CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

All internal combustion engines are equipped with some type of cooling
system because the burning air-fuel mixture in the cylinder may reach 4000°F
(2000°C) or higher and engine parts get hot. However, cylinder walls must not get
hotter than about 500°F (260°C). Higher temperature cause engine parts damaged,
lubricating oil to break down and lose its lubricating ability. The cooling system
removes the exact heat to prevent overheating. In an automobile engine, cooling
system is very important system to maintain the heat energy balance.

2.1. History of Automobile Radiator

Although air cooling was more popular than water cooling during the early
days of the automobile, the first radiator was actually invented by Karl Benz. In
addition to the radiator, Benz also patented components like spark plugs, carburetors,
and clutches in the period between 1871 and 1882.
Wilhelm Maybach was another innovator in the early history of the radiator.
In addition to a water cooling system that included a fan and a tubular radiator, he
also received a patent for a “honeycomb” radiator design that would prove popular for
decades. This honeycomb design first appeared in Maybach’s Mercedes 35hp, which
he unveiled in March of 1900.
Early radiators used water as a coolant, which suffered from inherent problems
with “boiling over” during the course of normal operation. These radiators were also
operated at normal atmospheric pressure. Due to the problem of boiling over, air
cooling was popular until post-World War II.
The next major radiator developments were borrowed from airplane
engineering. Since water cooling systems work less efficiently at high altitudes than at
low altitudes due to lower air pressure, engineers came up with the solution of
pressurizing the cooling systems. This concept was then applied to automobile
engines, where pressurization allowed radiators to operate more efficiently and
engines to run at higher temperatures [13Lau].
 4

2.2. Overview of Cooling System

As fuel is burned in the engine, about one-third of the energy in the fuel is
converted into power. Another third goes out the exhaust pipe unused, and the
remaining third become heat energy. A cooling system of some kind is necessary in
any internal combustion engine. If no cooling system were provided, parts would melt
from the heat of the burning fuel.
The cooling system removes about one-third of the heat produced in the
combustion chamber by the burning air-fuel mixture. The cooling system keeps the
engine at its most efficient temperature at all speeds and operating conditions. It also
helps bring the engine up to normal operation temperature as quickly as possible.
On the other hand, if an engine runs at too low a temperature, it is inefficient,
the oil gets dirty, deposits form, and fuel mileage is poor-not to mention exhaust
emission. For these reason, the cooling system is designed to stay out of the action
until the engine is warmed up [05Ano].

2.3. Operation of Cooling System

Most automotive engines are liquid-cooled. In engine, the cylinder block and
cylinder head have internal passages or water jackets that surround the cylinder of
combustion chamber. Water mixed with antifreeze (the coolant) flows through the
water jackets, pick up heat. To prevent freezing of the water in the cooling system,
antifreeze is added to form the coolant.
An engine-driven water pump pushes the hot coolant out of the water jackets
and through the radiator. Thermostat controls the coolant flow. When the engine is
cooled, the thermostat closes to prevent coolant circulation to the radiator. This keeps
all heat in the engine so it warms up quickly. As the engine warms up, the thermostat
opens to allow coolant flow through the radiator.
The radiator has two sets of passage; one set for coolant and the other for
outside air. A fan pulls or pushes outside air through the radiator. In the radiator, the
coolant loses heat to the passage air. Then the coolant flow back through the water
jackets to pick up heat again. The coolant circulates continuously between the water
jackets and the radiator [93Cro].

2.4. Cooling System Components

The essential components of the cooling system are shown in Fig. 2.1 [93Cro].
 5

Pressure cap
Thermostat Water jackets

Water pump

Air flow

Radiator
Fan

Figure 2.1. Cooling System Components of Liquid Cooled Engine

2.4.1. Water Jackets

The water jackets are spaces between the cylinder walls and the outside shell
of the block and head. Coolant from the water pump flows first through the block
water jackets. Then the coolant flows up through the cylinder-head water jackets and
back to the radiator. Water jackets in cylinder head and block is shown in Fig. 2.2
[93Cro].

Cylinder head
water jackets

Coolant transfer
passage

Cylinder block
water jackets
Water passages Water
Cylinder head to cylinder head jackets
bolt hole

Cylinder bore Core clean-out

holes

Figure 2.2. Water Jackets in Cylinder Head and Block [93Cro]

 6

2.4.2. Water Pump

Water pumps are centrifugal pumps. They attach to the front of the
engine and are driven by a belt from the crankshaft pulley. Instead of using a drive
belt, the water pump on some engines is gear-driven from the engine crankshaft. The
water pump may also be driven by a single serpentine belt that also drives other
components. Impeller action in the water pump is shown in Fig. 2.3.

Impeller
Housing Outlet to
water jackets
Pump
shaft

Fan
hub

Sealed bearings Inlet from

radiator

Figure 2.3. Impeller Action in the Water Pump [93Cro]

The pump circulates as much as 7500 gallons (28, 390L) of coolant an hour.
As the impeller rotates, the curved blades draw coolant from the bottom of the
radiator. They force the coolant through the pump outlet to the water jackets, and back
to the radiator. The impeller shaft is supported on sealed bearing which never need
lubrication. Seals prevent the coolant from leaking past the bearings [93Cro].

2.4.3. Engine Fan

The radiator sometimes needs addition air flow through it to prevent the
engine overheating. This usually occurs at idle slow speed. At higher vehicle speeds,
the air rammed through the radiator by the forward motion of the vehicle provides all
the cooling that is needed. An engine fan or cooling fan pulls the additional air
through the radiator. The fan may be either a mechanical fan or an electrical fan.
Engines mounted longitudinally in rear-drive vehicles usually have a
mechanical fan that mounts to the water pump-shaft. The fan is made of sheet steel or
molded plastic. It has four to seven blades and turns with the water-pump impeller. To
 7

increases the efficiency of the fan, a fan shroud around the fan directs the airflow
[93Cro]. Attachment of the mechanical fan with flexible blades is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Flexible-blade
fan
Water-pump
pulley
Spacer

Crank shaft
pulley
V belt Fan attaching bolt

Figure 2.4. Attachment of the Mechanical Fan with Flexible Blades [93Cro]

2.4.3.1. Variable-speed fan

Many longitudinal engines use a variable-speed fan driven through a fan
clutch. The fan clutch is a temperature-controlled fluid coupling that mounts between
the water-pump pulley and the fan. The air passing through the radiator strikes a
thermostatic blade or spring on the clutch. The temperature of the air causes the
thermostatic device to bend. This operates a valve that allows silicone oil to enter or
leave the fluid coupling.
When the engine is cold, the fluid coupling slips so the fan is not driven. This
reduces noise and saves engine power. As the engine warms up, the thermostatic
device causes more oil to under the fluid coupling. Then the fan clutch begins to drive
the fan [93Cro].

2.4.3.2. Flexible-blade fan

Another way to reduce the power needed to drive the fan, and reduce fan
noise, is to use flexible blades on the fan. In operation, the slant or pitch of the blades
decreases as fan speed increases. Centrifugal force flattens the blades so they take a
smaller bite of air. This reduces noise and air flow, and the power needed to turn the
fan [93Cro].

2.4.3.3. Electric fan

Transverse engines in front-drive vehicles usually have an electric fan. An
electric motor turns the blades. A thermostatic switch turns on the fan only when
 8

needed. For example, in one engine, the switch turns on the fan when the coolant
reaches 200°F (93°C). It turns off the fan if the coolant drops below this temperature.
On vehicles with air conditioning, turning on the air conditioning bypass the
thermostatic switch. The fan runs all the time when the air conditioner is on. The fan
is turned ON and OFF by the electric control module (ECM) in many vehicles which
an electronic engine control system. Electric fan used with a transverse engine is
shown in Fig. 2.5.
Radiator Fan Switch
Fan
Electric fan motor
Ambient temperature sensing switch
Fan shroud
Thermostat housing

Figure 2.5. Electric Fan Used with a Transverse Engine [93Cro]

Most fans, mechanical and electric, are pull type fans. They mount behind the
radiator and pull air through it. Some cars also have a push-type. It mounts in front of
the radiator and pushes air through it. An electric fan drains less power from the
engine and creates less noise than a mechanical fan. Also, there is no fan belt to
inspect, adjust, or replace [93Cro].

2.4.4. Expansion Tank

Most cooling systems have a separate plastic reservoir or expansion tank. It is
partly filled with coolant and connect by an overflow or transfer tube to the radiator
filler neck. As the engine heats up, the coolant expands and flows through the transfer
tube into the expansion tank. When the engine is turned off and cools, the coolant
contacts. This creates a partial vacuum in the cooling system. Then the vacuum
siphons coolant from the expansion tank back through the transfer tube and into the
radiator.
 9

The cooling system with an expansion tank is a closed system. Coolant can
flow back and forth between the radiator and the expansion tank as the engine heats
and cools. This keeps the cooling system filled for maximum cooling efficiency. The
expansion tank also eliminates air bubbles from the coolant. Coolant without air
bubbles can handle more heat. Cooling system with an expansion tank is shown in
Fig. 2.6 [93Cro].
Radiator Filler neck
pressure cap
Expansion tank cap

Full hot Transfer tube

Expansion tank

Figure 2.6. Cooling System with an Expansion Tank [93Cro]

2.4.5. Thermostat
The thermostat is a heat-operated valve that regulates coolant temperature. It
does this by controlling coolant flow from the engine to the radiator. The thermostat is
placed in the coolant passage between the cylinder head and the radiator. The valve in
the thermostat opens and closes temperature changes. When the engine is cold, the
thermostat closes. As the engine warms up, the thermostat opens. This prevents or
allows coolant flow through the radiator. Operation of a wax-pellet type of cooling
system thermostat is shown in Fig. 2.7.

Bypass Thermostat
Hot coolant to
passage housing
radiator

Valve (closed)
Steel piston
Rubber Diaphragm
Return spring
Wax pellet Valve
(open)
Cold coolant Hot coolant
Engine cold – Engine hot –
thermostat closed thermostat open

Figure 2.7. Operation of a Wax-Pellet Type of Cooling System Thermostat

[93Cro]
 10

By closing the passage to the radiator when the engine is cold, the engine
warms up more quickly. Engine heat stays in the engine instead of being carried to the
radiator. This shortens warmup time, wastes less fuel, and reduces exhaust emissions.
After warmup, the thermostat keeps the engine running at a higher temperature than it
would without a thermostat. The higher operation temperature improves engine
efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions.
There are several types of automotive thermostats. A heat-sensitive wax pellet
operates most thermostats. It expands with increasing temperature to open the valve.
The thermostat opens at a specific temperature or thermostat rating. This number is
usually stamped on the thermostat. Two common ratings are 185°F (85°C) and 195°F
(91°C). Most thermostats begin to open at their rated temperature. They are fully open
about 20°F (11°C) higher. For example, a 195°F (91°C) starts to open at that
temperature. It is fully open about 215°F (102°C) [93Cro].

2.4.6. Radiator Pressure Cap

Cooling systems are sealed and pressurized by a radiator pressure cap. Sealing
reduces coolant loss from evaporation and allows the use the of an expansion tank.
Pressurizing raises the boiling temperature of the coolant, thereby increasing cooling
efficiency. At normal atmospheric pressure, water boils at 212°F (100°C). If air
pressure increase, the boiling point also increase. For example, if the pressure is raised
by 15 psi (103 kPa) over atmospheric pressure, the boiling point is raised to about
260°F (127°C). This is the principle on which the pressurized cooling system works.
Radiator pressure cap is shown in Fig. 2.8.
Pressure relief valve spring
Upper sealing gasket
Lower sealing gasket
Lower sealing Upper sealing surface
surface Overflow tube
Vacuum vent
valve

Cam locking
Safety stop
surface

Figure 2.8. Radiator Pressure Cap [93Cro]

 11

As the pressure in the cooling system goes up, the boiling point of the coolant
goes higher than 212°F. There is a greater difference between coolant temperature and
outside air temperature. The hotter the coolant, the faster heat moves from the radiator
to the cooler passing air. Pressurizing the cooling system also increases water pump
efficiency. Normal pressure in the cooling system is determined by the vehicle
manufacturer. Less than normal pressure allows coolant to be lost and may cause
boiling. Too much pressure can damage the radiator and blow off hoses. The radiator
cap has a pressure-relief valve to prevent excessive pressure. When the pressure goes
too high, it raises the valve. Excess pressure and coolant then escape into the
expansion tank.
The radiator cap also has a vacuum-relief valve. It protects the system from
developing a vacuum that could collapse the radiator. When the engine is shut off and
begins to cool, the coolant contracts. Cold coolant takes up less space than hot
coolant. As the volume of coolant decreases, a vacuum develops in the cooling
system. This opens the vacuum valve. Coolant from the expansion tank then flows
back into the cooling system.
The radiator pressure cap must seal tightly if the pressurized cooling system is
to work properly. When the cap is put on the filler neck, the locking lugs on the cap fit
under the filler-neck flange. The cam locking surface of the flange tightness the cap as
it is turned clockwise. This also preloads the pressure-relief valve spring [93Cro].

2.4.7. Coolant
The coolant is the liquid that circulates through the cooling system. It removes
waste heat from the engine and delivers the heat through radiator hose to the radiator.
This cools the liquid which continuously recirculates through the water jackets,
repeating the cooling cycle.
Water freeze at 32°F (0°C). If only water were used as the coolant, it would
freeze if the temperature dropped below 32°F (0°C). This would stop coolant
circulation and the engine would over heat. This could crack the cylinder and head,
and split the radiator. To prevent freezing of the water in the cooling system,
antifreeze is added to form the coolant [93Cro].

2.4.8. Antifreeze
The most commonly use antifreeze is ethylene glycol. A mixture of half water
and half ethylene glycol is the recommended coolant for year-around use in most cars.
 12

The mixture will not freeze above -34°F (-37°C).

The recommended coolant, the mixture of half water and half antifreeze,
performs three jobs;
1. It lowers the freezing point of the engine coolant to -34℉ (-37°C)
2. It raises the boiling point of the engine coolant to 226℉ (108°C). This makes the
coolant less likely to boil away in hot weather
3. It helps protect the cooling system metal from deposits and corrosion.
Antifreeze contains several additive. These include a corrosion inhibitor and a
foam inhibitor. Corrosion or rust can shorten the life of metal parts. It also forms an
insulating layer which reduces heat transfer from the metal to the coolant. In engines
with severe corrosion, the coolant must be at normal temperature while the cylinders
and head are overheating. One reason for having 50 percent antifreeze is to ensure the
cooling system contains an adequate amount of corrosion inhibitor.
The foam inhibitor helps prevent the coolant from foaming as it passes
through the water pump. Foam contains air bubbles which do not conduct heat as well
as the liquid coolant. If the coolant foams excessively, the cooling system becomes
less effective. The engine could overheat.
There are two types of ethylene-glycol antifreeze;
1. High silicate antifreeze
2. Low silicate.
Most automotive engines use high-silicate antifreeze. It protects aluminum
parts. Without this protection, aluminum flakes from the water jackets of an
aluminum cylinder head may clog the radiator.
Low-silicate antifreeze is used in diesel or gasoline engines with cast-iron
cylinder block and heads [93Cro].

2.4.9. Radiator
The radiator is a heat exchanger that removes heat from engine coolant
passing through it. The heat transfers from the hot coolant to the cooler outside air.
An automotive radiator has three main parts. There are a radiator core, and inlet and
outlet tanks.
The cores are usually made of aluminum. The tanks may be made of plastic or
metal. The core has two sets of passages, a set of tubes, and a set of fins attached to
the tube. The tube run from the inlet tank to the outlet tank. Coolant flow through the
 13

tubes and air flows between the fins. The hot coolant sends heat through the tubes to
the fins. The outside air passing between the fins picks up and carries away the heat.
This is lower the temperature of the coolant.
On vehicles with automatic transaxle or transmission, out let tank has a
transmission oil cooler. Many radiators have a drain valve in the bottom and a filler
neck in the top seal the opening with a radiator pressure cap [93Cro].

2.4.9.1. Types of radiators

Radiators are classified according to the direction of the water flow through
them. They are;
1. Down-flow type
2. Cross-flow type
The tanks on a down-flow radiator are on the top and bottom of the core, and
the core tubes run vertically between the tanks. Hot coolant from the engine enters the
top tank. The coolant flows downward through the core tubes. After cooling, the
coolant flows out of the bottom tank and back into the engine. Down-flow type
radiator is shown in Fig. 2.9 [11Kir].

Inlet from engine

Cooling fins
Filler cap

Direction of
coolant flow

Outlet to
engine
Core tubes

Transmission oil cooler

Figure 2.9. Down-Flow Type Radiator [16Joh]

A cross flow radiator is a more modern design that has tanks on the sides of
the core. The core tubes are arranged for horizontal coolant flow. The tank with the
radiator cap is normally the outlet tank. A cross-flow radiator can be shorter than a
down-flow radiator, allowing for a lower hood line. Cross-flow type radiator is shown
in Fig. 2.10 [11Kir].
 14

Inlet from engine

Filler cap

Direction of
coolant flow
Transmission
oil cooler

Cooling fins Outlet to

engine
Core tubes

Figure 2.10. Cross-Flow Type Radiator [16Joh]

2.4.9.2. Radiator cores

There are two basics of core used in radiator, namely
1. Tubular core type
2. Cellular core type.
In tubular core, the upper and lower tanks are connected by a series of tubes
through which water passes. Fins are placed around the tubes to improve heat transfer.
Air passes around the outside of the tubes, between the fins, absorbing heat from the
water in passing.
In cellular core, air passes through the tubes and the water flows in the spaces
between them. The core is composed of a large number of individual air cells which
are surrounding by water. Because of its appearance, the cellular type usually is
known as a honeycomb radiator, especially when the cells in front are hexagonal in
form. In a cellular radiator, the clogging of any passage results in a loss but of a small
part of the total cooling surface.
In a tubular radiator, the water passes through all the tubes, if one tube
becomes clogged, the cooling effect of the entire is lost. In cellular radiator, the
clogging of any passage results in a loss but of a small part of the total cooling surface
[18Sai].

Table 2.1. Figures for Other Various Types of Radiator Cores [96Bla]
1. Fin on tube cores - These cores a. Adler
are built up of round or oval tubes
with horizontal of serpentine fins.
This type of core is still used to
the present date.
 15

b. C4

c. T-Ford

d. Overige

a. Hextube

b. Round tube

c. VWHS

2. Tubular honeycomb cores - In

these cores the tubes are stacked
so that the water can flow in the d. VWS
space between the tubes. The air
passes through the tubes.

e. Square flared
tube

f. Hextube 6-7

g. Round tube
6-7
 16

h. Diamond
tube

i. VHWS
diagonal

j. Square flared
staggered

3. Specials - It is also possible to

manufacture special types of a. Renault
cores.

a. A-film

b. Auburn

c. FIAT
4. Film types - Film or ribbon type
cores are made by pressing or
rolling copper or brass strip into a
certain pattern.
d. Gallay

e. Hexfilm

f. Mercedes
Oryx
 17

g. Moreux

h. Sine wave

i. W-L 1

j. W-L 2

a. Benz
5. S-fin cores - Cores with oval
tubes and S-shaped fins in
between the tubes.
b. S-fin

6. Gilled tubes - These are round a. Ribbenbuis

or oval tubes with fins to improve
the cooling area. Gilled tubes are
made in many types with round or
square fins, profiled or flat, and
fitted in headers. b. Serpentine
square

2.4.9.3. Materials of radiator

According to the used of the metal, in most application, there are basically two
types, namely
1. Copper-brass radiator
2. Aluminum radiator
 18

Copper-brass radiators were standard issue in all automobiles up until 1980.

These devices had brass tanks inside and a copper core. A basic copper-brass radiator
could reject at a rate of about 1,500 BTU (British Thermal Units). Though large and
clunky, copper-brass radiators are not without their advantage. Modern advances in
copper-brass technology accomplished through the International Copper Association
(ICA) have made these kinds of radiator nearly 50% lighter than the traditional
makes. There is also less air pressure in these radiators (about 30%) because the parts
in copper-brass brands are much smaller. Smaller parts also mean less chance for the
pipe inside the radiator from blowing out due to the pressure. In the event that a
copper-brass radiator has outlived its usefulness, modern types are 100% recyclable,
making it friendly to the environment.
The two major problems with brass radiators were that they are very expensive
and, over time, would suffer from rust, making them very inefficient in the long run.
Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity, meaning it conducts heat very well,
absorbing it faster. This state allows hot coolant passing aluminum tubes to be cooled
instantly, which is beneficial when it returns for another cycle to cool the car engine.
Depending on the manufacturer, a radiator made entirely from the aluminum can
conduct as much as 2,000 BTU per hour. That is a 41% increase in efficiency when a
compared to its brass counterpart.
The materials used for radiators should be resistant to corrosion, possess
higher thermal conductivity and form easily, apart from having adequate strength.
Copper and brass are the widely used materials for radiators. Aluminum is also used
from weight and cost considerations. Some late model radiators have plastic tanks
with aluminum cores [13Rob].

2.4.9.4. Applications of radiator

The radiator has a wide range application in automobile industries there are
mainly used to cool the internal combustion engine in the automobile. They also used
in piston-engine aircraft, railway, locomotives, motorcycles, stationary generating
plants and other places where such engines are used [18Sai].

2.5. Heat Transfer in Engine

Heat transfer occurs when a temperature different exists. The combustion of
the charge within the cylinder of the engine results in high temperature differences
and causes heat transfer.
 19

Heat transfer from to the cylinder wall may occur predominantly by

convention and radiation whereas the heat transfer through the cylinder wall occurs
only by conduction. Heat is ultimately transferred to the cooling medium by all the
three modes of heat transfer. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and
radiation. Heat transfer in engine is shown in Fig. 2.11 [12Gan].

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Figure 2.11. Heat Transfer in Engine

2.5.1. Conduction
Heat is transferred by molecular motion through solids and through fluids at
rest due to a temperature difference. Heat is transferred by conduction through the
cylinder head, the cylinder walls, the piston, the piston rings, the engine block and
manifolds. Heat originates from the hot gases in the vicinity of the metal parts
[06Gup].

2.5.2. Convection
Heat is transferred through fluids in motion and between a fluid and a solid
surface in relative motion. When the motion is produced by forces other than the
gravity, the term forces convection is used. Heat is transferred by forced convection
during the whole cycle between the in-cylinder gases and the cylinder head, the
valves, the cylinder walls and the piston. Heat is also transferred by forced convection
from the cylinder head and cylinder walls to the coolant and from the piston to the
lubricant. Heat lost from the engine to the environment is also by convection. The
temperature of the incoming charge in the intake manifold is raised by convective
heat transfer. During the exhaust process, substantial convective heat transfer occurs
to the exhaust valve, the exhaust port and the exhaust manifold [06Gup].
 20

2.5.3. Radiation
Heat transfer by radiation occurs through the emission and absorption of
electromagnetic waves having wavelengths in the visible range (0.4 to 0.7 µm) and
the infrared range (0.7 to 40 µm). The radiative heat transfer within the cylinder is due
to high temperature gases and the soot particles.
In SI engines that flame front is slightly luminous and the gaseous are formed
in the reaction at an intermediate step in the combustion process. Heat transfer in SI
engines due to radiation amounts to about 10 percent of the total heat transfer. This is
due to poor emitting properties of gases, which emit only at specific wavelengths.
Nitrogen and oxygen which make up major part of the gases before combustion,
radiate very little, while carbon monoxide and water vapour of the products do
contribute more to radiation heat transfer.
In CI engines the flame is highly luminous, and soot particles which are
mostly carbon are also formed with gaseous products at an intermediate step in the
combustion process. The solid carbon particles are good radiators at all wavelengths,
and radiate about 20-30 percent of the total heat transfer. A large percent of radiation
heat transfer to the walls occurs early in the power stroke. At this point the
combustion temperature is maximum, and with thermal radiation potential equal to T 4,
a very large heat flux is generated. At this point, heat flux of the order of 10 MW/m 2
can be experienced in a CI engine.
The radiation from soot particles in the diesel engine flame is about five times
the radiation from the gaseous combustion products. Radiative heat transfer in SI
engines is small compared with the convective heat transfer. However, the radiative
heat transfer in CI engines is quite significant. Heat transfer to the surrounding from
the external hot surfaces of the engine is also by radiation [06Gup].

2.6. Importance of Heat Transfer

The peak burned gas temperature in the cylinder of an internal combustion
engine is of order 2500 K. Maximum metal temperatures for the inside of the
combustion chamber space are limited to much lower values by a number of
considerations, and cooling for the cylinder head, cylinder, and piston must therefore
be provided. These conditions lead to heat fluxes to the chamber walls that can reach
as high as 10 MW/m2 during the combustion period.
However, during other parts of the operating cycle, the heat flux is essentially
 21

zero. The flux varies substantially with location: regions of the chamber that are
contacted by rapidly moving high-temperature burned gases generally experience the
highest fluxes. In regions of high heat flux, thermal stresses must be kept below levels
that would cause fatigue cracking (so temperature must be less than about 400°C for
cast iron and 300°C for aluminum alloys).
The gas-side surface of the cylinder wall must be kept below about 180°C to
prevent deterioration of the lubricating oil film. Spark plug and valves must be kept
cool to avoid knock and pre-ignition problems which result from overheated spark
plug electrodes or exhaust valves. Solving this engine heat transfer problems is
obviously a major design task.
Heat transfer affects engine performance, efficiency, and emissions. For a
given mass of fuel within the cylinder, higher heat transfer to the combustion chamber
walls will low the average combustion gas temperature and pressure, and reduce the
work per cycle transferred to the piston. Thus specific power and efficiency are
affected by the magnitude of engine heat transfer. Heat transfer between the unburned
charge and the chamber walls in spark-ignition engines affects the onset of knock
which, by limiting the compression ratio, also influences power and efficiency. Most
critical is heat transfer from the hot exhaust valve and piston to mixture in the end-gas
region.
Changes in gas temperature due to the heat-transfer impact on emission
formation processes, both within the engine’s cylinder and in the exhaust system
where afterburning of CO and HC occurs. The exhaust temperature also governs the
power that can be obtained from exhaust energy recovery devices such as a
turbocharger turbine. Friction is both affected by engine heat transfer and contributes
to the coolant load. The cylinder liner temperature governs the piston and ring
lubricating oil film temperature, and hence its viscosity. Piston and liner distortion
due to temperature non-uniformities have a significant impact on the piston
component of engine friction. Some of the mechanical energy dissipated due to
friction must be rejected to the atmosphere by the cooling system. The fan and water
pump power requirements are determined by the magnitude of the heat rejected. The
importance of engine heat transfer is clear [88Hey].

2.7. Heat Transfer in Radiator

There are basically three modes of heat transfer; conduction between tubes
 22

walls and fins, and two modes of convection. One mode of convection is due to the
coolant flowing in the tubes and the second is caused by the air flowing through the
radiator. Heat transfer in radiator is shown in Fig. 2.12 [12Car].
1. Hot coolant enters the tubes.
2. Heat from the coolant is transferred from the coolant to the tubes.
3. Heat is then transferred from the tubes to the fins.
4. Heat is finally transferred from the fins to surrounding air.
5. Cold coolant exits the tubes.

Fin
3
Tube
4

Figure 2.12. Heat Transfer in Radiator

2.8. Parameters Affecting Engine Heat Transfer

The engine heat transfer depends upon many parameters. Unless the effect of
these parameter is known, the design of a proper cooling system will be difficult. In
this section, the effect of various parameters on the engine heat transfer is briefly
discussed [12Gan].

2.8.1. Fuel-Air Ratio

The fuel-air ratio will change the temperature of the cylinder gases and affect
the frame speed. The maximum gas temperature will occur at an equivalence ratio of
about 1.12 that is at a fuel-air ratio of about 0.075. At this fuel-air ratio ∆T will be a
maximum. However, the maximum heat rejection found to occur for a mixture, it
slightly leaner than this value from experimental observations [12Gan].

2.8.2. Compression Ratio

An increase in compression ratio cause only a slightly increase in gas
temperature near the top dead center, but because of the greater expansion of the
 23

gases, there will be a considerable reduction in gas temperature near bottom dead
center where a large cylinder wall is expose.
The exhaust gas temperature will also be much lower because of greater
expansion so that the heat rejected during blow down will be less in general, as
compression ratio increases there tend to be a marginal reduction in heat rejection
[12Gan].

2.8.3. Spark Advance

A spark advance more than the optimum as well as less than the optimum will
result in the increased heat rejection to the cooling system. This is mainly due to the
fact that spark timing other than MBT value (Minimum spark advance for Best
Torque) will reduce the power output and thereby more heat is rejected [12Gan].

2.8.4. Pre-ignition and Knocking

Effect of pre-ignition is the same as advancing the ignition timing. Large spark
advance might lead to erratic running and knocking. Though knocking cause large
change in local heat transfer conditions, the overall effect on heat transfer due to
knocking appears to be negligible. However, no quantitative information is available
regarding the effect of pre-ignition and knocking on engine heat transfer [12Gan].

2.8.5. Engine Output

Engines which are designed for high mean effective pressure or high piston
speeds, heat rejection will be less. Less heat will be lost for the same indicated power
in large engines [12Gan].

2.8.6. Cylinder Wall Temperature

The average cylinder gas temperature is much higher in comparison to the
cylinder wall temperature. Hence, any marginal change in cylinder gas temperature
will have very little effect on the temperature and thus on heat rejection [12Gan].

2.9. Causes of Engine Overheating

Possible causes of engine overheating include;
1. Low coolant level due to leakage of coolant.
2. Accumulation of rust and scale with prevents normal circulation of coolant.
3. Collapsed hoses with prevent normal coolant circulation.
 24

4. Thermostat stuck closed, blocking coolant circulation. If the drive belt is not
slipping and the engine overheats without the radiator becoming warm, the
thermostat is probably defective.
5. Defective water pump that does not circulate enough coolant.
6. A loose or worn drive belt that slips. Then it will not turn the water pump fast
enough for normal coolant circulation.
7. After boil; when the engine is turned off after a long drive, the heat buildup in the
engine may cause the coolant to boil.
8. Frozen coolant; the combustion chamber heats the coolant around it first. The
frozen coolant cannot circulate, so it boils [93Cro].

2.10. Cooling Essentials

All internal combustion engines are equipped with some type of cooling
system because of the high temperature they generated during operation. High
temperature is necessary since it results in the high gas pressure which act on head of
the piston. Without high temperature, power cannot be produced efficiently. However,
it is not possible to use all of the heat combustion without producing harmful results.
If nothing is done to cool the engine during operation, valves will burn and warp,
lubrication oil will break down, pistons and bearings will overheat, and pistons will
seize in the cylinder. Heat created by combustion must be dissipated by cooling
system. Other important mediums of cooling and internal combustion engine are the
fuel and the lubricant.
Cooling is not their primary purpose, but they dissipate an appreciable amount
of heat; addition heat is lost through the exhaust. There must be careful control over
the amount of heat dissipated because thermal efficiency is proportional to the
operation temperature of the engine. For liquid-cooling engines, the ideal operation
temperature is just below the boiling point the coolant used if this temperature is not
so high that it breaks down the lubricant. Cooling systems usually are classified as
liquid or air. Diesel, petrol and natural gas cooling systems are similar mechanically;
however, the diesel runs cooler and it is not necessary that the capacity of its cooling
system is as large as that of a gasoline engine. Diesel engines usually have the same
size radiators as gasoline engines, but the speed and size of the fans are reduced.
An aircraft engines are cooled either by air or by liquid; however, there are
few liquid-cooling engines. Excessive heat is undesirable in any internal combustion
 25

engine for three principal reasons;

1. It adversely affects the behavior of the combustion of the fuel air charge,
2. It weakens and shortens the life of the engine parts, and
3. It impairs lubrication.
Too much cooling of the engine is also not desirable. Thus too much cooling
is not vaporized sufficiently, so that it will not burn completely. Thirdly, too much
cooling causes difficulties in flow of lubricating oil and more power wastes in engine
frication.
Cooling system is incorporated with a device to prevent cooling action when
the engine temperature is below a certain predetermined limit. Thus, the cooling
system keeps the engine from getting too hot but does not allow it to cool beyond a
certain limit. The lubrication system for an air-cooled engine often includes an oil
cooler which circulates the oil between the engine and the cooler, removing heat from
the engine as it does so [05Ano].

2.11. Needed Engine Components for Cooling

The heat generated in the combustion chamber conducts through the
1. piston
2. piston rings
3. connecting rods
4. bearing
5. cylinder head
6. valves and injectors
To remove additional heat from these parts, the cooling of these accessories
are needed because of to prevent melting and distortion. There are many systems to
cool the engine accessories with or without liquid such as fuel, oil and water. Some
piston and fuel injectors are cooled by airstream [05Ano].

2.12. Characteristics of Efficient Cooling System

The following are two main characteristics desired of an efficient cooling
system.
1. It should be capable of removing about 30 percent of heat generation in the
combustion chamber while maintaining the optimum temperature of the engine
under all operating temperature of the engine.
 26

2. It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot. However, during
starting of the engine the cooling should be very slow, so that the working parts of
the engine reach their operating temperature in a short time [12Gan].

2.13. Effects of Over Cooling

Excessive cooling is undesirable for the following reasons:
1. Starting of the engine will be difficult at low temperature. The engine must be
kept sufficiently hot to ensure smooth and efficient operation.
2. Vaporization of the fuel will be reduced at low temperatures, preventing formation
of a homogeneous mixture with air. It may cause poor combustion and also
increase fuel consumption.
3. Excessive cooling provide to the combustion chamber walls lower the average
combustion gas temperature and pressure and reduce the work per cycle
transferred to the piston. Thus, the specific power and efficiency are reduced by
excessive cooling.
4. Friction will be increased because of higher viscosity of lubricating oil at lower
temperatures.
5. The sulphurous and sulphuric acids are formed from the oxidation of sulphur
present in the fuel during the combustion process. These acids may condense at
low temperature should be greater than 70C.
Thus, removing heat is highly critical in preventing an engine and engine
lubricant from thermal failure. On the other hand, it is desirable to operate an engine
as hot as possible to maximize thermal efficiency [07Dem].