood sugar level
(3) Kupffer cells - A digestive enzyme that hydrolyses nucleic acids
(4) Sebaceous glands - A secretion that evaporates for cooling
59. Liver is called the reticular gland because
(1) The shape is reticular
(2) It contains reticular tissue
(3) Lobules branches and anastomose with one another to form a network
(4) Hepatic duct and cystic duct unite to form the bile duct
60. Kupffer cells are present in
(1) Liver (2) Lungs (3) Spleen (4) Gall bladder
61. Duct of Wirsung is a duct of
(1) Liver (2) Pancreas (3) Gall bladder (4) Duodenum
62. Match the type of cells listed under column I with the secretions given under column II. Choose the
answer which gives the correct combination of the alphabets of the two columns
Column I Column II
(Type of cells) (Secretions)
(A) Beta cells (p) Lysozyme
(B) Mast cells (q) Histamine
(C) Paneth cells (r) Insulin
(D) Acinar cells (s) Pancreatic enzymes
(1) A = r ; B = s ; C = p ; D = q (2) A = s ; B = q ; C = p ; D = r
(3) A = r ; B = q ; C = p ; D = s (4) A = q ; B = r , C = p , D = s
63. Lysozymes are found in -
(1) Saliva (2) Tears (3) Saliva and tears both (4) Mitochondria
64. The amount of gastric juice secreted per day from man’s stomach is about
(1) 5000 ml to 10000 ml (2) 2000 ml to 3000 ml
(3) 100 ml to 500 ml (4) 10 ml to 15 ml
65. Kupffer cells of liver are
(1) Loose connective tissue (2) Phagocytic cell
(3) Mast cell (4) Fat cell
66. The largest gland in the human body is
(1) Liver (2) Brain (3) Pancreas (4) Thyroid
67. Lactase is found in
(1) Saliva (2) Bile (3) Pancreatic juice (4) Intestinal juice
68. Bilirubin and biliverdin are found in
(1) Blood (2) Bile (3) Pancreatic juice (4) Saliva

Physiology of digestion
69. Trysinogen is an inactive enzyme secreted by the pancreas. It is activated by
(1) Pepsin of stomach (2) Chymotrypsin (3) Bile (4) Enterokinase
70. If pancreas is removed, the compound which remain undigested is
(1) Carbohydrates (2) Fats (3) Proteins (4) All of these
71. Chylomicrons are -
(1) Undigested proteins (2) Undigested carbohydrates
(3) Fat droplets coated with glycerol and protein (4) Fat droplets coated with phospholipids
72. The process by which digested food of the alimentary canal passes through its mucous membrane into
circulatory system -
(1) Absorption (2) Assimilation (3) Hydrolysis (4) Defecation
73. Trypsin is a digestive enzyme which occurs in mammals and digests
(1) Starch in buccal cavity in an alkaline medium (2) Protein in stomach in an acidic medium
(3) Protein in duodenum in an acidic medium (4) Protein in duodenum in an alkaline medium
74. Which one of the following statements about glycogen is correct
(1) It is a disaccharide stored in the liver and takes part in the formation of bile and lipase, besides being
a source of energy
(2) It is synthesised in the liver and takes part in the formation of bile and lipase, besides being a source
of energy
(3) It is a polysaccharide which is synthesised and stored in liver cells
(4) It is synthesised in blood and stored in liver and muscles to provide glucose in times of need
75. During digestion the lymphatics of the intestine become filled with fat globules which give white colour to
the lymph. This lymph is known as
(1) Chyle (2) Haemoconia (3) Fluids plasma (4) Bilirubin
76. Digestion is -
(1) Absorption of water
(2) Absorption of food
(3) Conversion of non-diffusable food particle in diffusable food particle
(4) None of these
77. Most digestion and absorption of food takes place in
(1) Stomach (2) Small intestine (3) Large intestine (4) Caecum
78. Emulsification of fats is brought about by -
(1) Bile pigments (2) bile salts (3) Pancreatic juice (4) HCl
79. The end product of fat digestion is
(1) Amino acids (2) Starch (3) Fatty acids (4) Glucose
80. Some proteolytic enzymes are
(1) Trypsin, peptidase, pepsin (2) Amylopsin, steapsin, ptyalin
(3) Amylopsin, lipase, zymase (4) Urease, zymase, dehydrogenase
81. Pepsin acts on
(1) Fats (2) Proteins (3) Carbohydrates (4) Glucose
82. Digestion of starch takes place in
(1) Stomach and duodenum (2) Buccal cavity and duodenum
(3) Buccal cavity and oesophagus (4) Duodenum only

83. The food that enters intestine from stomach is called -
(1) Chyle (2) Chyme (3) Fundus (4) None of these
84. Which one of the following is the matching pair of digestive enzyme and substrate
(1) Rennin - Protein (2) Amylase-Lactose (3) Trypsin-Starch (4) Invertase-Maltose
85. Digestion of which component of the food is likely to be most adversely affected if the pH of stomach is
made neutral (7)
(1) Sucrose (2) Starch (3) Protein (4) Fat
86. Milk protein is acted upon by a gastric enzyme
(1) Casein (2) Rennin (3) Pepsin (4) Caseinogen
87. Digestion of protein is necessary due to
(1) Proteins are not absorbed as such (2) Proteins are large molecules
(3) Proteins have complex structure (4) Proteins are made up of amino acids
88. Bile salt are poured into the alimentary canal where they are necessary for the absorption of
(1) Na+ and Ca++ (2) Fat soluble vitamin
(3) Amino acids and monosaccharides (4) All the nutrients contained in chyme
89. The pH of success entericus is or In intenstine, pH value is
(1) 7.6 (2) 6.6 (3) 5.6 (4) 2.0
90. The amount of bile released in proportion to the amount of
(1) Fat in meal (2) Protein in meal
(3) Carbohydrate in meal (4) All of these
Gastro Intestinal hormones/Digestive enzymes

92. What will happen if the secretion of parietal cells of gastric glands is blocked with an inhibitor
(1) In the absence of HCl secretion, inactive pepsinogen is not converted into the active enzyme pepsin.
(2) Enterokinase will not be released from the duodenal mucosa and so trypsinogen is not converted to
trypsin
(3) Gastric juice will be dificient in chymosin
(4) Gastric juice will be deficient in pepsinogen
93. Salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme begins digestion of
(1) Proteins (2) Fats (3) Carbohydrates (4) All of these
94. Math list I with list II and choose the correct option
List I List II
(A) Salivary amylase (p) Proteins
(B) Bile salts (q) Milk proteins
(C) Rennin (r) Starch
(D) Pepsin (s) Lipids
(E) Steapsin (t) Emulsification of fats
(1) A - (t) ; (B) - (s) ; (C) - (p) ; (D) - (q) ; (E) - (r)
(2) A - (q) ; (B) - (r) ; (C) - (s) ; (D) - (t) ; (E) - (p)
(3) A - (q) ; (B) - (s) ; (C) - (r) ; (D) - (p) ; (E) - (t)
(4) A - (r) ; (B) - (t) ; (C) - (q) ; (D) - (p) ; (E) - (s)

95. Which of the following statement is correct
(1) Though secretin is an enzyme, it is not involved in digestion
(2) Secretin in an enzyme and so it helps digestion
(3) Secretin is a hormone but it plays a role in digestion
(4) Secretin is a hormone and hence it does not play any role in digestion
96. Zymogen cells or chief cells secrete
(1) Hydrochloric acid (2) Mucous (3) Pepsin (4) Trypsin
97. Which one of the following four secretions is correctly matched with its source, target and nature of
action
Secretion Source Target Action
(1) Gastrin Internal lining of stomach Oxyntic cells Production of HCl
(2) Inhibin Sertoli cells Hypothalamus Inhibition of secretion

gonadotropin releasing
hormone
(3) Enterokinase Duodenum Gall bladder Release of bile juice
(4) Atrial Sinu atrial Juxta- Inhibition of release of renin

Natriuretic Factor (ANF) node (SAN) M-cells glomerular
of Atria apparatus
(JGA)
98. Pepsin is produced by
(1) Salivary glands (2) Stomach (3) Duodenum (4) Small intestine
99. Glucagon secreted by the alpha-cells of the islets of Langerhans does this function
(1) Glucagon converts glucose into glycogen and increases the concentration of blood sugar
(2) Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose and increases the concentration of blood sugar
(3) Glucagon converts glucose into glycogen
(4) None of these
100. Match the following and choose the correct combination from the options given
Column I Column II
(A) Ptyalin (i) Lipids
(B) Pepsin (ii) Starch
(C) Steapsin (iii) DNA
(D) Nuclease (iv) Proteins
(1) A-i, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv (2) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-ii
(3) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii (4) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-i
101. Which of the following hormone stimulates the secretion of gastric juice
(1) Secretin (2) Gastron (3) Cholecystokinin (4) Gastrin
102. Cholecystokinin is a secretion of
(1) Stomach which stimulates pancreas to release the pancreatic juice
(2) Liver synthesised from cholesterol and controls secondary sexual characters
(3) Duodenum and makes the gall bladder to contract and release bile
(4) Goblet cells of ileum and stimulates the secretion of succus entericus

103. Secretin
(1) Stimulates enzyme secretion by pancreas, inhibits acid secretion in stomach, stimulates gall bladder
(2) Stimulates bicarbonate secretion by pancreas, inhibits acid secretion in stomach, stimulates
bicarbonate secretion by liver
(3) Stimulates acid secretion in stomach, potentiates action of CCK, inhibits intestinal movement
(4) Stimulates gall bladder, inhibits acid secretion in stomach, stimulates bicarbonate secretion by pancreas.
104. The hormone 'secretin' stimulates secretion of
(1) Pancreatic juice (2) Bile juice (3) Salivary juice (4) Gastric juice
105. Enterokinase is in
(1) Bile juice (2) Intestinal juice (3) Pancreatic juice (4) Pancreatic hormone
106. Identify the correct set which shows the name of the enzymes from where it is secreted & substrate upon
which it acts
(1) Pepsin-stomach wall- casein (2) Ptyalin- intestine-maltose
(3) Chymotrypsin- salivary gland-lactose (4) Ptyalin - pancreas-lipid CoA
107. Which of the following digest proteins into peptides
(1) Erepsin (2) Rennin (3) Pepsin (4) Lipase
108. Which of the following process will be affected by the absence of enterokinase
(1) Lipid Fatty acid + glycerol (2) Dipeptides Amino acid
(3) Proteoses Dipeptide (4) Amylase Maltose
109. Prorennin is secreted by
(1) Zymogen cells (2) Islet of langerhans (3) Sertoli cells (4) Hepatocytes
Nutrition and nutritional requirement

110. When breast feeding is replaced by less nutritive food, low in proteins and calories; the infants below the
age of one year are likely to suffer from
(1) Marasmus (2) Rickets (3) Kwashiorkor (4) Pellagra
111. Statements
(A) The element which is very important for the production of thyroxine is iodine
(B) Vitamin B6 is otherwise known as niacin or nicotinic acid
(C) Fructose is a monosaccharide and is a hexose sugar
(D) Globulin is an example for a conjugated protein
Which option is true -
(1) A, B and C are correct but D is wrong (2) A and C are correct but B and D are wrong
(3) A and B are correct but C and D are wrong (4) A is correct while B, C and D are wrong
112. Starch and cellulose are compounds of many units of
(1) Amino acids (2) Glycerol (3) Simple sugars (4) Fatty acids
113. Glucose, galactose and fructose all have the same molecular size and composition and their absorption
through the mucosal cells takes place
(1) At the same rate (2) Glucose is absorbed most rapidly
(3) Fructose is absorbed most rapidly (4) Galactose is absorbed most rapidly

114. During prolonged fasting
(1) The first to be used up are carbohydrates, next fat is withdrawn and proteins are metabolised at the last
(2) The first to be used up are the fats, next carbohydrates are withdrawn from stored glycogen in the
liver and muscles and proteins are withdrawn at the last
(3) First lipids are used up, then proteins and finally carbohydrate
(4) None of these
115. Milk protein is -
(1) Rennin (2) Casein (3) Galactose (4) Glycine
116. Digestion of protein takes place in
(1) Duodenum and stomach (2) Stomach and oesophagus
(3) Small and large intestine (4) Intestine and rectum
117. Vitamin D is synthesised by one of the following with the help of sunlight
(1) Skin (2) Gall bladder (3) Brain (4) Pancreas
118. Deficiency of vitamin C causes
(1) Anaemia (2) Rickets (3) Scurvy (4) Xerophthalmia
119. Which of the following are required in minimum amount by
(1) Iron, iodine, carbon, manganese, copper, O2
(2) Iron, iodine, manganese, copper, zinc, fluorine
(3) Iron, iodine, manganese, zinc, hydrogen
(4) Nitrogen, oxygen, zinc, fluorine
120. Which of the following vitamin is needed for the coagulation of blood
OR
Necessary vitamin for blood clotting is -
(1) B (2) C (3) K (4) E
121. Fat soluble vitamins are
(1) Vitamin A, B and C (2) Vitamin A, B and D
(3) Vitamin A,D ,E and K (4) Vitamin C and D
122. Vitamin C is
(1) Ascorbic acid (2) Nicotinic acid (3) Lipoic acid (4) Aspartic acid
123. Calciferol is
(1) Vitamin A (2) Vitamin B (3) Vitamin D (4) Vitamin D2
124. Term "vitamin" was given by
(1) James Lind (2) Sterling (3) Funk (4) J.e. Drummond
125. The disease anaemia is caused by the deficiency of one of the following vitamin
(1) Biotin (2) Folic acid (3) Ascorbic acid (4) Niacin
126. Which reserve food a starving man first consumes
(1) Fat (2) Protein (3) Glycogen (4) Vitamin
127. Vitamin E helps in
(1) Maintaining the lipid membrane healthy (2) Maintaining the steroid hormone level in blood
(3) The prevention of skin disorders (4) The prevention of bleeding disease
128. Deficiency of it, causes loss of appetite, mental weekness, fatigue and muscle depreciation
(1) Vitamin - K (2) Vitamin - C (3) Thiamine (4) Riboflavin

129. In beri-beri
(1) The coagulation time increases
(2) Dermatitis in organs exposed to sun rays
(3) The depigmentation of skin and hair starts
(4) The affect over peripheral nervous system, gastrointestinal tract and cardiovascular is pronounced
130. Examination of blood of a person suspected of having anaemia, shows large, immature, nucleated erythrocytes
without haemoglobin. Supplementing his diet with which of the following is likely to alleviate his symptoms
(1) Riboflavin (2) Iron compounds (3) Thiamine (4) Folic acid and cobalamine
131. A patient of diabetes mellitus excretes glucose in urine even when he is kept on a carbohydrate free diet.
The most likely reason for that is
(1) Amino acids are catabolised in the liver to form sugar
(2) Amino acids are discharged in the blood stream from the liver
(3) Fats are catabolised to form glucose
(4) None of these
132. Rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults is caused by the deficiency of
(1) Vitamin A (2) Vitamin B (3) Vitamin C (4) Vitamin D
133. Tonics made out of the liver are very effective in curing haematopoiesis or anaemia because
(1) They contain proteins (2) They contain RBCs
(3) They contain bile juice (4) They contain vitamin B12
134. Pellagra is caused due to the deficiency of
(1) Thiamine (2) Ascorbic acid (3) Niacin (B5) (4) Calciferol
135. Match the following nutrition/vitamin deficiences in column I with causes/deficiencies is column II and
choose the correct option from the answer key
Column I Column II
(a) Kwashiorkor (p) Iron
(b) General Anaemia (q) Menadione
(c) Dermatitis (r) Protein
(d) Beri-Beri (s) Pyridoxin
(e) Bleeding (t) Thiamine
(1) (a) - (p), (b) - (t), (c) - (q), (d) - (r), (e) - (s) (2) (a) - (t), (b) - (q), (c) - (r), (d) - (s), (e) - (p)
(3) (a) - (q), (b) - (r), (c) - (s), (d) - (p), (e) - (t) (4) (a) - (r), (b) - (p), (c) - (s), (d) - (t), (e) - (q)
136. Iodine deficiency causes
(1) Kwashiorkor (2) Anaemia (3) Marasmus (4) Goitre
137. Which group of three of the following five statement (1 - 5) contain is all three correct statements
regarding beri-beri
(A) A crippling disease prevalent among the native population of sub-Saharan Africa
(B) A deficiency disease caused by lack of thiamine (vitamin B1)
(C) A nutritional disorder in infants and young children when the diet is persistently deficient in essential
protein
(D) Occurs in those countries where the staple diet is polished rice
(E) The symptoms are pain from neuritis, paralysis, muscle wasting, progressive oedema mental deterio-
ration and finally heart failure.
(1) B,D and E (2) A, B and D (3) A, C and E (4) B, C and E

138. An average man needs approximately
(1) 2900 K cal. energy/day (2) 500 K cal. energy/day
(3) 1000 K cal. energy/day (4) 2000 K cal. energy/day
139. Which one of the following is the correct matching of a vitamin, its nature and its deficiency disease
(1) Vitamin A - Fat-soluble - Beri-beri (2) Vitamin K - water-soluble - Pellagra
(3) Vitamin A - Fat-soluble - Night blindness (4) Vitamin K - Fat-soluble - Beri-beri
140. Vitamins, we must consume daily are
(1) Fat soluble (2) Water soluble (3) (1) and (2) both (4) None of these
141. Milk sugar is
(1) Sucrose (2) Galactose (3) Lactose (4) Glucose
142. Which of the following is not a trace element -
(1) Zn (2) Cu (3) Mn (4) Fe

143. Holophytic nutrition is found in
(1) Amoeba (2) Giardia (3) Entamoeba (4) Euglena
144. The process of sucking of fluid from the cell surface is called as
(1) Diffusion (2) Phagocytosis (3) Pinocytosis (4) Osmosis
145. Digestion is the breaking down of large food molecules into smaller ones. The main purpose of this is to -
(1) Make the food soluble
(2) Enable the digestive enzymes to be used up
(3) Provide many different types of molecules for absorption
(4) Make the passage of food along the gut easier
146. Vitamin D is synthesized in skin, by the action of sunlight on
(1) Cholesterol (2) 7-hydroxy cholesterol
(3) Cephano-cholesterol (4) Orthophenoxy - cholesterol
147. Which of the following is the matching pair of the deficient nutrient and the resulting disease in which the
patient develops swollen lips, thick pigmented skin of hands and legs and irritability
(1) Iodine-goitre (2) Niacin-pellagra (3) Thiamine-beri beri (4) Protein -Kwashiorkar
148. Which of the following is not a source of vitamin A
(1) Carrot (2) Mango (3) Apple (4) Yeast
149. Which one of the following is a matching pair of a certain body feature and its value/count in a normal
human adult
(1) Urea 5-10 mg/100 ml of blood
(2) Blood sugar 80-100 mg/ 100 ml
(3) Total blood volume 3-4 litres
(4) ESR in wintrobe method 9-15 mm per hour in males and 20-34 mm per hour in females
150. The richest sources of vitamin B12 are
(1) Rice and hen’s egg (2) Carrot and chicken’s breast
(3) Goat’s liver and Spirulina (4) Chocolate and green gram
151. One of the following is not a common disorder associated with digestive system
(1) Tetanus (2) Diarrhoea (3) Jaundice (4) Dysentery

152. Match the two columns and select the correct among options given
Column I Column II
A. Biomacromolecules of food i. Alimentary canal and associated gland
B. Human digestive system ii. Embedded in jawbones.
C. Stomach iii. Outer wall of visceral organs
D. Thecodont iv. Converted into simple substances
E. Serosa v. J-shaped bag like structure
Options :
(1) A-ii, B-i, C-v, D-iii, E-iv (2) A-iv, B-i, C-v, D-ii, E-iii
(3) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv, E-v (4) A-i, B-iii, C-ii, D-iv, E-v
153. Match the two columns and select the right one among options given
Column I Column II
A. Duodenum i. A cartilagenous flap
B. Epiglottis ii. Small blind sac
C. Glottis iii. ‘U’ shaped structure emerging from the stomach
D. Caecum iv. Opening of wind pipe
Options :
(1) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (2) A-iv, B-iii, C-ii, D-i
(3) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii (4) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii
154. Match the enzyme with their respective substrate and choose the right one among options given
Column I Column II
A. Lipase i. Dipeptides
B. Nuclease ii. Fats
C. Carboxypeptidase iii. Nucleic acids
D. Dipeptidases iv. Proteins, peptones and proteoses.
Options :
(1) A-ii, B-iii, C-i, D-iv (2) A-iii, B-iv, C-ii, D-i
(3) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii (4) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i
155. Liver is the largest gland and is associated with various functions, choose the which is not correct
(1) Metabolism of carbohydrate (2) Digestion of fat
(3) Formation of bile (4) Secretion of hormone called gastric

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following substance is not a final product of digestion ? [5th NSO II L]
(1) Fructose (2) Amino acids (3) Maltose (4) Galactose
2. Fats are more difficult to digest than proteins or carbohydrates because :
(1) they are very large and complex molecules (2) they have ester linkages
(3) they are not easily soluble in water (4) None of these
3. The major function of the large intestine (colon) is -
(1) digestive breakdown of food (2) nutrients absorption of food
(3) reabsorption of water (4) housing parasitic bacteria

4. Sphincter muscles are found at (refer figure) : [5th NSO II L]
(1) 12 and 9 (2) 2, 7 and 8 (3) 8 and 10 (4) 14 and 7

5. If the inner surface of the ileum in the human small intestine were smooth, rather than being folded and
subdivided into villi, which statement would be true ? [7th CBO]
(1) The rate of absorption of digested food molecules would be higher, because the digested food would
pass more easily through the digestive tract
(2) Digestion would not be as effective because there would be fewer cells secreting trypsin (a protein-
digesting enzyme)
(3) Human would have needed to evolve a much longer small intestine to absorb sufficient nutrients from
their food
(4) Humans would not be able to survive , because the digestive tract would be more susceptible to
damage
6. In which of the following digestive juice are DNase and RNase found ? [KVPY_2007_SB]
(1) Gastric juice (2)Intestinal juice (3) Saliva (4) Pancreatic juice
7. Partial removal of liver is not harmful because : (KVPY 2007 SA)
(1) Liver being a large organ can suffice the functions even if a part is removed
(2) Liver is not a very essential organ of the body
(3) Liver has regenerative capacity and will grow after partial hepatectomy
(4) The function of liver can be taken over by kidneys

8. Fat absorption in the microvilli is by : [KVPY_2008_SB]
(1) Endocytosis (2) Simple diffusion through the plasma membrane
(3) Facilitated diffusion (4) Active transport
9. Ascorbic acid is a/an. (KVPY 2009 SA)
(1) Strong inorganic acid (2) Hormone
(3) Vitamin (4) Enzyme
10. Bile salts : (KVPY 2009 SA)
(1) break down polypeptide chains (2) emulsify fats and solubilize them
(3) digest fats (4) help breakdown of polysaccharides

11. Dietary fibers are composed of : (KVPY 2009 SA)
(1) Cellulose (2) Amylase (3) Proteins (4) Unsaturated fats
12. The gall bladder is involved in (KVPY 2011 SA)
(1) synthesizing bile (2) storing and secreting bile
(3) degrading bile (4) producing insulin
AIIMS CORNER
1. FAD is a coenzyme derived from (AIIMS 2009)
(1) Riboflavin (2) Vitamin-B12 (3) Thiamine (4) Niacin
2. Which one of the following disorders and characteristic is correctly matched (AIIMS 2009)
(1) Cystic fibrosis - Production of thick mucus that clogs airways
(2) Sickle cell anaemia - Brain deterioration beginning at months of age
(3) Achondroplasia - Extra fingers or toes
(4) Huntington’s disease - Skeletal, eye and cardiovascular defects
3. Duodenum has characteristic Brunner's gland which secretes two hormones called (AIIMS 2009)
(1) prolactin, parathormone
(2) secretin, cholecystokinin
(3) enterocrinin, duocrinin
(4) gastrin, euterogastrone
4. Which of the following is correct? (AIIMS 2010)
(1) paneth cells secrete pepsinogen
(2) parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid
(3) argentoffin cells secrete mucus
(4) chief cells secrete gastrin
5. Vitamin B6 is also called - (AIIMS 2010)
(1) thiamine (2) pantothenic acid (3) pyridoxine (4) retinol
6. The pH of stomach is 1.6, then which enzyme will digest protein? (AIIMS 2011)
(1) Trypsin (2) Pepsin (3) Amylase (4) Erypsin

7. Match the columns (AIIMS 2011)
Column I (Vitamins) Column II (Deficiency disease)

A. B 1 1. Infertility
B. D 2. Scurvy
C. E 3. Bery-bery
D. C 4. Bone deformity
Codes
A B C D
(1) 3 4 1 2
(2) 1 2 3 4
(3) 4 3 1 2
(4) 2 4 1 3
8. Parotid salivary glands are present (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Below the tongue (2) Below the ears
(3) In the angle between two jaws (4) Below the eye orbits
9. Much developed larynx of human male is called (AIIMS 2012)
(1) Aristole’s lanttern (2) Syrinx (3) Adam’s apple (4) Muller’s organ
In each of the following questions a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a corresponding
staterment of Reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(1) If both assertion and resaon are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false
(4) If both assertion and reason are false
10. Assertion : Blood sugar level falls rapidly after hepatectomy.
Reason : The glycogen of the liver is the principal source of blood sugar.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
11. Assertion : Rumen of alimentary canal of ruminant animals harbour numerous bacteria and protozoa.
Reason : Bacteria and protozoa help in the secretion of gastric juice in the rumen.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
12. Assertion : The main part of carbohydrate digestion takes place in small intestine.
Reason : Here pancreatic amylase converts carbohydrates into lactose. [AIIMS 1995]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
13. Assertion : Adult human being is not perfect in digestion of milk.
Reason : With age, man produces little or no lactase in the intestinal juice.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
14. Assertion : Thick layers of muscles are present in the wall of alimentary canal.
Reason : These muscles help in the mixing of food materials with the enzymes coming from different
glands in the alimentary canal. [AIIMS 2007]
(1) (2) (3) (4)

15. Assertion : Carbohydrates are more suitable for the production of energy in the body than proteins and
fats.
Reason : Carbohydrates can be stored in the tissues as glycogen for use in the production of energy,
whenever necessary.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
16. Assertion : Scurvy is caused by deficiency of vitamin.
Reason : Deficiency of ascorbic acid causes scurvy. [AIIMS 2001]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
17. Assertion : Starch is hydrolysed by Salivary amylase to Maltose.
Reason : Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose to lactose. [AIIMS 2001]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
18. Assertion : Mammary glands are apocrine glands. (AIIMS 2009)
Reason : The distal part containing secretory granules break down and leaves as a secretion.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
19. Assertion : Bile is essential for the digestion of lipids. (AIIMS 2010)
Reason : Bile juice contains enzymes bilirubin and biliverdin.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1. Which one of the following is a fat-soluble vitamin and its related deficiency disease? [AIPMT Pre. 2007]
(1) retinol - xerophthalmia
(2) cobalamine - beri-beri
(3) calciferol - pellagra
(4) ascorbic acid - scurvy
2. A person is having problems with calcium and phosphorus metabolism in his body. Which one of the
following glands may not be functioning properly? [AIPMT Pre. 2007]
(1) parotid (2) pancreas (3) thyroid (4) parathyroid
3. In human body, which one of the following is anatomically correct? [AIPMT Pre. 2007]
(1) collar bones - 3 pairs
(2) salivary glands - 1 pair
(3) cranial nerves - 10 pairs
(4) floating ribs - 2 pairs.
4. Lysozyme that is present in saliva and tears. destroys [AIPMT Pre. 2007]
(1) certain types of bacteria
(2) all viruses
(3) most virus-infected cells
(4) certain fungi

5. Which one of the following is the correct matching of the site of action on the given substrate, the enzyme
acting upon it and the end product? [AIPMT Pre. 2008]
(1) small intestine: proteins Pepsin amino acids
(2) colon : fats Lipase micelles
(3) duodenum : triglycerides Trypsin monoglycerides
(4) small intestine : starch Amylase disaccharide (maltose)
6. What will happen if the secretion of parietal cells of gastric glands is blocked with an inhibitor?
[AIPMT Pre. 2008]
(1) In the absence of HCI secretion, inactive pepsinogen is not converted into the active enzyme pepsin
(2) Enterokinase will not be released from the duodenal mucosa and so trypsinogen is not converted to
trypsin
(3) Gastric juice will be deficient in chymosin
(4) Gastric juice will be deficient in pepsinogen.
7. A young infant may be feeding entirely on mother's milk which is white in colour but the stools which the
infant passes out is quite yellowish. What is this yellow colour due to? [AIPMT Pre.2009]
(1) bile pigments passed through bile juice (2) undigested milk protein casein
(3) pancreatic juice poured into duodenum (4) intestinal juice
8. Which one of the following statements is true regarding digestion and absorption of food in humans?
[AIPMT Pre. 2009]
(1) Fructose and amino acids are absorbed through intestinal mucosa with the help of carrier ions like Na +
(2) Chylomicrons are small lipoprotein particles that are transported from intestine into blood capillaries
(3) About 60% of starch is hydrolysed by salivary amylase in our mouth
(4) Oxyntic cells in our stomach secrete the proenzyme pepsinogen
9. Which one of the following pairs of food components in humans reaches the stomach totally undigested?
[AIPMT Pre. 2009]
(1) starch and fat (2) fat and cellulose
(3) starch and cellulose (4) protein and starch
10. Anxiety and eating spicy food together in an otherwise normal human, may lead to [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Indigestion (2) Jaundice (3) Diarrhoea (4) Vomiting
11. Consumption of which one of the following foods can prevent the kind of blindness associated with vitamin'A'
deficiency ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) 'Flaver Savr' tomato (2) Canolla (3) Golden rice (4) Bt-Brinjal
”
12. Which one of the following human organs is often called the “graveyard of RBCs? (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) Gall bladder (2) Kidney (3) Spleen (4) Liver
13. Where do certain symbiotic microorganisms normally occur in human body? (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(1) Caecum (2) Oral cavity lining and tongue surface
(3) Vermiform appendix and rectum (4) Duodenum

14. Which one of the following pairs of, chemical substances, is correctly categorised ?
(1) Calcitonin and thymosin - Thyroid hormones (AIPMT Mains 2012)
(2) Pepsin and prolactin - Two digestive enzymes secreted in stomach
(3) Troponin and myosin - Complex proteins in striated muscles
(4) Secretin and rhodopsin - Polypeptide hormones
15. Find out the correctly matched pair [Kerala PMT 2007]
(1) Pepsinogen – Zymogenic cells (2) HCI – Globlet cells
(3) Mucous – Oxyntic cells (4) Pancreatic Juice – Salivary glands
16. A dental disease characterized by mottling of teeth is due to the excess of a certain chemical element in
drinking water. Which of the following is that element [BHU 2000]
(1) Mercury (2) Chlorine (3) Fluorine (4) Boron
17. Match the name of glands listed under column I with the location given under column II, choose the answer
which gives correct combination of the alphabets of the two columns [KCET (Med.) 2001]
Column I (glands) Column II (location)
(A) Crypts of lieberkuhn (p) Loop of duodenum
(B) Pancreas (q) Stomach
(C) Adrenal gland (r) Intestine
(D) Gastric Gland (s) Kidney
(1) A = r , B = p , C = q , D = s (2) A = r , B = p , C = s , D = q
(3) A = q , B = s , C = r , D = p (4) A = p , B = r , C = s , D = q
18. Some of the free fatty acids and monoacyl glycerols aggregate in ileum to form the water soluble substance
for the absorption. This is known as
(1) Chyle (2) Cargo (3) Micelles (4) Chylomicrons
19. During digestion the lymphatics of the intestine become filled with fat globules, which give white colour to
the lymph. This lymph is known as [CMC Vellore 1993]
(1) Chyle (2) Haemoconia (3) Fluid plasma (4) Bilirubin
20. Inhibition of gastric secretion is brought about by [CMC Vellore 1993; MP PMT 2003]
(1) Cholecystokinin (2) Pancreozymin (3) Gastrin (4) Enterogastron
21. The glucose is converted into glycogen in liver and stored in
[CPMT 1974, 95; DPMT 1982, 85; AFMC 1982; MP PMT 1994, 95]
(1) Liver (2) Liver and muscles (3) Liver and spleen (4) Spleen and muscles
22. Mammals may drink water and also get it from
(1) Breakdown of glycogen into glucose (2) Secretion of saliva
(3) Oxidation of glucose (4) Conversion of oxyhaemoglobin into haemoglobin
23. What is the function of enterogastrone [CBSE PMT 1994; MP PMT 2003]
(1) It stimulates the secretion of digestive juices in the stomach
(2) It inhibits the secretion of gastric juice
(3) It regulates the flow of bile
(4) It stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice

24. Proteolytic enzymes do not corrode lining of alimentary canal, because [Uttaranchal 2001]
(1) They are secreted in inactive form
(2) Lining layer of alimentary canal does not contain protein
(3) The enzymes are not capable of digesting fat
(4) None of these
25. Match the following
ColumnA’ Column B
(a) Amylase (i) Break down of sucrose
(b) Pepsin (ii) Break down of lipid
(c) Lipase (iii) Break down of protein
(d) Sucrase (iv) Break down of starches
(e) Mouth (v) Digestion of proteins
(f) Stomach (vi) Egestion
(g) Intestine (vii) Ingestion
(h) Anus (viii) Digestion and absorption
The correct pairing sequence is -
(1) (a) - (iv) , (b) - (v) , (c) - (ii) ; (d) - (i) ; (e) - (iii) ; (f) - (vii) ; (g) - (vi) ; (h) - (viii)
(2) (a) - (iv) , (b) - (iii) , (c) - (ii) ; (d) - (i) ; (e) - (vii) ; (f) - (v) ; (g) - (viii) ; (h) - (vi)
(3) (a) - (v) , (b) - (iv) , (c) - (i) ; (d) - (ii) ; (e) - (vii) ; (f) - (iii) ; (g) - (viii) ; (h) - (vi)
(4) None of these
26. Spot the salivary gland among the following [KCET 1999]
(1) Sublingual (2) Adrenal (3) Brunner (4) Lacrymal
27. The colour of the faeces is due to the
(1) Urochrome (2) Stercobilin (3) Biliverdin (4) Bacteria
28. Which one is detritus feeder [RPMT 2000]
(1) Parrot (2) Sheep (3) Unio (4) Dung beetle
29. Enzyme Rennin is secreted by [MP PMT 2001]
(1) Cells of stomach (2) Cells of intestine
(3) The cortical cells of kidney (4) The cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidney
30. The enterochromaffin cells contain small granules which produce serotonin hormone whose function is
(1) It helps in stimulation of gastric secretions
(2) It plays a role in the regulation of muscular movements
(3) Both (a) and (b)
(4) None of the above
31. Enzymes are found in all living cell. Their main functions is [CMC Vellore 1991]
(1) To help in the digestion of food (2) To allow chemical reaction to food
(3) To speed up the breakdown of substance (4) To accelerate the rate of chemical reactions
32. Pernicious anaemia is caused due to the deficiency of [MP PMT 2009; WB JEE 2009]
(1) Folic acid (2) Vitamin B6 (3) Vitamin B12 (4) Appendix
33. Weakening of limb bones may be due to deficiency of [MP PMT 1993]
(1) Riboflavin (2) Cyanocobalamine (3) Tocopherol (4) Calciferol

34. Symbiotic bacteria present in intestine of most primates, which synthesize certain vitamins are
(1) Entamoeba histolytica (2) Escherichia coli
(3) Entamoeba gingivalis (4) None of these
35. Match the item in Column I (vitamins) with those in Column II (deficiency diseases)
Column I Column II
(Vitamins) (Diseases)
I. K A. Beri-beri
II. D B Haemorrhagic disease in new born
III. B1 C. Night blindness
IV. A D. Rickets
Which one of the following is the correct matching of all the four vitamins
[CBSE PMT 1995; MP PMT 1999, 2002; DPMT 2006]
(1) I-C, II-B, III-D, IV-A (2) I-A, II-B, III-D, IV-C
(3) I-C, II-A, III-D, IV-B (4) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-C
36. By the mechanical stimulation on the wall of stomach, a hormone is released. This is [MP PMT 1990]
(1) Gastrin (2) Progesterone (3) Secretin (4) Pancreozymin
37. In man, intestinal haustra are
(1) Bulges of colon between plicae semilunares (2) Bulges of colon between plicae circulares
(3) Bulges of colon between rectal columns (4) Villi bearing innumerable microvilli
38. Find out the correct match [Kerala PMT 2007; J & K CET 2008]
Column - I Column - II
(A) Hepatic lobule (p) Sub mucosal glands
(B) Brunner's glands (q) Base of villi
(C) Crypts of Lieberkuhn (r) Glisson's capsule
(D) Sphincter of Oddi (s) Gallbladder
(E) Cystic duct (t) Hepato pancreatic duct
(u) Serous glands
(1) A-r , B-u , C-q , D-t , E-s (2) A-t , B-q , C-s , D-u , E-p
(3) A-r , B-p, C-q , D-t , E-s (4) A-s , B-u , C-t , D-q , E-p
39. If for some reason our goblet cells are non-functional this will adversely affect (CBSE-AIPMT 2010]
(1) Production of somatostatin (2) Secretion of sebum from the sebaceous glands
(3) Maturation of sperms (4) Smooth movement of food downwards the intestine
40. Most abundant mineral of animal body is (WB-JEE 2010)
(1) Iron (2) Sodium (3) Potassium (4) Calcium
41. Bile salts act as activator of which enzyme? (WB-JEE 2010)
(1) Pepsinogen (2) Trypsinogen (3) Lipase (4) Pancreatic amylase
42. Which of the followong is/are essential fatty acids for man? (BHU 2008)
(1) Arachidonic acid (2) Linolenic acid (3) Linoleic acid (4) All of the above
43. Which of the following is not a function of liver? (DUMET 2008)

(1) Production of bile (2) Production of insulin
(3) Glycogen storage (4) Detoxification

44. In which layer of the wall of alimentary canal secretory glands are present? (GUJ. CET 2008)
(1) Serosa (2) Mucosa (3) Muscularis (4) Submucosa
45. Enterogasterone is (CPMT 2008)
(1) Hormone secreted by gastric mucosa (2) Enzyme secreted by gastric mucosa
(3) Hormone secreted by duodenal mucosa (4) Secreted by endocrine gland related to digestion
46. Which one of the following amino acids is an essential part of human diet? (AMU 2008)
(1) Glycine (2) Phenylalanine (3) Serine (4) Aspartic acid
47. Secculus rotundus is a dilated part at posterior end of (BHU 2008)
(1) Ileum (2) Oesophagus (3) Jejunam (4) Colon
48. The epithelial cells lining the stomach of vertebrates is protected from damage by HCL because
(Manipal 2006)
(1) Hydrochloric acid is too dilute
(2) The epithelial cells are resistant to the action of HCL
(3) HCL is neutralised by alkaline gastric juice
(4) The epithelial cells are covered with a mucous secretion
49. Wilson’s disease is associated with the abnormal metabolism of (PMET 2005)
(1) Iron (2) Potassium (3) Iodine (4) Copper
50. Which of the following metals is present in vitamin B12? (DUMET 2005)
(1) Cobalt (2) Copper (3) Zinc (4) Magnesium
51. Camel in its hump, stores (AMU 2004)
(1) Water for emergency (2) Fat for emergency
(3) Both fat and water for emergency (4) Fat and protein as reserve food for emergency
52. Carboxypeptidase is an enzyme secreted by (Kerala CEE 2004)
(1) Salivary gland (2) Stomach (3) Gall bladder (4) Pancreas
53. The cells, which destroy worn out white and red blood cells, bacteria and microorganisms passing from the
liver are (BCECE 2004)
(1) -cells (2) T-cells (3) Kupffer’s cells (4) Oxyntic cell
54. Which one of the following is antioxidant vitamin? (DUMET 2003)
(1) C, E, A (2) B1, B4 (3) A, D, E (4) B3, B5

EXERCISE - 1
1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (1) 6. (4) 7. (3)
8. (3) 9. (3) 10. (1) 11. (1) 12. (3) 13. (2) 14. (3)
15. (2) 16. (1) 17. (4) 18. (4) 19. (2) 20. (1) 21. (2)
22. (1) 23. (2) 24. (4) 25. (4) 26. (1) 27. (4) 28. (3)
29. (3) 30. (3) 31. (3) 32. (2) 33. (1) 34. (3) 35. (1)
36. (3) 37. (1) 38. (4) 39. (1) 40. (2) 41. (3) 42. (2)
43. (2) 44. (1) 45. (2) 46. (2) 47. (4) 48. (1) 49. (3)
50. (3) 51. (2) 52. (1) 53. (3) 54. (4) 55. (3) 56. (1)
57. (1) 58. (1) 59. (3) 60. (1) 61. (2) 62. (3) 63. (3)
64. (2) 65. (2) 66. (1) 67. (4) 68. (2) 69. (4) 70. (4)
71. (3) 72. (1) 73. (4) 74. (3) 75. (1) 76. (3) 77. (2)
78. (2) 79. (3) 80. (1) 81. (2) 82. (2) 83. (2) 84. (1)
85. (3) 86. (2) 87. (1) 88. (2) 89. (1) 90. (1) 91. (1)
92. (1) 93. (3) 94. (4) 95. (3) 96. (3) 97. (4) 98. (2)
99. (2) 100. (3) 101. (4) 102. (3) 103. (4) 104. (1) 105. (2)
106. (1) 107. (3) 108. (2) 109. (1) 110. (1) 111. (2) 112. (3)
113. (4) 114. (1) 115. (2) 116. (1) 117. (1) 118. (3) 119. (2)
120. (3) 121. (3) 122. (1) 123. (3) 124. (3) 125. (2) 126. (3)
127. (2) 128. (3) 129. (4) 130. (4) 131. (3) 132. (4) 133. (4)
134. (3) 135. (4) 136. (4) 137. (1) 138. (1) 139. (3) 140. (2)
141. (3) 142. (4) 143. (4) 144. (3) 145. (3) 146. (2) 147. (2)
148. (4) 149. (2) 150. (3) 151. (1) 152. (2) 153. (3) 154. (4)
155. (4)
EXERCISE - 2
1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (3) 4. (4) 5. (3) 6. (4) 7. (3)
8. (4) 9. (3) 10. (2) 11. (1) 12. (2)
EXERCISE - 3
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (2) 5. (3) 6. (2) 7. (1)
8. (2) 9. (3) 10. (1) 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (1) 14. (1)
15. (2) 16. (1) 17. (3) 18. (1) 19. (4)
EXERCISE - 4
1. (1) 2. (4) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (4) 6. (4) 7. (4)
8. (2) 9. (2) 10. (1) 11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (1) 14. (3)
15. (1) 16. (3) 17. (2) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (4) 21. (2)
22. (3) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (2) 26. (1) 27. (2) 28. (3)
29. (1) 30. (2) 31. (4) 32. (3) 33. (4) 34. (2) 35. (4)
36. (1) 37. (2) 38. (3) 39. (4) 40. (4) 41. (3) 42. (4)
43. (2) 44. (2) 45. (3) 46. (2) 47. (1) 48. (4) 49. (4)
50. (1) 51. (2) 52. (4) 53. (3) 54. (1)

Digestion Resonance

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Digestion Resonance

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DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

Digestive System of Human Body :

Digestive tract or alimentary canal

Parts of alimentary canal and its histology :

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 1

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 2

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 4

Oesophagus (food tube)

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 5

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 6

Glands of small intestine

Function : Digestion and absorption of food.

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 7

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 8

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 9

(3) Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + Limit Dextrin

(4) Bacteria (living) Bacteria killed.

(b) Gastric glands :

above phenomenon is called "curding of milk".

(9) Lipids Lipase Triglycerides + Monoglycerides.

(10) HCl is antiseptic.

(c) Intestinal glands :

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 10

(1) Amount: 1-1.5 L /day

(2) Chemical nature: alkaline

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 11

(4) Control of secretion: Hormonal and normal mechanism.

(5) Chemical composition: Water (99%), enzymes and salts.

Functions of pancreas and its enzymes :

(1) The islets' of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon hormones.

(2) The exocrine part of pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.

(3) Elastase: It act upon elastin protein.

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 12

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 13

The process of digestion involves following steps -

Sali var y Amylase

Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 15

Nucleotida ses Nucleosida ses

(i) Absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs;

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 16

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS :

Hormonal control of digestion :

Gastrointestinal hormones in mammals

Modes of animal nutrition :

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 19

Types of Lipid in the body

Lipoproteins Transport lipids in the blood, carry

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 20

Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin E or Fresh green Antioxidant Anaemia Destruction of Destroyed by

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 21

Vitamin B1 or Thiamine or Branrice, Act as an Beri- beri, Loss of Destroyed by

Vitamin B5 or Niacin or Fresh meat, It is an essential Pellagra, Rough skin It is

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 22

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 23

Balanced diet for morderately active adult indian

(3) Milk 200 150

(4) Meat/Fish or Egg 30 30

(5) Fats (Oil, Butter, Ghee) 45 25

NEET - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION - 25

Anaemia (microcytic) Fe Haemoglobin and number of erythrocytes gets reduced.