IDRC-TS1

Food Legume Processing and Utilization

(with special emphasis on application in developing countries)

Alvin Siegel, Program Officer

and

Brian Fawcett, Research Assistant

Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences Division
International Development Research Centre
 Abstract

Food legumes, when combined with cereal foods, provide

an almost ideal level of dietary proteins for humans and are
therefore vitally important to the population of less developed
countries. However, the production of food legumes has not kept
pace with other food crops, and this trend must be reversed to
meet future demands. Village-scale industries adapted from home
processing methods provide the greatest opportunity for increas-
ing the availability of high protein legume foods. New and
improved legume processing technology can also be designed for
use in rural areas. Legume processing and utilization also
produces by-products, such as husks, starch, and unprocessed
plant parts, that have an economic, social, and nutritional value.
These by-products can be processed to provide nutrition for both
humans or animals. There are many aspects of food legume pro-
cessing and utilization that merit further research that should
concentrate on developing inexpensive, acceptable, nutritious,
and easily prepared food products. This will contribute to in-
creased food supplies and an improved nutritional status for the
large number of malnourished people in less developed countries.

Resume

Les legumineuses constituent une source presque parfaite

de proteines lorsqu'elles sont associees aux cereales dans
l'alimentation humaine et consequemrnent, elles prennent une
importance vitale dans les pays en developpement. Malheureuse-
ment, la production des legumineuses n'a pas enregistre les
memes progres que les autres cultures vivrieres et cette situation
doit etre corrigee imrnediatement pour repondre ala demande
eventuelle. Parmi les mecanismes susceptibles d'augrnenter
l'approvisionnement de legumineuses riches en proteines, le plus
interessant consiste en l'etablissement de petites industries
locales utilisant des techniques traditionnelles de transformation,
arneliorees et adaptees. Il serait egalement utile de Creer de
nouveaux precedes ameliores de traiternent des legumineuses dans
les zones rurales. Peut-etre faudrait-il egalernent envisager
l'utilisation des sous-produits, cosses, arnidons, feuillages,
d'une valeur economique et nutritionnelle induscutable, et leur
transformation en nourriture a la fois pour les humains et pour
le betail. Il existe plusieurs formules de traitement et
d'utilisation des legumineuses ou une recherche plus poussee
s'imposerait, par exemple, la fabrication de produits alimen-
taires economiques, nourrissants, de bonne qualite et faciles a
preparer. Ces recherches contribueraient a
augmenter l'approv-
isionnement en vivres et, par la suite, a combattre la malnutri-
tion chez un grand nombre de personnes dans les pays en voie de
developpement.
The IDRC Technical Studies series consists of papers designed
for rapid dissemination among a specialized readership

© 1976
International Development Research Centre

Postal Address: Box 8500

Ottawa, Canada
K1G3H9
Head Office: 60 Queen Street, Ottawa

ISBN: 0-88936-086-3
UDC: 633.1
Microfiche Edition $1
CONTENTS

Introduction 5

Traditional Processing and Utilization 14

Legume processing terminology 14

Home-scale processing 15

Decortication 16

Soaking 16

Pounding and grinding 17

Roasting, toasting, and parching 18

Milling 18

Legume food preparation 19

Boiling 19

Roasting and parching 21

Frying 22

Puffing 22

Steaming 22

Germination 23

Fermentation 25

Agglomeration 26

3
 Commercial-scale processing 27

Decortication 28

Milling 28

Legume food preparation 31

Canning 31

Processed Legumes by New and Improved Technologies 33

Milled pulses 34

Decorticated legumes 36

Quick-cooking legumes 39

Legume powders 43

Legume protein concentrates 46

Agglomeration 46

Air classification 47

Slurry centrifugation 48

Precipitation 49

By-Product Utilization of Legume Processing 55

Summary and Conclusion 58

Future research needs 59

Tables 62

References 81

4
 INTRODUCTION

Food legumes, cereal grains, and nuts provide a large

part of the calories and protein for most of the people of
Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Near East (Tables 1 and
2) • There is every indication that until the end of this
century and beyond, the importance of cereals and legumes in
the diet, particularly of the poorest people, will increase
rather than decline. World cereal production is increasing
much more rapidly than the production of legumes; therefore
worldwide legume production must be increased (Table 3) • The
seriousness of this trend in developing countries is illustrat-
ed by the fact that it is in developed countries that the
greatest increase in production has occurred (Table 4).

Virtually all cereal proteins are deficient in the

essential amino acid lysine. The nutritional value of a
cereal grain can be therefore improved by the addition of
synthetic lysine or by the addition of a food that is rich in
lysine. Table 5 presents a list of protein sources that, in
addition to the legumes listed in Tables 6-8, have been tested
or suggested as supplements to improve the nutritional
quality of cereal proteins.

Nutritional Complementarity of Cereals and Legumes

Food legumes are comparatively rich in lysine and there-

fore a combination of cereal protein and legume protein comes
very close to providing an ideal source of dietary proteins
for human beings. The comparatively low levels of methionine
and cystine in legumes is in large part offset by the higher
proportions of these amino acids present in most cereals.
Tables 9 and 10 show the amino acid content of wheat, chick-
pea (Cicer arietinum), and rice together with what might
be described as "a perfect protein" as recommended by WHO.
From Table 9 it can be seen that the WHO recommended content
of lysine is 340 mg/g of nitrogen. A typical wheat protein
supplies only 179 whereas chickpea provides 428 mg lysine per
gram of nitrogen. An almost perfect mixture of wheat and chick-
pea occurs when 67% of wheat is mixed with 33% of chickpea.
Column 3 shows the resulting amino acid content and what is
called the Amino Acid Score, which is expressed as a percent-
age of the WHO recommended level. It can be seen that wheat

5
plus chickpea provides more than 85% of all the amino acids
required. Table 10 shows that when rice and chickpea are
combined in the ratio of 75 to 25%, with the exception of
methionine and cystine, the amino acid balance is almost
perfect.

The nutritional complementarity of cereals and legumes is

of extreme importance, particularly for the people of the less
developed world. From Table 2 it can be seen that whereas
North Americans consume nearly 100 g of protein per person
per day, IIOst developing nations, on average, consume between
45 and 65 g of protein per person per day. It must be
emphasized that these statistics, as with all others quoted,
are averages for total populations and that the poorest members
of these populations will probably consume considerably less
than the national or regional averages. Table 11 suggests that
in 1970 there was more than enough protein but a deficiency of
calories in terms of percentage requirement for most developing
regions. However, once again, one must remember that these
are gross averages and take no account of a lack of uniformity
in distribution.

In order to achieve optimum nutritional complementarity,

cereals and legumes need to be eaten in an approximate ratio
of 65 of cereal to 35 of legume. In Southeast Asia, the ratio is
closer to 90 cereal to 10 legume. There is convincing evidence
from South and Southeast Asia to suggest that over the past
20 years the per capita production of food legumes has declined
significantly, chickpeas from 6 to 3, soybeans (Glycine max)
from 1.2 to 0.9, lentils (Lens esculenta) from 0.6 to 0.4 kg
per person per year.

For the world as a whole between 1952 and 1972 (Table 4),
the population increased 40%, total food production 61%, and
legume production 49%. For the developing countries collec-
tively, population increased 53%, total food production 62%,
but food legumes only 40%. In Asia and the Far East, the
population increased 51%, total food 65%, but legumes only
21%. World production and trade in legumes has been reviewed
recently in Hulse et al. (1975).

Legumes refer to the edible seeds of leguminous plants

belonging to the Legurninosae family, one of the three largest
families of flowering plants comprising nearly 700 genera and
18,000 species. This family is further divided into three
subfamilies, one of which is Papilionoideae, the largest of the
subfamilies widely distributed in both tropical and temperate
regions. Members of this group are herbs and shrubs contain-
ing pealike flowers, which give rise to pods containing one or
more seeds. The pod itself is the fruit coat corresponding to
the pericarp of the cereal grain. In appearance, pods may be

6
round or flat, thick or thin, woody or fleshy, or straight or
coiled. In addition, there are wide variations in seed size,
shape, density, and seed coat colour (Purseglove 1968).

Since each seed is attached to the fruit coat (pod) at

only one point, it can be easily removed. The seed is
chiefly composed of the seed coat and the cotyledon, the
latter contributing approximately 85% of the total seed com-
position. Legumes are dicotyledons, so named because they
separate into two halves. It is the cotyledons that contain
stored nutrients that feed the embryonic plant at the time
of germination. No endosperm is present in legumes. The coty-
ledons themselves are a pair of specialized leaves. The seed
coat is either firmly attached to the cotyledons or loosely
attached. If firmly attached, it is more often referred to as
a skin than a husk or hull, as in the case of a more adhering
seed coat.

Within the Papilionoideae family, different uses are made

of the many varieties. The legumes used by humans are conuronly
called food legumes or grain legumes. The food legumes can be
divided into two further groups, the pulses and the oilseeds.
Pulses are the dried, edible seeds of cultivated legumes, and
have been eaten for as long as historical records are available.
The nutritional value of pulses was recognized in biblical
times, as evidenced in the book of Daniel (Daniel I, verses
12-16) (Abradale Press 1959) as follows:

"Try, I beseech thee, thy servants for ten days, and let
pulse be given us to eat, and water to drink: And look upon
our faces, and the faces of the children that eat of the
king's meat: and as thou shalt see, deal with thy servants.
And when he had heard these words, he tried them for ten days.
And after ten days their faces appeared fairer and fatter than
all the children that ate of the king's meat. So Malasar took
their portions, and the wine that they should drink: and he
gave them pulse."

The second group, the oilseeds, consists of those legumes used

primarily for their oil content, which may be extracted by
pressing or by solvent extraction, the residue being a high-
protein "oil cake." Another category of legume crops, the
pasture or forage legumes, are those used as fodder, green
manure, and cover crops.

Pulses have been cultivated since neolithic times.

Kidney beans have been found in caves in Mexico, which have
been dated to 4000 B.C. Peas of a similar age have also been
discovered in a neolithic village in Switzerland, in predynastic
Egyptian tombs, and in the ruins of Troy. Archaeologic evidence
suggests that chickpeas were grown in the Eastern Mediterranean

7
and Mesopotamia at least 5000 years ago; the pigeon pea was
common to Southeast Asia (FAO 1969); and the cowpea appears to
have originated in West Africa (FAO 1969). Lentils were common
to the diets of the ancient Greeks, Jews, Egyptians, and Romans.
The broad bean was also cultivated for thousands of years in
various parts of the world.

The supplementation of food with legumes can be traced

as far back as biblical times, for instance, in the book of
Ezechiel (Ezechiel IV, verse 9) (Abradale Press 1959):

"And take to thee wheat and barley, and beans, and

lentils, and millet, and fitches, and put them in one vessel,
and make thee bread thereof •••• "

In Roman times, barley and bean flour were added to lower

grades of wheat flour before being processed into bread
(Hulse 1974). When the Romans ate barley, it was usually con-
sumed in combination with lentils, beans, and other crops.
Through the ages, the mixing of legume flours with other flours
to improve the nutritional status of bread has been practiced.
In mediaeval England, bread was made with beans and peas added
to various cereal grains.

In earlier times, grain legumes provided a large portion

of the diet of pastoral societies. The early European
emigrants to North America added beans, which they found grow-
ing on that continent, to their diet. In England, during the
same era, kidney beans were considered a luxury, which only
the very rich could afford. India is one of the largest con-
sumers of pulses, where they are known as "grams." Chickpea
(Bengal gram), pigeon pea (red gram), and mung bean (green
gram) are eaten largely as dhal in which the seed coats are
removed before cooking.

Unfortunately, in most societies, dried pulses have been

regarded as "the meat of the poor," a stigma that is still
attached to this very valuable protein source. It is the
authors' belief that the image of the common legumes can be
greatly enhanced with the aid of imaginative yet comparatively
inexpensive processing technologies. An approach to the subject
of providing TIPre legumes is directly linked to processing
methods and systems, whether they be traditional, improved, or
new. A review of legume processing systems in both developed
and developing countries can illustrate their potential appli-
cation in the rural economy of developing countries. The
development and adoption of technologies can serve as a base
for small-scale industries in developing countries.

8
Production of Legumes

As stated above, world cereal production is increasing

much more rapidly than the production of legumes; consequently
the need to increase legume production on a worldwide basis
and in particular in South and Southeast Asia must be regarded
as a matter of serious concern. The importance of pulse crops
as a group has declined over the past decade as the share of
pulses in total world agricultural production fell from 2.3 to
1.9%.

In the more developed countries, pulse production rose

substantially between 1948-52 and 1968-72 as a result of the
87% increase in total production, which was well ahead of the
population growth of 22%. Despite a decline in the per capita
production of many pulse crops such as dry beans, broad beans,
chickpeas, lentils, and other pulses, per capita production
of dry peas, vetches, and lupins increased rapidly enough to
offset these trends and led to the overall growth in per capita
production in the developed countries.

In general, the world production of pulse crops exceeded

population growth only slightly from 1952 to 1972, with product-
ion increases falling below population growth in the less
developed nations and rising much more rapidly than population
in the more developed countries. Cowpea and dry bean production
advanced most quickly in the less developed countries as a
result of both higher yields and larger areas planted with
these crops.

A number of factors affect legume production. First of

these is "yield," which is the agronomist's term for the
weight of edible seed produced per hectare or other unit area
of land. Yields of pulse crops generally, and in particular
those of tropical countries, have increased very slowly over
the past two decades in comparison with the major cereals.
With the exception of dry peas, whose yields over the past 20
years rose by 34%, the yield increase for pulses was less than
20%. In contrast, wheat yields increased by 52% and maize by
61%.

The second factor that affects total legume production is

the area planted to legumes. On a worldwide basis, from 1948-
52 to 1968-72, the cultivated area of a few pulse crops has
increased. The acreage under cowpeas increased by 172%, and
the total area planted with dry beans and dry peas rose by
50 and 34% respectively during this period. The area planted
to other pulse crops remained stable or declined over the
same period.

9
Oilseed Production

Although pulse production has risen slowly from 1948-52

to 1968-72, the oilseeds have been produced in increasingly
large numbers (Table 12). The area planted with soybeans rose
by 123% from 1948-52 to 1968-72 with production jumping almost
200% due to a 30% increase in yields. Although the production
of other oilseed crops did not rise nearly as quickly as
soybeans, the cultivation of groundnuts expanded by 60% while
production rose by 77% as yields increased by 10%. Rapeseed
was also a crop experiencing considerable growth as the planted
area grew by 80% and production rose 100% assisted by a 25%
yield increase. Sunflower acreage expanded by nearly 40%,
yields increased by I!K)re than 100%, to give rise to an overall
increase in production of close to 150%. Land planted to
cottonseed grew by only 20% but production rose by 114% in the
wake of a 100% yield increase. Sesame acreage increased by
20%, but total production did not rise significantly over the
20-year period as a result of a 6% decline in yields.

It is the opinion of the authors that much I!K)re attention

needs to be given to increasing the production of oilseeds,
particularly those such as cottonseed, groundnuts, rape,
safflower, and sesame that can be grown in many developing
countries.

Apart from soybeans, and to a lesser extent groundnuts,

which are important in international trade largely for their
oil content, oilseeds have been as badly neglected as pulses
in terms of investment in their research and development. The
oilseeds are particularly important in that they provide not
only good quality protein but also those unsaturated fatty
acids that are essential in the diets of all human beings.

Legumes have a number of agronomic advantages, the I!K)St

important being their ability to fix their own nitrogen.
Certain soil microorganisms in association with the legume
root modules are able to reduce at!IK)spheric nitrogen to
ammonia, which is absorbed and converted to protein within
the legume. Consequently, legumes are much less dependent upon
chemical or organic fertilizers than are cereal grains, and
legumes tend to improve the soil conditions for other crops.
A number of instances have been reported in which the inter-
cropping of legumes and cereals led to an increased production
of cereal grains and a total increase in productivity per unit
of land compared with either crop grown separately.

Legume and Oilseed Prices

As Table 13 indicates, during the past 3 years legume and

oilseed prices have been subject to extreme fluctuation. Until

10
early 1972, prices had remained relatively steady for many
years. During the latter months of 1973, prices rose as high
as six times the earlier prices. In the dry beans group, navy
beans, which formerly sold for $225 to $325 per metric ton,
were commanding prices of $900 by November 1973. White kidney
beans, which previously were valued at $50 to $100 per metric
ton, reached prices of $650 to $700 in late 1973, and red
kidney beans doubled in price from $250 to $500 at the start
of the 1974 trading season. Dry peas increased from the
normal $150 to over $500 per metric ton. Similar price increases
were recorded for other legumes and the oilseeds traded on the
world markets. Although these prices receded substantially
in late 1974 and in 1975, in many cases they still remain
well above the earlier price levels as has been the case with
most protein supplements in today's world markets.

Trade in Legumes

World trade in pulses remains small in comparison with

major commodities such as cereals. World trade in pulses in
1972 amounted to only 1.4% of the volume and 3.8% of the
monetary value of world trade in cereals. Over the past
decade, from 1963 to 1972, the volume of pulse trade has
remained relatively stable, increasing only 20% with exports
rising from 1.5 million metric tons to 1.8 million metric tons
(Table 14). In comparison, the world trade in cereals rose
by 44%, while soybean trade rose by 70% in the period from 1967
to 1972 alone.

Despite the fact that they exported only 4% of their

production, the less developed countries were responsible for
51% of the world trade in pulses in 1972. The developed
countries provided 35% of the total exports, with the centrally
planned economies exporting the remainder. Of the more developed
countries who purchased 67% of the 1972 imports, Europe was
the primary importing area, buying 54% of the total 1972 world
imports.

Between 1963 and 1972, world exports of oilseeds increased

from 9.5 to 19.4 million metric tons. The more developed
nations are the major exporters of oilseeds mainly because
soybeans represent 71% of total oilseed exports, the world
trade in soybeans being dominated by the United States.

Although there are no projections available for future

world trade in pulses, Table 15 indicates the demand forecasts
for pulses and nuts to 1980. It is projected that world
demand for pulses and nuts will climb by over 50% between 1965
and 1980. In the EEC countries, where pulse production has
been declining over the years, future demand is forecast to
increase.

11
 Demand projections between 1970 and 1980 for edible oils
and fats indicate an annual increase in total world demand of
2.7% with consumption increasing from 41 to 53 million metric
tons. The less developed countries are expected to record the
fastest rate of increase in total demand, growing by 4% per
year. If the demand can be satisfied, it is predicted that
developing countries will consume one-third of the world's oils
and fats by 1980. In 1965, the less developed nations consumed
barely 25% of world production. The more developed countries
are forecast to increase their consumption of oils and fats at
a rate of 1.6% per year.

Population and Demand

The increased world oilseeds demand will have a strong

effect on world trade. Between 1970 and 1980, the volllltle of
oilseeds and fats and oils exported is expected to rise from
4.6 to 13.9 million metric tons, a 4.1% annual increase.
The increased demand for oilseeds and legumes is the result of
several factors, not the least being world population growth.
By 1980 there will be about 850 million more mouths to feed
than there were in 1970.

The sheer increase in the number of humans will exert a

powerful force on world markets and require production of the
means to feed 23% more people in 1980 than in 1970. Increas-
ing incomes among certain sectors of the world's population
will probably lead to a demand for more legumes, especially
among those people with improved, but still low, incomes who
wish to change their consumption patterns by eating more plant
proteins. For many others in the world, rising incomes will
lead to an increased demand for animal proteins placing added
pressure on agricultural producers to satisfy this demand
through the production of more meat products, and the plant
proteins needed to feed the animals required. Indeed, while
per capita world income is projected to increase by 36% between
1970 and 1980, incomes in the more developed nations will
probably rise by 50% with Japan's per capita income growing
by 131%. As disposable personal income rises, it is customary
for the consumption of animal products to rise accordingly.

Protein Supplements for Animal Feeds

The future of the world livestock and animal protein

industry is thus an important determinant of the manner in
which the production of pulses and protein supplements in
general will develop, since animal feeds consist largely of
cereals supplemented with legume or other protein sources.
World meat consumption, excluding poultry, doubled during the
period 1948-52 to 1970. World demand for beef and veal,
mutton and lamb, pig meat and poultry meat, and their products

12
is projected to increase by an average of 3.1% per year from
1970 to 1980. Since it will be difficult for animal produc-
tion to match demand, the inflationary trends in grain and legume
prices are not expected to recede over the forseeable future.
In the more developed countries, consumption will rise by 28%
between 1970 and 1980, whereas in the less developed countries
the estimated growth of meat consumption between 1970 and 1980
is 50%. In the centrally planned economies the demand for
meat may rise by 40%. These comparatively rapid rates of
growth will naturally have a strong effect on the market for
protein supplements. As the demand for meat increases, a
proportionately greater increase in the demand for plant proteins
occurs, since the conversion efficiency of plant protein into
animal protein is relatively low. If world demand for meat and
animal products grows by a steady 3% per year during the 1970s,
the demand for high protein feed supplements may well rise by
5 or 6% per annum.

During 1971-72, Europe produced only 4.3% of its total

supplies of animal feed protein. The demand for high quality
protein has accelerated with the trend to the utilization of
mixed feeds. From 1960 to 1972, the use of vegetable protein
has increased annually by 10.5%, with imports to the EEC
countries jumping by 47% between 1966 and 1972. Thus, Europe
promises to continue to be a major importer of pulses and
oilseeds during the next decade. In Japan, total meat consump-
tion is expected to grow by 7.4% annually to 1985 when the
demand for meat will be three times what it was in 1970.

Bearing in mind the total world demand for edible protein

and the high cost in comparative inefficiency of providing this
protein from animal sources, much more attention must be given
to increasing the availability and acceptability of edible
protein from plant sources, particularly from combinations of
cereals and food legumes.

The purpose of this report, therefore, is to present the

various processing systems that have been used for food leg:umes.
The botanical and common names, and major areas of consumption
for the 10 varieties discussed in this report are listed in
Table 8. The application of food science and technology
principles to legume processing is discussed. Legume utiliza-
tion is reviewed by discussing foods based on both conventional
and new and improved legume processing technologies.

13
 TRADITIONAL PROCESSING AND UTILIZATION

Historically, the processing of food legumes in develop-

ing countries has been done in the home by women as part of
their meal preparation. Both small- and large-scale industries
have evolved to some extent from these traditional cooking
methods; however, they have had only a limited impact and
outreach. The greatest potential for providing high-protein
legume food products to a large number of people living in
developing areas is by means of adapting and transferring the
established home-processing methods to village-scale industries.
In addition, the identification and recognition of various
newer and improved legume processing methods that, for the
most part, have been known for some time, can provide the basis
for further development of legume processing technology in
rural areas.

Subsequently, this report will discuss a number of methods

and techniques for processing and subsequent utilization of
grain legumes. The scope of the discussion will mostly be
limited to those methods that can be adapted and employed in
small-scale industries that could benefit rural areas. As
previously stated, both traditional and nontraditional means
of processing will be covered to provide the reader with insight
into their adoption in the village industry economy. Further-
more, the recognition of simple means for processing legumes
can result in their increased acceptability and overall con-
sumption.

Legume Processing Terminology

air classification The fractionation of finely milled

flour into protetin and starch con-
centrates using a spiral air
stream. (Heavier starch granules
are separated from the finer
protein-rich particles.)

bean Legume, primarily referring to

those of the Phaseolus genus.

14
 decortication Removal of the hull, husk, or
outer seed coat of the legume
seed.

dhal Dehusked, split grain legume

(major form eaten in India).

gram The entire, whole legume grain or

seed usually prepared into dhal.

husk Seed coat, hull, or covering

surrounding the legume seed.

legume A flowering plant belonging to

the Leguminosae family, subfamily
Papilionoideae.

Fruit is a pod that contains the

seeds.

The edible seed of leguminous

plants.

The seed is separable into two

parts (dicotyledon) general tenn -
bean, pulse.

milling Process of husking and subsequent

splitting of pulse or legume -
usually taking place simultaneously
in reference to pulse milling
and dhal preparation (India).

Decortication and/or preparation

of husked legumes into flour.

pulse Dried, edible seed of a

cultivated legume; usually
refers to one that has been
dehusked.

Home-Scale Processing

Several methods exist for the preparation of legumes in

the home. A variety of procedures are used for the purposes
of eliminating toxic substances and antinutrients, removing
the seed coat, and softening the cotyledons. Initial proces-
sing steps include cooking either whole beans or those that
have been dehusked. In addition, raw beans can be processed
into a palatable fonn without any cooking. Unhusked, whole
cooked beans are sometimes eaten or they can be subjected to
a grinding or mashing step.

15
 Dehulling may take place with either raw or cooked beans.
usually the beans are mashed or pounded after cooking to
facilitate removal of the husk or skin. Fully decorticated
legumes (pulses) are left whole, split, or further prepared
into various food forms such as flours, grits, and pastes.
The techniques employed in this operation are mostly manual
ones; however, in some instances, simple mechanical equipment
is used.

The various traditional processing techniques discussed

in this section include boiling, grinding, parching, toasting,
roasting, puffing, germination, fermentation, and agglomera-
tion. These processing methods apply to both raw or cooked,
husked or dehusked, and whole or ground legume varieties
commonly eaten in the semi-arid tropical regions of South
America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The different
preparatory techniques used relate to the structural and
textural characteristics of the beans and the cultural food
habits of the people.

In discussing various processing methods for preparing

grain legumes into foods, initial consideration is given to
the topic of decortication, i.e., removal of the outer cover-
ing of the grain. For the most part, with the exception of
certain bean varieties that possess a relatively thin skin,
grain legumes are eaten after the surface layers have been
removed. Certain methods of seed coat removal are used on
either raw or cooked legumeso Pretreatment steps such as
boiling, soaking, or roasting may be employed to facilitate the
husk removal that can be accomplished by subsequent pounding,
grinding, or milling. Both dry and wet methods for decortica-
tion are used (see Fig. 1).

Even though a variety of legumes are eaten in their

immature state, the greatest interest from a nutritional point
of view is in the consumption of the matured dried grains
(Patwardhan 1962). Furthermore, it follows that the proper
processing of legumes for human nutrition relates to the
efficient removal of the seed coats and husks surrounding the
edible cotyledons. This allows for improved digestibility and
increased body utilization of the legume nutrients. Some
specific legume processing methods, however, do convert un-
husked grains into an edible form.

Decortication

Soaking Soaking as a pretreatment to decortication

facilitates removal of the husk or skin. Nondecorticated
grains that are soaked in water for a short time lend them-
selves to easy husk removal. In thLs instance, the husk takes
up more water than the rest of the grain, whereby it becomes

16
 WHOLE LEGUME SEED

,~d"f '"T'""
~ood Preparation\...--------

F-i.g. 1. F.tow d-i.a.gJ<.a.m 6M :tJ<.a.d-i.:t-i.ona..t -legume

p'<.oc.e¢¢-i.rtg.

more easily separable. In addition, legumes may be steeped,

soaked in hot water that is below its boiling point, to allow
the seed coat to swell and loosen from the cotyledon.

With regard to the effect of soaking on the nutritive

value of navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), Kakade and Evans
(1966) found that soaking the beans for 4 days destroyed
about 28% of the trypsin-inhibitor activity and 75% of
haemagglutinin activity.

It appeared, therefore, that these antinutritional factors

were destroyed or inactivated or possibly leached out of the
beans as a result of the soaking process. A study of toxic
factors in Chilean legumes (P. vulgaris, Vicia faba, Pisum
sati vum, L. es cul en ta, and C. arietinum) indicated that humi.d
heat treatments over l00°c eliminated trypsin-inhibitor and
haemagglutinating activities (Gallardo et alo 1974). Partial
inactivation was found when dry heat was used. In the case of
trypsin inhibitor inactivation using dry heat, more positive
results were found when the legumes had been previously soaked
for 14 hours.

Pounding and grinding The most common and simplest

home-scale method for decorticating legumes and pulses is
by pounding or grinding, or a combination of these two methods.
This system of hull removal can be classified into two categories,
namely dry method and wet method. Both methods are practiced
throughout the semi-arid tropical zone, the former having

17
greater acceptance in Central and Northern India, Africa, and
Central America (Aykroyd and Doughty 1964). A combined wet
and dry method is also used. A less commonly used method of
preparing split, husked grams in India consists of half roast-
ing the grain followed by splitting. Specific legume varieties
and foods prepared from them usually dictate which method,
wet or dry, is used. Accordingly, the wet method and a com-
bination of the wet and dry method is preferred in Nigeria for
the preparation of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) dishes. A dry
method is used to prepare cowpea flour (Dovlo et al. 1975).

In the wet method, the main objective is to soften the

husk prior to its removal. A preliminary water soak may be
used to hydrate and swell the seed coat. In some instances the
grain is merely sprinkled with water. The husk is separated
from the cotyledon by the abrasive pounding or grinding action
that follows. This is usually done in a mortar with a pestle,
which provides a shearing action of the pestle against the
grains and the grains against each other. Subsequent sun drying
may take place followed by removal of the hulls from the broken
grains by winnowing.

The dry method involves simply pounding the grains to

loosen the husks followed by removal by winnowing. In addition,
the pounded mass then can be submerged in water, and the husks
removed when they float to the top of the water's surface.

Roasting, toasting, and parching Subjecting grains to

heat for varying periods of time, namely, toasting and roast-
ing, is widely practiced as a method of decortication. These
practices are basically techniques for drying the grains.
Initially, either presoaked moistened legumes or those to
which no additional water has been added are used. The addition
of heat to legumes by roasting, toasting, or parching renders
the husks easier to remove since they become brittle and
subsequently crack. When these methods are applied to
moistened grains, the cotyledons have a tendency to shrink more
than the husk, resulting in the husk being loosened from the
cotyledon (Kurien and Parpia 1968). In addition to facilitating
husk removal, heating can be effective in destroying toxic
factors present in legumes (Kurien et al. 1972). Liener (1962)
has reported that most antinutritional or toxic effects of
legumes can be partially or wholly eliminated by the proper
application of heat. Such factors include trypsin inhibitors,
haernagglutinins, goiterogenic agents, cyanogenic glucosides,
alkaloids, and saponins.

Milling Milling has been widely used and adapted in

the legume-eating areas of Africa and Asia as a means for
decorticating grain legumes, primarily those possessing a
tough, fibrous husk. It is a process in which the outer

18
layers of the grain, mainly those composing the husk, are
successively removed through an abrasive action or shearing
force against the whole grain. Simple, hand-operated mills
are used for preparation of the whole grains into decorticated,
split pulses, flours, or grits.

In India, more than 75% of grain legumes are milled to

produce dehusked splits (dhals) for direct consumption. The
household practice of preparing dehusked, split pulses consists
of loosening the husk and subsequent removal and splitting into
two cotyledons. Decortication is accomplished by either a wet
or dry method. In Africa, decorticated legumes prepared by
pounding and winnowing are made into flours by either hand-
grinding or milling on small corranercial plate mills.

The wet method used in India is one in which grains,

previously steeped for a few hours, are mixed with red earth
and then sun-dried for 2-4 days. After removing the red earth
by sieving, subsequent milling in mortars or chakkis dehusks
and splits the grain. The dry method is one in which the sun-
dried pulses, sometimes after mixing with oil, are sprinkled
with small amounts of water. After heating, the pulses are
milled (dehusked and split) in mortars or hand-operated wooden
or stone chakkis which consist of rotating plates (Kurien
and Parpia 1968).

Household milling of legumes is often laborious, time-

consuming, and inefficient. An important criterion for
evaluating this milling system relates to the yield of split
pulses, dhal. Comparative yields of dhal using the home-
scale and corranercial methods of pulse milling, indicate up to
an 8% decrease in total product between the two methods. Losses
can be attributed to breaking and powdering by scouring. Dhal
production by one labourer in 8 hours is 30-40 kg using the dry
method, whereas it is 60-75 kg using the wet method (Kurien and
Parpia 1968).

Legume Food Preparation

Boiling In studying the cooking quality of whole

pulses, Muller (1967) found that their hardness was influenced
by the interaction of the components of phytin, Ca, Mg, and
free pectin. It has been reported that 99.6% of the total
phytic acid of beans (P. vulgaris) is present in a soluble
form, rather than as insoluble phytin (Lolas and Markakis
1975).

During cooking, softening occurs as a reaction of

phytate with insoluble Ca/Mg pectate present in the cell walls
to produce soluble Na/K pectate. Studies on the hardness of
two pea varieties (purple-flowering, white-flowering) that

19
differed in lignin content of the seed coats, indicated that
lignin, like pectin, acts as a binding substance and it is
therefore responsible for the ease with which the husk can be
removed from the cotyledon of some pulses (Muller 1967). The
influence of the seed coat cell walls is a governing factor in
the cooking quality of unhusked legumes.

Cooking whole legumes, husked or dehusked, in boiling

water is the most common method of legume food preparation.
In India, dhals are often cooked until soft, mashed, then
mixed with water and reboiled to give a consistency of a soup
or gruel (Kurien et al. 1972).

Dry whole grains are similarly boiled until soft, and

eaten mashed or unmashed in areas of Africa and the Middle
East. Cowpea paste is commonly prepared in West Africa in
making a fried food product (Dovlo et al. 1975). Chickpeas
are often boiled and eaten whole in parts of Afghanistan, Egypt,
and Ethiopia. Whole broadbeans (Vicia faba) are eaten in
Lebanon in an oil sauce. A favourite and common dish found
in Turkey, Jordan, and Lebanon is hommos, prepared by crushing
cooked chickpeas into a puree, to which lemon juice, salt and
garlic are added (Hawtin 1974) •

In Central and South America, beans (Phaseolus spp.)

that have been soaked overnight are boiled to be eaten whole
or mashed, or used in the preparation of other dishes. Crushed
beans (P. vulgaris) are commonly eaten fried (Bressani et al.
1973). In addition, mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) paste,
prepared from dehulled boiled beans is used to make a variety
of dessert dishes in Thailand.

Investigations into cooking legumes by hydration have

been directed at factors responsible for cooking time. This is
an important consideration, since certain legumes require a
considerably longer cooking time to improve their nutritional
properties and to render them palatable. Bressani and Elias
(1974) state that a minimum of 2 hours is required to cook
dry beans (P. vulgaris) at atmospheric pressure. In a
report on the utilization of cowpeas in West Africa, it was
illustrated that the cooking times for several cowpea varieties
differ. The average cooking times ranged from 90 minutes to
150 minutes (Dovlo et al. 1975).

various investigations have suggested that beans (P.

vulgaris, P. lunatus (lima beans)) stored under iDadequate
conditions of temperature and humidity control, require longer
cooking times as related to higher water uptake in the final
stored product (Muneta 1964; Burr et al. 1968; Kon 1968).
A substantial increase in the cooking time for higher moisture
dry beans (P. vulgaris) was reported by Kon (1968). Those
containing an initial moisture content of 13.3% required about

20
seven times more cooking time than those containing 8.1%
rnoisture. Analyses of the pectin content indicated that heat
treatment will convert some of the water-insoluble to water-
soluble pectin; however, there were no significant differences
in amounts of pectic substances between the high and low
moisture beans.

As suggested by Muller (1967), the cell walls of the seed

coats, and to a lesser extent those of the cotyledons, play an
important role governing the cooking quality of legumes. Since
excessive cooking reportedly (Kakade and Evans 1965) leads to
a lowering of digestibility, possibly due to the action of the
free amino groups with carbohydrates and the inactivation or
destruction of certain essential amino acids, it is important
that an optimum cooking time be used that gives an acceptably
textured bean product possessing the highest nutritional
value.

Roasting and parching Roasting as a form of preparing

legumes, also referred to as toasting or parching, is practiced
mainly in India and Africa. As used in the semi-arid tropics,
roasting refers to the method in which usually whole, husked,
or unhusked grains are exposed to dry heat. This is accomplished
either directly by placing the whole grains and beans at the
edge of a fire, or directly upon it, or in hot ashes or sand
that are in contact with the fire.

Leguminous seeds are commonly roasted with the husk and

eaten as snacks. This practice is used in Africa for chick-
peas and cowpeas, and in India for various pulses. Roasted
legumes are also mixed with cereal flour after pounding. The
traditional Indian household practice for roasting or parch-
ing pulses (chickpea, etc.) involves initially sprinkling the
grains with a little water, which may or may not contain added
common salt. The pulse is then mixed with four times its own
volume of preheated sand. The pulse/sand mixture is contained
in a frying pan kept on an open fire, the sand reaching a
temperature of about 240°c. The pulse is subsequently
roasted (or parched) by rapid mixing in the frying pan using
a ladle. During this process, the pulse has increased in
temperature from an approximate initial 26°c to 132°c in a
period of 2-3 minutes. The roasted material is separated from
the sand by sieving. The average biological values for parched
chickpeas and mung beans were 84.6 and 70.2%, respectively,
whereas unparched samples had respective values of 78.2 and
50.0% (Acharya et al. 1942).

Roasting as a legume processing method improves the

flavour, texture, and nutritive value of the grain. It also
can serve as a preliminary step in facilitating husk removal
during wet or dry grinding. The nutritional importance of

21
parching Indian grams, including chickpeas and mung beans,
was demonstrated in early studies {Acharya et al. 1942).
Animal feeding studies indicated increased biological values
of the proteins in the parched samples as compared to un-
parched samples. The beneficial effects of heating legumes
resulting in an improvement in their protein quality is well
known and documented {Bressani et al. 1963; Bressani and
Elias 1974). Roasting legwninous seeds has a similar effect.

Frying Frying is mainly used on previously processed

legumes, which are in the form of a flour, paste, batter, or
dough. Frying takes place in an open can or kettle that con-
tains hot oil. The food form that is subsequently fried may
be either precooked or raw. In Brazil, bean puree from decor-
ticated beans is fried to make a cake {Stanton et al. 1966).
Ground legume flours are commonly made into a stiff paste and
fried to make a popular Nigerian, ready-to-eat snack {Dovlo
et al. 1975). In India, chickpea, black gram (Phaseolus
mungo), and peas (Pisum sativum) are often prepared into
doughs or paste, which are deep fried into crispy products
{Kurien et al. 1972). In addition, mung bean or dhal is
also fried in a little fat and eaten as a snack {Kachroo 1970).
In the Sudan, filafi is prepared from chickpeas paste, to
which salt and seasonings have been added. After standing 2
hours, the paste is cut into small pieces and fried in boiling
oil {Hawtin 1974).

Puffing Puffed grain legumes are prepared in the Indian

household in a manner similar to that used for roasting.
Puffing brings about a light and porous texture in split de-
husked dhal. Whole unhusked grains are more commonly used
for this process. For puffing, grains are soaked in water
0
and mixed with sand, which has been heated to 25o c and then
toasted for a short time, approximately 15-25 seconds. After
the sand is sieved off, the grains are dehusked between a hot
plate and rough roller. The more common legumes prepared in
this manner are chickpeas and peas. Other dried legumes may
be suitable for this process. These products are traditionally
eaten either with parched cereals or as a snack {Kurien et al.
1972). Exploratory studies with chickpeas indicated that
moisture conditioning either by soaking or by the addition of
water to the grains prior to heating is responsible for good
puffing. Kurien et al. (1972) reported that steaming and par-
boiling did not promote good puffing. Since the process of
puffing legumes has developed in the past decade from a hand-
operated home-scale system to a large-scale system in which
mechanized puffing machines are used, investigation into
standardizing the optimal processing conditions for producing
the best puffed products is needed.

Steaming Steaming is primarily used as a secondary

22
process for converting prepared legume flours and pastes into
traditional foods. In West Africa, cowpea paste is steamed in
the preparation of alele; cowpea flour (grits) is used to
prepare cous-cous (Dovlo et al. 1975).

Germination Germination as a means for processing

legumes, allows the whole bean to be eaten in a palatable form.
In itself, germination is the process by which the hypocotyl or
first piece of stem (sprout) is encouraged to develop and grow
in length (approx 5-15 cm) (Stanton et al. 1966). In the
legumes, the cotyledons contain the stored nutrients that feed
the embryonic plant at the time of germination. The prepara-
tion of germinated legumes is a method developed through the
years, using traditional home practices. In respect to con-
sumption, its importance as a processing method is recognized
primarily in the Far East and to a lesser extent in Inaia.
In these two regions the process is carried out both in the
home and on a cottage scale.

The germination process itself as practiced in India

involves initially soaking the whole unhusked grains for 24
hours, and then spreading them on a damp cloth for up to 48
hours. Under tropical conditions, sprouts up to a length of
1.0 cm appear. Sprouted grains are eaten raw with salt, or
further seasoned and fried or boiled (Aykroyd and Doughty 1964).

In the Far East, sprouted legumes, mainly mung beans and

peas are familiar and popular foods in the oriental diet.

Similarly, whole grains are pre-soaked, drained, and

allowed to germinate in large wetted baskets for several days.
The sprouted legumes can be subsequently washed and cooked in
boiling water for use in traditional dishes, or first cooked,
then ground into a sauce or paste. Washing and cooking the
sprouted legumes enables the removal of any adhering husks,
which are usually split during the germination process.
(Although the discussion of legume processing has not included
the leguminous oil seeds, soybeans, and groundnuts, germination
as well as fermentation are important means of legume proces-
sing, especially for soybeans in the Orient.)

The direct effect of sprouting on both the physical and

chemical changes and the nutritive value of legumes is of great
interest. As described in a report by Aykroyd and Doughty
(1964), it is proposed that the seed constituents previously
in an inert form organize during soaking and become nore
assimilable for human nutrition. Increases in nutrients induced
by germination take place when sprouts become visible, i.e.
after 24-48 hours.

It has been reported (Kurien et al. 1972) that germination

23
does not reduce cooking time or improve texture. However,
initial chemical changes occurring in sprouted legumes primarily
involve the carbohydrate of the grain, namely the conversion of
some starch to lower molecular disaccharides (maltose) and
dextrins by the action of amylases. A gradual decrease in the
carbohydrate content of pulses during the course of germination
was reported by Chattopadhyay et al. (1950). Increases in
proteases also occur during germination, causing the degradation
of high molecular proteins to lower molecular ones {Hegazi
1974).

The chemical changes that occur during legume germination

were supported by Hegazi (1974), who found that total sugars,
reducing sugars, and nonreducing sugars had increased in broad
beans (Vicia faba) germinated for 4 days, as compared with
the raw beans. Starch value had markedly decreased from 37.8%
in the raw beans to 30.9% in the germinated ones. Furthermore,
it was reported in the same study that protein content of raw
beans slightly decreased from 28.1 to 26.7% in the germinated
beans, the decrease being a result of protein breakdown by the
proteolytic action of enzymes {proteases). Germination led to
a noticeable increase in the concentration of amino acids as
a result of proteins being broken down into simpler units.
Germinated beans had increased amounts of these essential
amino acids: lysine (24%), threonine (19%), alanine (29%), and
phenylalanine (7%). The sulfur amino acids {cystine and
methionine) were slightly increased. The interesting fact in
this study is the apparent formation of a food rich in nutrients
and readily assimilable for human nutrition.

Other nutrient changes occurring in germinated legumes have

been primarily associated with vitamins. Ascorbic acid content
increased from a trace amount to 10-12 mg/100 g in legumes
germinated for 48 hours {Chattopadhyay and Banerjee 1952b).
The development of this antiscurvy factor was demonstrated by
the use of germinated broad beans (V. faba) and sprouted
chickpeas during times of war and famine. Increases in
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, biotin, tocopherol,
choline, and available iron have also been reported during
germination of various pulses, including chickpeas, pigeon
peas (Cajanus cajan), lentils, and mung beans {Chattopadhyay
and Banerjee 1952a; Banerjee et al. 1954; ICAR 1970).

In a study on germinated navy beans, no significant changes

were observed in haemagglutinating activity, although a con-
flicting initial decrease then increase in trypsin inhibitor
was reported {Kakade and Evans 1966). The fact that germina-
tion has a beneficial effect on the growth-promoting properties
of leguminous seeds is often cited, although the mechanism for
it remains unknown {Liener 1973).

24
 Fermentation Fermentation is probably one of the oldest
if not the oldest method for processing food grain legumes,
The most notable application of this process is in the Orient,
where fermented legume foods have been eaten for centuries.
Legumes are also prepared by fermentation in South Asia and
Africa. In practice, the fermentation process breaks down
carbohydrate {starch) to acid as the final end product by the
action of microorganisms {bacteria, moulds, and yeast). In the
household practice, such microorganisms in the atmosphere are
the fermenting organisms, This is also true in village-scale
operations, Conversely, controlled fermentation, using specific
moulds and bacteria, is followed in large-scale cormnercial
operations.

Fermented mixtures of legumes and rice are widely consumed

in India. In this process, previously soaked (4-6 hours)
mixtures of black gram dhal and rice (1:2) are mashed and
left overnight to ferment. Subsequent steaming of the fermented
batter produces idli, whereas baking or frying produces
dhosai. The preparation of a fermented paste from cooked,
decorticated, dried, and crushed legume seeds is practiced in
West Africa to make ewa {Nigeria) and soumbara. The
paste is subsequently cut into pieces and sun dried, result-
ing in balls or sticks that are used as a condiment or relish
in various dishes {Aykroyd and Doughty 1964; Kachroo 1970),
A fermented food product called tutu is also a popular dish
in Brazil.

The preparation of oriental foods from soybeans as de-

scribed in this report has application to various legumes.
Home-scale preparation of fermented soybean foods starts with
boiled, whole soybeans, which are subsequently dehusked and
mashed into a paste. The soybean mass is then inoculated with
bacteria, yeast, or mould cultures, e.g. Bacillus natto
(Bacillus subtilis) to prepare Japanese natto; Saccharomyces
ronxii in the preparation of Japanese miso; and Aspergillus
oryzae for preparing Indonesian tempeh and Chinese or
Japanese shoyu {soy sauce) , the latter product being made
from an equal mixture of soybeans and wheat. Various moulds,
bacteria, or yeasts may be used to impart different desirable
flavours in the final product. Fermentation proceeds for
approximately 24 to 48 hours to make tempeh, whereas an
initial fermentation of 72 hours is used to make soy sauce.
Subsequent roasting or frying of the fermented soybean mass
produces tempeh. For soy sauce production, the final fermen-
tation process takes place in earthen vessels over a 3-month
period {Smith 1963; Nelson and Richardson 1967).

The main effect of fermentation, regardless of the ferment-

ing organism used, is to make more of the grain nutrients
available for assimilation in the body. In this respect, the

25
digestibility of the legume protein is increased. Digestive
enzymes produced by microorganisms during fermentation are able
to break down protein into amino acids and other water-soluble
products of protein decomposition (Ebine 1972; Takeuchi 1974).
By this means, nore protein in the form of amino acids is
readily absorbed and utilized. Robinson and Kao (1974) found
that reducing sugar, soluble protein, and water-soluble
vitamins increased after fermentation in the preparation of
chickpea tempeh. Ebine (1972) has reported a biological
value of 63% and absorption rate of 83% i~ natto. This
indicates an improvement in comparison with those of raw
materials. In tempeh production mould breaks down a portion
of the original protein into amino acids as indicated by an
increase in soluble nitrogen (Nelson and Richardson 1967).

In addition, it has been reported that the fermentation

process inactivates unfavourable substances including trypsin
inhibitors, haemagglutinins, and saponins that are associated
with edible legumes (Liener 1962; Ebine 1972). This relates
to the heating process involved in the preparation of fermented
foods. The natural formation of antioxidants during the fermen-
tation process has practical significance in tropical regions.
In addition, fermented products have an increased storage life
at room temperature, since organic acids.and the amino acids
produced during the process can prevent contamination by
pathogenic bacteria and microorganisms. Increases in choline
and folic acid have also been observed in fermented preparations.

The development of proteinaceous fermented foods from other

legumes is a potential researc~ endeavour. Robinson and Kao
(1974) prepared tempeh from chickpeas and horse beans (V.
faba). New advances in one such process, as reported by Ebine
(1972), describe an improved method for preparing Japanese
shoyu. A shorter cooking time at a higher temperature for
cooking the defatted soybeans increased the protein digestibility
and product yield.

Agglomeration An interesting method of preparing legume

flour to a palatable form is by agglomeration. This process is
widely used in North Africa for the preparation of cous-cous,
a conunon cereal-based food. Traditionally, it is made from
wheat, millet, and other available cereals; however, an
existing shortage of cereal grains has caused the adoption of
legume flours as a substitute for its preparation. Specifically,
cowpea flour is used in Senegal, primarily before the harvest-
ing of millet, to prepare cous-cous. The use of bean flour
in place of cereal flour also is in keeping with conunon practice,
that of associating bean consumption with the diet of low-
income people.

At the home level, agglomeration of the flours occurs in

26
a two-step process. Initially, the dry method of preparing
cowpea flour, that of roughly grinding the beans in a mortar
with a pestle, followed by removing the hulls by winnowing, is
used. The dehusked grains are ground into flour either by
further pounding in a mortar, or more commonly, in a local
hammer mill. Subsequent sieving is done to remove the black
specks or "eyes."

Agglomerates are prepared from raw flour by slowly adding

water with continuous stirring, using a wooden paddle. When
large amounts of agglomerates appear, they are shaken in a sieve
to remove any nonadhering flour particles. This. process is
repeated one or two more times. The agglomerates are then
placed in a metal basket that contains small holes. This
basket is placed on top of a kettle that contains water that is
being boiled on an open fire. When the water boils, the steam
penetrates the holes in the basket containing the flour agglom-
erates. The entire basket is covered with a cloth to contain
the steam. During this process, the agglomerates expand in
size due to water absorption. In addition, gelatinization of
the starch occurs.

The method of agglomeration broadly comprises moisturizing

the particles with surface moisture to form adhesive surfaces.
Subsequent agitation of the mass of moistened adhesive particles
enables them to randomly come in contact with each other, thus
forming agglomerates. As described by Galle (1968), the agglom-
eration of flour involves an initial moistening of the flour with
subsequent transferral to a mixing zone (agitation, shaking) where
it agglomerates. It is reported that it is desirable to increase
the total moisture content of the flour to a range of 20-35%,
since below 20% results in agglomerates that are too soft and
fragile, and over 35% moisture in the agglomerates causes excessive
stickiness.

The traditional method of agglomeration as practiced in

rural areas of Africa has important application for the
utilization of various legume flours. Drying the agglomerates
as practiced in a commercial-scale operation for the prepara-
tion of cous-cous can be used to prepare stable legume foods.
Further discussion on this topic appears in this report, when
new processing methods and utilization of legumes are reviewed.

Commercial-Scale Processing

The various methods of legume processing used on a com-

mercial scale include milling, frying, puffing, germination,
fermentation, and agglomeration. In addition, canning is a
common practice used in developed countries for the preparation
of beans. In this section, discussion will be limited to the

27
topic of milling, as a primary means of decortication, and
canning, since other processing methods performed on the com-
mercial level are similar to those of small-scale and house-
hold practices.

Decortication

Milling Most large-scale commercial operations for mill-

ing legumes exist in India. The commercial methods involve
the same basic principles as in household methods. As described
by Kurien and Parpia (1968), both a wet method and dry method
of processing are used.

Comparatively smaller units practice the wet method

of processing. After grains are steeped in water for 4-12 hours
in cement tanks, upon draining of the water a paste containing
red earth and water is mixed thoroughly with the steeped grain
at a 2-3% level. The grains are then kept heaped for about 16
hours. Later, the grains are air-dried for 2-4 days in thin
layers in drying yards. The red earth is removed by sieving.
When dry enough, the grains are passed through a power-operated
stone- or emery-coated vertical chakki (sheller). During this
step, about 95% of the grain is dehusked and split. The husk
is aspirated off and the dhal is separated by sieving.
Residual unhusked whole grains are again passed through the
chakki for complete dehusking and splitting. Reportedly, the
yield of pigeon pea dhal is about 75%. The wet method has
the advantage of facilitating good dehusking and splitting of
the pulse; however, it adversely affects the cooking quality of
the dhal, There is a good yield in this process due to less
breakage, but the dhal takes a longer time to cook. A major
disadvantage of this process is its laboriousness and com-
plete dependence on climatic conditions. The entire process
usually takes 5-7 days and mills can only process limited
amounts.

With the dry method, initially, the pulse is cleaned,

graded according to size in a grading sieve, and then passed
through an emery-coated roller for initial "pitting" or
scratching of the husk to facilitate subsequent oil penetration.
Pitted grains are then thoroughly mixed with about 1% oil
(linseed) in an oiling machine, which is essentially a worm
mixer. The oil grains are then spread in thin layers for sun
drying in drying yards for 2-5 days. Grains are heaped during
the night to preserve heat. At the end of the drying period,
grains are sprayed with 2-5% water, thoroughly mixed, and
heaped overnight. The grains are subsequently passed through
the roller for dehusking by abrasion. In the process, about
40-50% of the grains are dehusked and a major portion of these
are split simultaneously. Husks are aspirated off and the
mixture of grains and dhal is passed through a dhal-separat-

28
ing sieve to remove the dhal. Residual unhusked and husked
whole grains are further dried in the sun for 1 day, mixed
with further amounts of water, and again passed through the
roller or chakki (sheller), whereby an additional 25-30% of
the grain is dehusked and split. A cone polisher, with smooth
rollers, is sometimes used to polish the split dhal.

The major disadvantage of the dry method is the high mill-

ing loss due to breakage and powdering. In addition, loosening
of the husk in this process is not adequate. Since the various
grains milled are not of uniform size, large grains may be
crushed by the shelling machines, whereas small grains pass
through. Kurien et al. (1972) report that traditional com-
mercial methods of milling give an average yield of dhal of
73%, which is considerably less than that of the average
maximum theoretical yield, 88%. This can relate directly to
the method adopted for loosening of the husk. Since removal
of the husk is usually completed after several passes through
the rollers, large losses of product occur by scouring of the
endosperm in each pass. Splitting of husked whole grain to
make dhal results in further losses of the germ, which forms
2-5% of the grains.

In an investigation by Khare et al. (1966), it was reported

that the total yield of pigeon pea dhal, on the basis of
actual pulse milled, was 76.1%, as against an estimated yield of
84.7%. The dhal ready for marketing had 54% of kernels with
chipped off edges and the resulting chippings were found to be
lost in various products. This type of damage takes place
both in the rollers and shellers. Loss of dhal is also
experienced in various forms as flour and fine brokens. The
uneven tempering and drying in the sun may also contribute to
incipient cracks in the kernel, which finally leads to break-
ing and chipping of edges. In addition, the loss of pulse
while drying in open yards is considerable, because there
usually are large numbers of birds that have access to the
grains while drying. Table 16 illustrates the yield of various
products during milling of pigeon peas. Flowcharts for the
wet and dry milling methods are illustrated in Fig. 2 and 3,
respectively.

For marketing purposes, dhal is separated into three

grades. The product obtained in the first rolling, 40-50%
of the total yield, is considered the best and it is the first
grade. Second-grade dhal is obtained from the unsplit pulse
after the first rolling operation, having been repassed
through the roller after sun-drying. It represents 35-40% of
the total yield. The third grade is mostly made up of immature
and deformed grains and bigger brokens. It forms 10-15% of the
total yield. Third grade is commonly mixed with second grade
for sale (Kurien and Parpia 1968) •

29
WHOLE RAW LEGUME ~ STEEPING IN \~ATER (4-12 hr ) -7 DRAHIING ---7 MIXING OF RED EARTH
PASTE WITH STEEPED GRAM

MILL!NGa SUN DRYHIG AND ALTERNATE

HEAPING AT NIGHT
1
HEAPING OVERNIGHT

l
HUSK SEPARATION

t
HUSK
SIEVING -----c
~---AD_D_I_T_IO_N_A_L_P_A_s_s_T_H_Ro_u_G_H_S_H_E_LL_E_R--=(C=H=A=KK=I"-)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

WHOLE HUSKED AND UilHUSKED GRAMb

DHAL - SPLIT HUSKED GRAlf

F.lg. 2. Fiowcha.Jt.t 601L ie.gume. m.lil.ing (we..t me..thod) (Ku1t.le.n a.nd

PMpfo 1968) ,

aVe.hubk.lng a.nd &pi.l.t.t.ing.

bAbou.t 95-98% 06 .ln.l:t.la.i a.moun:t.
CV hat V<<ld <• aeou~ 7 5-8 0%.

WHOLE RAW LEGUME -------} SIEVlllG ------7 GRADING____,, VARIOUS GRADES ------7 PITTING

SPRAYING AND L-
HEAPING OVERNIGHT ~
SUN DRYING AND ('t'---- MIXING E--
1
GRAM WITH PARTIAL
CRACKS IN THE HUSK
ALTERNATE HEAPING At NIGHT
1
T
WATER
OIL

ADDITIONAL PASS THROUGH ROLLER OP SHELLER (CHAKKI )b

WHOLE HUSKED OR UNHUSKED GRAM

MILLINGa ----7 HUSK SEPARATION -----)"" SIEVING
DHAL - SPLIT HUSKED GRAM'

l
F.lg. 3, Flowc..ha.lt.t 601t puihe. m.li.U.ng (dlt.y me..thod) (Kutr..le.n and
Pa.11.p.la. 1968).

aVe.huhfl.lng a.nd hpi.U:.t.lng - a.bou.t 40-50% 06 .ln.l:t.la.l a.moun:t

06 ie.gume. .lh de.h1.u,k.e.d a.6.te.Jt .the. 6-Uth.t m.ll..U.ng h.te.p.
bAbou.t 25-30% 06 gJta..ln .lh de.hu.hk.e.d a.nd .!.pi.Lt.
cVha.i y.le.id i..h a.bou..t 6 5-7 5%,

30
 Improved techniques for pulse milling have been developed
at the Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) in
Mysore, India. They will be discussed in the section that
deals with new processing irethods.

An outline of the basic features of the wet and dry mill-

ing methods is given in Table 17.

Legume Food Preparation

Canning Canning represents the most common method of

processing legumes for human consumption, especially in the
developed countries. It is done on a commercial basis since
the process itself involves considerable time and the need for
cooking kettles (pressure cookers) and can-sealing equipment.
Commercial legume canning operations are common in North
America and, to a lesser extent, in Central and South America,
Africa, and Asia. In most cases, canned legume products in
developing countries are consumed by the higher-income class,
or are exported to developed countries, since they are higher
in cost than traditionally processed legumes.

The most popular kinds of legumes used for canning are more
commonly referred to as beans and belong to the Phaseolus
genus, namely, navy or kidney beans (P. vulgaris) and lima or
butter beans (P. lunatus). The former bean, primarily
known as the common bean, is used in the preparation of canned
North American-style "baked beans." Canned kidney beans are
consumed as a vegetable side dish or they may be used as the
basic ingredient in a salad. In addition, green or garden
peas and blackeye peas (Vigna unguiculata) are canned for
similar use. Pre-cooked canned beans (P. vulgaris) are
consumed in parts of Latin America (Elias et al. 1973).
Purseglove (1968) reported the establishment of a new canning
operation for pigeon peas in Trinidad.

The canning operation initially uses dried, whole beans,

which are washed in cold water. After draining, the beans are
allowed to soak overnight in water, during which time the ~ois­
ture content of the dried beans increases from an initial 10-12%
to approximately 20%. This facilitates cooking of the whole
beans, since there is a softening of the beans. This step is
necessary because the beans are processed in the unhusked form.
These beans, which have a softer skin than most legumes, become
hydrated during the soaking step. After a weighed amount of
beans are put in each can, a liquid is added to the can, this
being either a thin sauce (tomato) in the case of navy beans,
or water, in the case of peas. The cans are then sealed on
a sealing machine and subsequently placed in a retort for cook-
ing. The heat-processing step proceeds for a time that is
dependent upon the temperature and pressure used. Since

31
the retort is essentially a large pressure cooker, a shorter
cooking time for processing the beans can be used than is
possible during cooking at atmospheric pressure. Usuall6, a
90-minute process is used at a temperature of 135°c (250 F).
After retorting, the cans are cooled in the retort under
pressure for approximately 15 minutes prior to their removal.
This prevents overcooking of the canned beans, even though the
steam processing step has been completed. In addition, the
cooling step prevents the cans from bursting when they are
exposed to atmospheric pressure.

Research in canning beans has concentrated on studying

processing time as it relates to the final texture and consis-
tency of the products and nutritional losses involved in the
canning process. It is widely recognized that considerable
losses of some of the water-soluble vitamins can occur during
the presoaking (hydration) step, or this loss can occur if
the liquid in which the beans have been cooked is not consumed.
It has been reported that as much as 50% of the thiamine can
be lost during canning (Miller et al. 1973). Significant
amounts of riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin A have been found
in the liquid medium surrounding the beans during the hydration
and cooking steps. The beneficial effects of heat-processing
on eliminating some of the antinutritional factors present in
beans is overshadowed by the concurrent losses of protein
quality in the canned beans. Hackler (1974) reported that the
protein efficiency ratio (PER) of canned beans decreases
approximately 40% as a result of the canning process.

Elias et al. (1973) have 5eported that a cooking time

6
beyond 30 minutes at 121 c (250 F) under 16 pounds of
pressure, without a previous soaking, decreases the nutritive
value of the protein. The lower availability of lysine is
partly responsible for this effect. Furthermore, soaked
samples have shown a reduction in the nutritive value with
a cooking time higher than 10 minutes. The determination of the
optimum cooking time and temperature for canning beans to
eliminate or minimize protein quality loss is a continuing
research effort.

subsequent research in this area has led to the develop-

ment of quick-cooking bean processes. Studies have included
the development of canned bean products with higher protein
quality. The preparation of instant legume powders and mixes
have gained recent attention. These new developments, which
relate to both canned and noncanned bean products, will be
discussed in a later section.

32
 PROCESSED LEGUMES BY NEW AND IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES

New systems for processing food legumes come under several

main categories of investigation, namely, improved decortication
and milling techniques; the development of quick-cooking methods
for whole legumes; the manufacture of instant legume powders;
and the preparation of legume protein concentrates and isolates.
Such new and innovative processing technologies presented in
this section can be applied and used in developing nations since
they evolve from basic knowledge and investigations into the
physical and chemical nature of legumes. For the most part, the
work done in this area has either been developed in less developed
countries or was initiated with an interest in its application
to these countries.

Improved techniques for efficient milling of legumes into

dhal (dehusked splits) is an important area of investigation.
A systematic method that eliminates wastes and losses has
great significance in the Indian dietary pattern. In addition,
the mechanical decortication of whole legumes, using a simple
modified threshing machine similar to a pearler, can eliminate
drudgery in food preparation and provide an increased market
for legume products.

Some legumes require considerable time for their prepara-

tion into a palatable form for subsequent use in traditional
dishes. This fact, coupled with a large requirement for costly
fuel, emphasizes the importance of investigating quick-cooking
procedures. This deserves attention from both the nutritional
and practical viewpoints since it is desirable to use a cooking
time that optimizes nutritional benefits of the legumes. ·

Legume powders that can be easily and rapidly prepared

for use in familiar foods can increase the consumption of
legumes by people of all economic statuses. There is a need to
alter the image of beans and pulses as that of a "poor man's
food." It was thought that this could be accomplished by
increasing their overall acceptance through the introduction
of legumes in a form especially desirable to upper income
people, namely, as a convenient-to-use tasty powder.

The development of protein concentrates and isolates

has received wide attention in recent years. The literature
contains a vast amount of information that describes costly

33
complex systems for preparing such concentrates and isolates
primarily from soybeans and groundnuts (peanuts) , which are
leguminous oilseeds.

Until recently, researchers had overlooked simpler ways

of preparing protein concentrates and isolates. Needless to
say, relatively little research has been done with other crops,
specifically the food legumes. Basic methods previously
developed for preparing soy protein isolates have indicated a
potential for use with other legume proteins. These methods
involve alkali extraction followed by acid precipitation at
the iso-electric point. In addition, the age-old method of
agglomerating flours by water absorption and a new method for
preparing protein concentrates by air classifying finely milled
flours can be nodified to a point at which they can both be
applied to a small-scale operation in developing nations.

From these main categories of new processing systems, the

nature of the method is described in several sections on food
legume products made by the various processes.

Milled Pulses

The need for improving the traditional mechanical methods

of milling pulses, that of decortication with or without
subsequent splitting, is an important area of applied research,
as illustrated by the high consumption and utilization of
legumes in these forms. Whole decorticated legumes (pulses)
and split pulses (dhal) contribute a major portion of
protein in the diet of individuals living in the semi-arid
tropics. Table 18 shows common pulse varieties of India.

Pulse milling, in addition to being practiced as a cottage

scale industry, is one of the major food processing industries
in India (10,000 commercial mills; 1-50 tons per day capacity).
This fact necessitated an investigation into an improved
system. Research efforts have recently focused on the develop-
ment of such a system that involves a systematic and standardized
procedure for the overall pulse milling process.

As previously discuss~r:, the primary shortcoming of the

conventional grain legume milling system lies in the low yield
of head dhal due to concurrent high losses as caused by
breakage (chipped edges, fines, powder). Subsequently, there
are significant losses of food for human use and equally
important monetary losses since broken dhal is sold at a
lower price than whole first-grade dhal. Relative to these
facts, Kurien et al. (1972) have estimated that an improved
method that increased the average yield of dhal 10-15% over
the conventional process could increase legume availability by

34
1.0-1.2 million tons, equivalent to 300,000 tons of protein.

A view of the difficulties and deficiencies in traditional

milling illustrates that both the preconditioning step and
milling machinery used in this process are the problem areas.
The practice of presoaking the grains followed by drying needed
standardization, since various factors in these processes exist.
The required water uptake, dependent upon soaking time, and the
required amount of water to be removed prior to milling, a
factor dependent upon drying time, are traditionally not monitored
in a standardized fashion. An arbitrary amount of oil, sand
paste, and water is added to the grains. In the case of water,
an excess leads to poor cooking and keeping quality (Morris and
Wood 1956; Kurien and Parpia 1968; Elias et al. 1973). The
dependence on weather conditions for drying seriously limits
an efficient milling routine. Uneven drying may contribute
to fissures and cracks in the kernel subsequently leading to
breakage and chipped edges.

Conventional milling machinery, chakkis (stone- or emery-

coated under-runner disc sheller), rollers, and plate mills
(emery- or stone-coated) may be used to perfo:rra those milling
operations, namely, husking and splitting. Usually the latter
two processes are done simultaneously. However, when water is
added to dehusked whole pulses before they are split, a
separate two-step operation is established (dry method). On
the other hand, mild sun drying to loosen the husk followed by
roller milling causes splitting to take place at the same time
(Kurien and Parpia 1968). The chakki is more suitable for
splitting pulses during the wet process.

The suitability of a variable milling machine for dehusk-

ing and splitting legumes had direct bearing on an investiga-
tion into the deficiencies of traditional milling, which are
directly related to the physical and chemical nature of pulses.
In early investigations, Kurien and Parpia (1968) found that
not only repeated milling of unhusked pulses led to increased
breakage and food losses, but that unequal pressure exerted on
individual pulses led to incomplete dehusking, increased
scouring and abrasion, and chipping of the kernels. In addition,
rnoisture had a deleterious effect with regard to ease of dehusk-
ing. Dried grains were more easily dehusked, whereas for split-
ting, water-treated grains were advantageous. Although a
certain amount of shrinkage of husk and endosperm occurs during
drying, these changes are probably influenced by the nature and
amount of gums and mucilages in the grains. Drying reduces the
tackiness in gums and their ability to hold moisture (Kurien
and Parpia 1968) •

The use of nonuniform shelling machines causes large grains

to be crushed, whereas small grains pass through unhusked. The

35
lack of a size-grading system aggravated this situation. Con-
sequently, the Central Food Technological Research Institute
(CFTRI) in Mysore has developed improved methods and machinery
for the efficient, uniform, and economic milling of grain
legumes. The important pretreatment (conditioning step) is
based upon the principle of removing water from the husk to
facilitate its removal. :r.bisture is uniformly adjusted to a
critical point by exposing the grain to heated air (approx-
imately 300°c) for several minutes, thereby loosening the husk
and making it friable (brittle). The second step of this
process involves the use of pulse-dehusking machines that re-
move the husks by abrasive (pearling) action in stone-coated
rollers. Abrasion pressure, feed, and clearance can be adjusted
to suit different varieties of grain legumes. Reportedly, after
a single pass of properly conditioned grain through the dehusk-
ing unit, an almost complete removal of the husk (99.5%) can
be achieved with the least scouring of the peripheral layers
of the kernel. Dehusked whole pulses (approximately 65%) can be
subsequently split into dhal in a separate, controlled system.
An increased yield of about 10-15% over the traditional com-
mercial methods has been reported (Kurien et al. 1972).
Average yield of dhal from different legumes using various
methods is illustrated in Table 19.

Advantages of the improved CFTRI pulse milling method are

apparent. Increased yield can provide significant amounts of
needed food protein. The processing time is considerably
reduced and the cost of processing is less (Pilot Plant Trial
Rs. 5.06 vs. Rs. 7.00 per 100 kg}. Independence of climatic
conditions is a positive advantage when considering outdoor
sun drying and associated food losses due to nonuniformity of
drying, excessive handling, and attacks by birds and insects.

Continuing studies have indicated that the type of gums

present between the husk and endosperm may influence the
adherence of the husk, and the amount of gum may influence the
duration and severity of the premilling treatment (Kurien and
Parpia 1968). Further investigations into the water-holding
capacity of these gums and its effect on milling characteristics
of the grains are warranted. The development of improved systems
to provide additional higher quality milled pulses (and dhal)
can have a positive impact on the supply and utilization of food
legumes in developing areas.

Decorticated Legumes

The development of a simple efficient mechanical process

for decorticating whole food legumes is being investigated in
an IDRC-supported project on food legume processing being
conducted at the National Research Centre Prairie Regional

36
Laboratory in Canada. Subsequent processing of decorticated
legumes include hammer milling and sifting to produce accept-
able flours for utilization in both traditional and new foods.

The nutritional implications of efficient husk removal

from grain legumes is apparent since the high fibre content
(cellulose) of the seed coat (approximately 50%) affects protein
digestibility and utilization. It is thought that this deleter-
ious effect of fibre on legume digestibility is due to either
an increase in the movement of cooked legumes through the
intestinal tract or resistance to protein hydrolysis by the
gastrointestinal enzymes (Bressani et al. 1973).

In addition, the husk may impart a bitter taste and an

undesirable colour in flours processed from the legu_mes.
Accordingly, polyphenols (often called tannins) are widely
distributed in plant materials. Their presence is associated
with astringency of various fruit products, e.g. tea. In a
recent report, it has been suggested that polyphenols are
present, particularly in chickpeas possessing purple, brown,
or maroon seed coats (Hulse 1975). This same report further
emphasizes that evidence exists suggesting that polyphenols
can correctly be called antinutrients. The biochemical
mechanism by which they interfere with protein metabolism in
humans has yet to be determined.

The need to establish a legume milling system was illustrated

in a consumer preference study conducted in Maiduguri, Northeast
State, Nigeria. As reported by Steckle and Ewanyk (1974), grains
are purchased in small quantities for household processing. The
dehulling of food grains is a laborious and time-consuming task,
still practiced along traditional lines by women. However, sub-
sequent preparation of the grains into flour is done almost
exclusively by small neighbourhood mills. A trend toward urbaniza-
tion as shown by an increase in the use of packaged flour for pre-
paring traditional staple cereal foods indicates a shift to pro-
cessed foods. In addition, nontraditional foods derived from
prepared flours are gaining popularity as part of the Nigerian
food pattern, an example of this being bread, which is becoming a
popular breakfast food.

Therefore, the introduction of a milling system suitable

for preparing legume flours is a logical step for increasing
legume consumption. A shift from household processing to
technological processing could have a significant influence on
the future development of new legume-based foods similar to
cereal-based ones, since a controlled supply of legume flour
could be introduced into the market.

An investigation into the dehulling aspect of processing

legumes using simple equipment was based upon the efficiency

37
of hull removal. Research concentrated on developing a
mechanical system that would be effective in removing as much
of the hull constituent as possible with minimum losses of
the cotyledon. It was important in the process that the
physical or chemical nature of the cotyledon was not adversely
altered in such a way as to affect its nutritional or functional
properties associated with subsequent food preparation.

An initial comparison of the three dehulling units, namely,

an attrition-type mill, a barley pearler, and a grain thresher,
demonstrated that the latter two pieces of equipment that
operate on a pearling principle were the most efficient for
dehulling sorghum and millet. Continuing studies with a George
O. Hill grain thresher indicated that this machine could
efficiently dehull Nigerian cowpeas.

The Hill threshing unit consists of 13 12"-diameter

carborundum discs, which rotate counterclockwise at up to 900
rpm. A centrifugal force thereby throws out the added coarse
grains from the centre of the stones. The rotating stones
move the grain within the thresher. Dehulling is performed
by the abrasive (pearling) action of the kernel against the
stone. Outer layers of the husk are successively removed
during the operation, the amount removed being dependent upon
the throughput and retention time.

~difications made to the Hill thresher included the

addition of a fan and cyclone for removing husk fines. Also,
both an adjustable hopper inlet and overflow outlet were added
to enable a more continuous dehulling process.

Reflectance measurements were used to quantify the efficiency

of the dehulling process. This method involved the preparation
of flour from cowpeas that were dehulled in the Hill thresher at
different retention times. Flour reflectance measurements were
determined at 450 nm against a reference standard of magnesium
oxide (MgO) on a Hitachi Perkin-Elmer UV-VIS Spectrophotometer
with a diffuse reflectance attachment. The flour was packed as
hard as possible into glass powder cells (22 x 10 mm).
Graphically plotting these measurements against the percentage
of kernel removed by the mechanical dehulling process can
demonstrate the rate of colour removal (Reichert et al. 1974).

Initial findings indicate that the threshing unit is

capable of mechanically dehulling brown Nigerian cowpeas that
can be subsequently prepared into cowpea flour. Reichert et
al. (1974) reported that at an approximate throughput (650 rpm)
of 400 lb per hour and 17% kernel removal, processed flour was
comparable to that prepared from traditionally dehulled
(manual pounding and winnowing) brown cowpeas. Reflectance
measurements for the traditionally dehulled cowpeas and the

38
mechanically (thresher) dehulled ones were 0.101 and 0.090,
respectively, indicating the favourable hull removal efficiency
of the mechanical process. At a higher stone speed (770 rpm),
an increased production capacity of 500-700 lb per hour could
be realized. The production of an acceptable product would
necessitate a 27% kernel removal. Singh et al. (1968) have
reported that cowpea seed coats comprise about 11% of the whole
grain, whereas the seed coat of the Nigerian cowpeas comprised
3-5% of the whole grain.

The adoption of a mechanical dehulling unit (Hill thresher)

in a rural legume-processing system is quite feasible in develop-
ing countries. It can serve as an important element in a total
postharvest system with respect to legume utilization by provid-
ing products (whole decorticated legumes, split decorticated
legumes, flours, middlings, grits) for household consumption.
Since it is a dry method, there is less risk of product losses
due to microbial and insect spoilage in a tropical climate.
Subsequent transformation of decorticated legumes into milled
products can be monitored to produce uniform products. In
addition, whole or split husks can be further processed at
home into local dishes. Efficient hull removal has a further
advantage of minimizing costly food losses.

In a supportive IDRC project being conducted at the

University of Saskatchewan in Canada, the physical, chemical,
and nutritional changes that occur by initial mechanical decor-
tication for the preparation of cowpea flour are being studied.
Associated factors include water and fat absorption, nitrogen
solubility, and protein quality. An awareness of such changes
is necessary since they may affect traditional food preparation.
A comparative assessment of traditionally and mechanically
prepared flours can provide important information for their
acceptability and subsequent utilization in new and familiar
foods.

Quick-Cooking Legumes

The importance of whole dried beans as an economical and

nutritional food source has received renewed attention in re-
search being conducted at the Western Regional Laboratory, USDA,
California. Recent investigations have included the develop-
ment of methods for preparing quick-cooking legume products.
The technology of such processes has significant application
to legume consumption in developing areas since their prepara-
tion requires shorter cooking time. The resulting products,
however, possess similar or improved physical, chemical, and
nutritional properties as compared to those prepared by standard,
long-time cooking processes (Rockland et al. 1974).

39
 In reviewing studies on quick-cooking legume processes,
it is noteworthy that initial investigations involved simple
basic technologies that were the basis for further research.
An early process for preparing dehydrated North American-style
"baked beans," traditionally a canned food item, were reported
by Esselen and Davis (1942). Its development came about during
war time when a shortage of tin cans existed. The process
itself followed the basic baked bean recipe and process con-
sisting of presoaking the dry beans overnight, blanching (3
minutes) the rinsed beans in boiling water, adding a flavoured
brine, and baking for 6 hours at 350°F. After baking, the cooled
beans were placed on drying trays and dried in a forced
circulation, hot air tunnel dehydrator at 140°F for 8-10 hours.
For rehydration, two parts of water were added to the dried
product, which was allowed to stand for l! hours. The researchers
concluded that dehydration was well adapted for the preservation
of baked beans.

The preparation of precooked dehydrated beans that can be

rehydrated by the simple addition of hot water (190-200°F)
without additional cooking was studied much later. In preliminary
studies, Feldberg et al. (1956) found that 105 minutes were
necessary to obtain completely cooked beans at atmospheric
boiling, whereas 20 minutes cooking using steam pressure (245°F,
13 psi) produced beans exhibiting satisfactory texture character-
istics. Beans had been presoaked for 8 hours. Prefreezing,
though not practical in developing countries, gave acceptable
bean products that had minimized bursting during low humidity
dehydration (170-190°F) in an airflow dehydrator. High-humidity
drying without the prefreezing lessened the bursting effect,
resulting in products with a denser nature. A grainy product
resulted after rehydration with near boiling water for 10
minutes.

High-humidity drying of beans prepared by the process de-

scribed in the previous study was further investigated in an
attempt to eliminate the costly prefreezing step (Dorsey et al.
1961). The main problem area in dehydration (hot air) was
splitting or "butterflying" caused by a differential rate of
drying between the skin and cotyledon. Although a high-humidity
dehydration process was found to be unacceptable in sufficiently
reducing "butterflying," the study did reveal that navy beans
should be blanched (15 minutes) prior to soaking. The effect
of blanching was to ensure complete rehydration in addition to
producing a product with better storage stability than unblanched
beans. The blanching operation revealed the possibility of
lipoxidase activity, which caused rapid deterioration of the
product during storage.

Subsequently, a new process for the preparation of quick-

cooking dehydrated beans (Phaseolus spp.) (New York State pea,

40
Perry marrow, red kidney, black) involved hydration of the dry
beans by soaking in water (15 minutes), precooking in steam,
coating, and dehydrating (Steinkraus et al. 1964). It was
found that a prior steam treatment (15 minutes) did not favour-
ably affect hydration at room temperature. Hydration for 1
hour in water at 210°F was complete and equalled that obtained
from hydrating in water at room temperature for 5 hours. Because
of the cooking that occurred in the former hydration step, the
beans continued to hold more water as heating in water continued.
Hydrated beans were precooked in steam under pressure in a retort.
A standard precook of 90 minutes at 250°F was used for beans
soaked at room temperature; precooking time was shortened for
beans hydrated at a higher temperature. After cooking, beans
were dipped for 5 minutes in 20% sucrose solution at 160°F,
drained, and dehydrated in a dryer (200°F, 300 fpm airflow)
for 2 hours, to a final moisture of 10%. The hydration for
30 minutes in boiling water gave a product with a soft texture.
A flexibility in processing conditions ranging from 30 to 90
minutes of hydration at 180°F followed by precooking at 250°F
for 30-90 minutes was possible. This flexibility of hydration
and precook times and temperatures was due largely to the coat-
ing step, which prevented "butterflying" during subsequent pro-
cessing.

A study by Subba Rao et al. (1964) emphasized the effect

of pressure-cooking on considerably shortening the cooking time
(approximately 70%) of pigeon pea or dhal. The amount of
solids dispersed was an indicator for evaluating the degree of
cooking. It was also reported that the addition of a combina-
tion of salts, namely trisodium phosphate and ammonium carbonate
improved the cooking quality of the dhal.

More recent studies in the area of quick-cooking dried

beans included the development of an intermittent vacuum
treatment (Hydravac process) for 30-60 minutes in a solution
of inorganic salts (sodium chloride, tripolyphosphate, bicarbonate,
and carbonate) (Rockland and Metzler 1967). This process has
been adapted to the preparation of various quick-cooking legumes,
including lima beans {Phaseolus lunatus), pinto beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris), and peas. The process itself consists
of loosening the seed coats by the vacuum treatment, or by hot-
water or steam blanching. The beans are subsequently soaked in
the solution of inorganic salts. Infusion of the salt solution
through the hilum and fissures in the hydrophobic outer layers
of the seed coat is facilitated by the Hydravac process. The
inner membrane is wetted by the solution and it subsequently
hydrates rapidly. The seed coat expands to its maximum
dimension within a few minutes. The cotyledons become encapsu-
lated in a uniform bath of hydration medium, thereby imbibing
the solution rapidly. A flow diagram for this process appears
in Fig. 4.

41
 WHOLE DRY BEANS

Blanch ll Hydravac
boiling water or steam - - - o r - - - - in salt solution at 7ooc
(1 to 3 mio""' I (below 60 minutes)

Soak
in hydration (salt) medium
(6 to 24 hrs )

L
Drain

l
Rinse
Dry~~ Cook

Fig. 4. Flowcha4t 604 the qulck-cookl~g bea~ p~ocecc.

Sou~ce: Rockla~d 1974.

In determining the type of hydration media to use, Rockland

and Metzler (1967) assumed the existence of a relationship
between chemical composition and cooking characteristics in dry
lima beans. Differences in the cooking characteristics of the
major bean tissues, seed coat and cotyledon, could be related to
the high amount of fibre and low amount of protein in the seed
coat. Conversely, cotyledons contain an inverse proportion of
these same components. A further assumption made was that
legume proteins influence texture and cooking characteristics
of cotyledons. To this effect, the hydration medium was designed
to disperse or solubilize proteinaceous material. Metal chelat-
ing agents (phosphates) helped to disassociate metal (calcium)
salt-protein complexes. The cooking time of bean seed coats was
reduced by sodium chloride and the phosphates. The carbonates
controlled the pH of the hydration medium, which had an initial
pH of 9.0. The salt solution that worked best was composed of
2.5% sodium chloride, 0.25% sodium carbonate, 0.75% sodium bicar-

42
bonate, and 1.0% sodiwn tripolyphosphate. Drying the processed
beans under a low-velocity air stream at below 140°F for 24
hours resulted in a product (8.5-10.5% moisture for lima beans)
with minimwn splits and "butterfly" cracks. The overall
advantage of this quick-cooking process is its conversion of
dry beans to rehydrated products, which cook within 15 minutes,
effecting a more than 80% reduction in a cooking time of 1-3 hours.
Furthermore, the cooked product has good appearance and flavour,
and its nutritional value is identical to that of untreated beans
(Rockland 1974).

The development of an inexpensive mechanical method for

producing quick-cooking beans (California small white, sanilac,
pinto) has been reported by Kon et al. (1973). A Ce-Co-Co
barley and wheat polishing machine (basically a tapered carbo-
rundwn rotor turning inside a slotted screen) was used to peel
whole raw beans. Peeled whole beans accounted for 73% of the
yield; peeled split beans accounted for 16%. Comparative results
of cooking peeled, soaked (overnight) , and unsoaked beans
indicated a reduction in cooking time of at least 26 and 42%,
respectively. After cooking, almost all the beans were split,
which contributed to the quick-cooking characteristics of the
beans. Peeling did not affect the nutritional quality of the
beans as indicated by both similar protein efficiency ratio
(PER) values and water-soluble vitamin contents (thiamine, niacin,
pyridoxine, and folic acid).

Legwne Powders

As part of the dry bean research being conducted at the

u.s" Western Regional Laboratory, the development of precooked
legwne flours was initiated to provide dry beans (Phaseolus
spp.) in a convenient stable form for subsequent use in con-
venience foods. The high protein content and relatively low
cost of legwninous seeds has further emphasized in more recent
times the importance of continuing an investigation into the
preparation of legwne powders.

In relation to its importance to developing countries, basic

methods for preparing legwne powders could initially stimulate
increased conswnption of legwnes among all people, particularly
the more wealthy. This is important since the stigma of food
legwnes, that of being considered for only the poor, may be
overcome. Although a relatively small amount of research has
been done in this area, initial findings could encourage further
interest in this form of legwne processing technology.

The initial development of instant bean powders followed

three basic processing systems. As reviewed by Copley (1974),
the first process (~ simply involved three steps, namely,

43
soaking the whole beans, cooking them to a slurry, and drying
the slurry using a drum dryer. In a second process (b), whole
beans were ground into a fine powder in a mill. The powder
was inunediately blended with a solution of hydrochloric acid to
inactivate an enzyme responsible for causing bitter flavour.
The slurry was cooked for 5 minutes, neutralized by the addition
of sodium hydroxide, then further cooked to a palatable form.
After drtun drying, the resulting product had a bland flavour,
making it suitable for use in baked goods and other food mixtures.
A third method (c) of legume powder preparation has more recently
evolved from a quick-cooking bean process, in which an intermediate
product (blanched, soaked, whole beans) is dried, cooked, and
milled to a powder. Bean powders produced by these three methods
all possess the good characteristics of rapid hydration. A
schematic diagram as given in Fig. 5 best illustrates these
three procedures.

{b) (c)

i
grind
t
Blanch

i j,
slurry Powder~acidify Soak
(HCl) (salt solution)

Dry
l
cook ~neutralize
t
Drain
(NaOH)

t
cooked mash Rinse

i
Dry
l .
Intermed1 ate
Prodrt

F~g. 5.
I LEGUME POt•DER I

Floweha~t 60~ the p~epa~at~on 06 ~n4tant

~--J legume
powde~4 u4~ng th~ee p~oee~4e~.

44
 These processes have been used to prepare legume powders
from pea beans (P. vulgaris), peas, and lentils. The flavour
of legumes reportedly (Kon et al. 1974) depends largely on
cooking procedure, as related to the retention of the integrity
of the cells. In other words, cooked powders prepared so that
cellular integrity is preserved retain their original flavour.
Conversely, grinding treatments, which rupture nost of the cells
to release cell contents of the raw legumes, prevent subsequent
development of the cooked flavour associated with beans.

The development of powders having a low flavour intensity

(bland) is significant for their utilization in various food
products. These include traditional noodle products and baked
goods, as well as new items, such as snack foods.

Kon et al. (1974) conducted an investigation into the

preparation of powders from California small white and pinto
beans using two different procedures that would affect the
cellular nature and physiochemical properties of the final
product. For the preparation of regular or "whole cell" powders,
whole beans, soaked overnight, were cooked for 1 hour and
unsoaked beans were cooked for 2 hours. The cooked legumes were
slurried in a disintegrator and drum dried. For the preparation
of acidified or "broken cell" powders, raw legumes were first
finely ground in a mill. A slurry was made by the addition
of acidified (HCL) water to produce a slurry of about pH 3.5.
Cooking proceeded for 15 minutes with vigorous stirring after
which time the slurry was neutralized by adding sodium hydroxide,
then drum dried. The flakes were further ground into a powder.

The acidified powders formed stronger flakes on drying and

were bulkier. This preparation contained more extra cellular
pregelatinized starch. Also, the powder was completely gelatin-
ized and nost of the starch was free. Grinding the flakes in-
creased the density of both preparations. The acidified slurry
itself possessed high viscosity even at low concentration.
Such physiochemical properties have direct relation to ultimate
food uses.

In this same study, an investigation of the nutritional

properties of the two powders was conducted. For this test
both products had equal cooking times. The nutritional
qualities of both bean powders were similar with respect to PER
and digestibilities. These values were significantly lower than
for casein; however, the addition of methionine (0.6%) raised
them to that of casein. The PER for all bean products ranged
from 1.39 to 1.47. The digestibility value was 93% for all
products.

As commercial products, both powders are free flowing, non-

hygroscopic, and convenient to use since they easily reconstitute

45
in hot water. The acid-treated slurry requires a shorter cook-
ing time (15 vs. 45 minutes), giving similar nutritional qualities.
In comparison with the regular powder, the acidified powder
rehydrates IlK>re slowly due to the free gelatinized starch. However,
initial studies indicate it has a much longer storage life
(approximately 12 IlK>nths as compared to 4 for the regular powder).
Continuing studies indicate the potential for making instant
powders from an additional variety of legumes including faba
beans (Vicia faba) and lima beans (Kon et al. 1974).

Additional information on the nutritional attributes of

instant bean powders (pinto - P. vulgaris) was reported by
Miller et al. (1973). The vitamin content of the regular and
acidified bean powders was compared. The thiamine content
of the acid-processed powder was about 10% lower than that of
regular powder; whereas the niacin content was about 20% higher.
Pyridoxine contents were about the same.

Legume Protein Concentrates

Agglomeration

The preparation of agglomerates from cereal flour has been

previously introduced as a traditional basic process for making
cous-cous, a familar North African cereal food. This product
in its cooked form is distinguishabie as small individual grain
particles, similar in appearance to rice, that have been pre-
pared by steaming the initially dried flour agglomerates. The
adoption of this method for preparing similar agglomerates from
legume flour has recently gained attention in research endeavours
aimed at increasing the nutritive value of cous-cous. A com-
prehensive study (Gainor et al. 1971) was conducted at Kansas
State University on the protein supplementation of cous-cous
with horse bean (Vicia faba) and chickpea flours as they
influenced processing and nutritional and organoleptic pro-
perties. Durum wheat flours (70, 85, and 95% extraction) were
the cereal base for the legume protein supplements.

In this study, the agglomeration method illustrated the

basic principles of this process, namely the dispersion of
powdery flour in a humid atmosphere to wet the surface and form
adhesive gluten on the flour particles. Raw material was
agglomerated with water in a mixer, sieved through to separate
the agglomerated particles, then subsequently dried in a forced
air oven at 50°c for 20 hours with or without a 7 minute pre-
steaming step. It was found that the amount of water added to
the flour is critical since an excess amount caused the
agglomerated particles to become too large, causing them to
slide together and impairing their separation by sieving. Con-
versely, when less than the optimum (as determined by the
development of the agglomerated particles) amount of water was

46
used, the flour would agglomerate slowly and be unable to attain
the desired size. Furthermore, the rate of water addition was
important, specifically if it was too rapid, since under this
condition the water would not be evenly distributed throughout
the flour particles. This would result in dry unagglomerated
flour particles, and large, noist masses of inseparable
agglomerated particles. If water was added at a slow rate, the
only undesirable end result would be a need for a longer prepara-
tion time to make the cous-cous. For consumption the dried
cous-cous was placed in a cheesecloth and put on top of a
steamer for 20 minutes. The cous-cous would then be turned
and aerated and then allowed to stand for several minutes.
This procedure was repeated twice more.

Galle (1968) described a large-scale process for prepar-

ing a high protein fine flour (HPFF) fraction that is normally
derived by the air separation or fractionation of cereal flours
during milling. Since this HPFF fraction is difficult to
handle due to poor flow characteristics, he suggested the prepara-
tion of a concentrate from this fraction by agglomeration in a
mechanical agglomerator. The agglomerated particles would then
be added to milled flours in a controlled manner. In test
studies, an HPFF from milling wheat contained 18-23% protein.
Similarly, agglomerated high-protein legume concentrates could
be prepared from fine flour fractions of milled legume flour.
These concentrates could be prepared for addition to traditional
foods or as a new food.

Air Classification

An investigation into the manufacturing process for prepar-

ing a protein concentrate from field peas (Pisum sativum) has
recently been conducted at the Prairie Regional Laboratory in
Canada. Pea protein concentrate is produced from pea flour by
air classification. This process results in a product that con-
tains about 60% protein. The initial pea flour material is
obtained by mechanically grinding whole or dehulled peas. The
flour contains approximately 23% protein (Prairie Regional
Laboratory 1974)"

The protein concentrate obtained from the process is of

high nutritive value, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Air classification to produce a protein concentrate initially
involves fine grinding of the legume flour. In the reported
process, pin-milled flour is classified in a spiral air stream.
Concentration of the protein by this method is possible because
of the difference in size, shape, and density of the starch
(carbohydrate) granules and the protein-containing particles.
In this finely ground flour the starch fraction is present in
the heavier particles, whereas the protein fraction is contained
in the fine particles. Protein fractionation takes place when

47
opposing centrifugal and centripetal forces are employed.
The centrifugal force is applied to the fine flour particles
opposed by a centripetal drag. Consequently, the heavier
particles (starch) move in the opposite direction to the fine
protein-rich particles. Since legume flours contain relatively
large starch granules, this process of protein concentration by
air classification is practical. In pilot studies, pea flour
containing 21% protein yielded 25% fines (pea protein concen-
trate) with a protein content of 60% and a coarse fraction
(starch) containing about 8%0 Repeated milling gave an additional
10% pea protein concentrate containing a somewhat lower protein
content (46%). A schematic flow sheet for air classification is
given in Fig. 6.

Slurry Centrifugation

Research has also been conducted at the Prairie Regional

Laboratory on the preparation of pea protein concentrate from
pea flour by slurry centrifugation. This process involves mix-
ing the flour initially with five parts of water. Subsequently,
lime is added to the slurry, increasing the pH to around 9.
Centrifugation yields a high protein supernatant and starch solids.
Spray or drum drying of the supernatant yields a pea protein
concentrate containing about 60% protein. The concentrate can

I ,oo ,
WHOLE RAW PEAS (21% Protein)
bs

~~ PEA FLOUR (21% protein)

100 1bs

PEA PROTEIN CONCENTRATE PEA PROTEIN CONCENTRATE

PEA STARCH
(8% protein) (60% protein) ) ( 56% protein)

75 1bs 25 1bs 35 lbs

1
PIN MILL

i
PEA STARCH

75 1bs
)
1
PEA PROTEIN CONCENTRATE
(46% protein)
10 lbs

PEA STARCH (25% protein)

65 1 bs

F-lg. 6. Flowcha4t 604 the p4epa4at-lon 06 pea p4ote-ln concent4ate

by a-l4 cla~~-l6-lcat-lon.

48
later be ground to a desired particle size. Starch solids are
prepared from the starch fraction (containing about 6% protein) ,
which is reslurried with 5 parts of water and then centrifuged
to give starch solids (2% protein), which are dried in a forced
air oven at 60°c. The slurry-centrifugation process for pre-
paring pea protein concentrate is illustrated in Fig. 7.

Both the air-classification and slurry-centrifugation

processes have application to other food legumes. The use of
simplified equipment to prepare such concentrates according to
basic established principles can provide increased utilization
of food legumes. Although the latter process (slurry centri-
fugation) is a wet method that can cause problems in tropical
countries, continued investigation into this process and the
dry method (air classification) can increase knowledge in the
area of legume processing.

A variety of uses for legume protein concentrates in both

traditional and new foods exists. Blends of cereals with legume
protein concentrates can be formulated to prepare infant foods,
pasta products, and baked goods, including bread.

Precipitation

The preparation of protein concentrates from soybeans by

1
WHOLE RAW PEAS (21% protein)

100 lbs

I PIN MILL I ~EA FLOUR (21% protein)

11 lbs

l lb lime added~ (SLURRY TAMKI ~--_............_...._................,..__ _ _ __,

J,
PEA STARCH (6% protein)

72.5 lbs

PEA PROTEIN CONCENTRATE 500 lbs H20 SLURRY TANK

added

I DRUM DRYER I PEA STARCH (l .8% protein)

.J, -!, 167 lbs
PEA PEA
J:.B1iill.tJ.. ...£&lllllL
CONCENTRATE CONCENTRlli
(60~ protein) (60% protein) roR'i'ER"1 ~ PEA SJAB GH
~ ' (l .8% protein)
33 lbs 33 lbs
(sheets or flakes) 67 lbs
F1g. 7. Flowehant 6on the pnepanat1on 06 pea pnote1n eoneentnate
by &lunny eentn16ugat1on.

49
protein precipitation has been practiced for centuries. Hot-
water extraction of protein from ground, cooked soybeans (soy
milk), followed by precipitation of the protein, using calcium,
is a long-practiced method for preparing oriental soybean curd
(tofu). In other words, soy protein concentrate is the
modern version of soy curd, this product containing about 60%
protein in the dried form.

In more recent times, research has involved the preparation

of soy protein concentrates by aqueous extraction of the protein
at its isoelectric point, thereby precipitating the protein
(Altschul 1969). This well-established technology for prepar-
ing protein concentrates from soybeans can be utilized for the
preparation of such concentrates from various food legumes.
r-Ddification of the process to establish it as a base for a
small-scale industry in developing countries has received
attention.

Initial reference to the preparation of soy protein isolates

by precipitation serves to illustrate the principles of the process
and associated nutritional attributes for considering its adapta-
tion to grain legumes. By definition, soy protein concentrates
contain 60-70% protein, whereas soy protein isolates contain not
less than 90% protein. However, the basic technology employed to
produce either product, that of extracting soluble proteins in an
aqueous solution followed by precipitation, are similar. The
purity of each product with respect to content of protein and crude
fibre dictates the terminology followed. Accordingly, the name
"legume protein concentrates" is given to the high-protein products
prepared by this protein precipitation method of legume
processing.

Cleaned dehulled soybeans are used to prepare protein

isolates. After an initial extraction of the oil, the defatted
soybean flakes are extracted with an aqueous medium. After
extraction, the extract containing the water-soluble protein is
separated from the insoluble residue by appropriate mechanical
devices. The major globulins are precipitated by the addition
of a food-grade acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The pH of the
clarified extract is subsequently lowered to 4.5 (isoelectric
point) where the solubility of the globulins is near a minimum.
The major protein fraction separates out as a finely divided
white curd. Soluble constituents are removed. The protein
is relatively pure since these constituents, namely, oligosac-
charides, peptides, and salts, are reIOC>ved. The concentrated
protein is more commonly neutralized before drying, this pro-
cedure yielding a proteinate form that has the advantage of
being water dispersible (Meyer 1970).

Another procedure for preparing soy protein concentrate

uses rooist heat to denature and insolubilize the proteins in

50
 Whole Legume

1--
Dehulled Legume
dehu 11 i ng

1
Legume Flour
grinding

EXTRACTJ0;1

l
Protein Liquor

Acidification
1or Heat

L
Denaturatlon

Precipitated Protein
(curd) ~
1
Washed Protein
concentrate
vvashi ng

spent whey

I Legume
1
Protein Concentrate
drying

F-<-g. 8. Flowc.ha.11..t 601t. p1t.e.pa1t.-<-ng legume. p1t.o.te.-<-n c.onc.e.n.t1t.a.te..6

by p!t.o.te.-<-n p!t.e.c.-<-p-<-.ta..t-<-on.

soy flour followed by a water wash to remove the sugars and

other minor components. Wolf (1970) emphasized that the physical
properties of soy protein concentrates will differ with the method
of preparation. As an example, concentrates prepared by acid
leaching with neutralization in the absence of heat treatment
will have a higher content of soluble protein than concentrates
obtained by heat treatment. This is in accordance with the
recognized fact that nitrogen dispersibility and related protein
solubility can be decreased by heat treatment. A schematic
diagram for the preparation of protein concentrates from
leguminous seeds appears in Fig. 8.

Several investigations have been conducted on the isolation

of proteins from leguminous seeds. Pant and Tulsiani (1969)
studied the isolation of protein from Phaseolus (var. mungo,
vulgaris) to standardize simple and effective methods of
protein isolation from legume seeds. A variety of extracting
solvents, including sodium chloride, solubilized 74-82% of the

51
total nitrogen, which consisted mainly of globulins (approximately
60% of the total nitrogen) and albumins. The minimum percentage
of total nitrogen extracted in the Phaseolus seeds was at
a pH between 2.1 and 3.4 with only 15-22% of the total nitrogen
(mainly albumin) being extracted. In the case of P. mungo
only 35% of the total nitrogen went into solution on the alkaline
side, whereas in the case of P. vulgaris seeds, about 80% of
the total nitrogen went into solution.

As suggested by the authors, another method for isolating

proteins from dry beans would be to extract them with an alkali
solution at the pH solubilizing the maximum percentage of
nitrogenous components, followed by changing the pH to that of
minimum extraction (acidification) to isolate the protein. It
should be emphasized, however, that treating protein fractions
with strong acidic and alkaline solutions decreases their
nutritive value. Accordingly, the best and simplest method for
isolating proteins from dry seeds is to extract them with
sodium chloride solution and precipitate them by dialysis of the
extract. An alternative to the latter step could be heat
denaturation of the protein.

A study of the extraction of protein from red kidney beans

Phaseolus vulgaris found that nitrogen extraction could be
increased with an increase in the concentration of sodium
chloride in the extracting medium (Hang et al. 1970). The
dispersibility and isolation of proteins from legume flours was
investigated using faba bean {V. fabaJ, pea bean (P. vulgaris},
mung bean (V. radiata), field pea (P. sativum), and chick-
pea (C. arietinum). From this study, Fan and Sosulski (1974)
reported that protein from mung bean and field pea flours
exhibited high extractability at pH 2 and above pH 7 where 90%
of the nitrogen was extracted. Low nitrogen solubility did
occur at the apparent isoelectric point. In comparison, the
solubility of flour nitrogen was progressively lower in faba
bean and chickpea, which exhibited an apparent isoelectric
range of pH 4-6. In general, an alkaline extraction solvent
(0.2% NaOH) was very efficient in solubilizing flour nitrogen
especially in mung bean, field pea, pea bean, and lima bean.
Nitrogen dispersibilities at pH 10 were essentially complete
for all legumes with the exception of chickpea flour. Yields
of protein concentrate (isolate) were generally proportional
to the protein content of the legume flours varying from 19%
in lentil to 29% in pea bean based on legume flour. Only the
faba bean concentrate contained over 90% protein. However, mung
bean and field pea isolates could be further purified by
additional washings. Accordingly, it was felt that faba bean
and mung bean were the most promising new sources of protein
isolates.

In a more applied approach to the preparation of legume

52
 Whole beans
wide adjusted stone mill
mung beans
soaking in water (8-10 hr)
mun beans
flotation
draining
mung beans
narrow adjusted stone mill
Mung bean paste (fine)
water added (paste:water ~ l :3)
Bird centrifuge

Mung bean solution Starch and residue

boiling (20 min)
protein solution
addition of glacial acetic acid
(adjust solution to pH 4-5)
bean rotein
filtration using fine cloth
protein concentrate
washing with water (l-2 times)
I Fresh mung bean protein concentrate I

F1g. 9. Floweha~t 60~ the p~oduetion 06 mung bean p~ote1n

eoneent~ate.
Sou~ee: Bhumi~atana and Wondaouta 1972.
protein concentrates, a project was undertaken at the Institute
of Food Research and Product Development in Bangkok, Thailand,
to develop a mung bean (P. aureus) protein concentrate using
the basic technology of protein isolation. As illustrated in
the flow chart (Fig. 9) mung bean protein concentrate is pre-
pared from whole mung beans in a step-by-step process using
simple equipment. Mung bean paste is prepared using a tradition-
al stone mill followed by centrifugation to separate out the
mung bean protein solution and the starch residue. Precipitation
of the protein occurs by acidification of the boiled mung bean
protein solution. Fresh mung bean protein isolate is dried in
an air oven to produce a stable product containing 78.9% pro-
tein and 2.9% moisture. The concentrate can be reconstituted in
boiling water and used as a textured, meatlike product in
traditional dishes (Bhumiratana and Nondasuta 1972).

The significance of this process is twofold, namely, it

is a practical method that can be incorporated into a small-
scale food industry in developing countries, and it is similar
to the traditional process for manufacturing mung bean starch

53
from flour by wet starch extraction. In the process for
preparing mung bean protein concentrate, therefore, mung bean
starch is a by-product of the process.

Mung bean starch is widely used in the preparation of

traditional oriental noodles. It is prepared by grinding whole
dehulled mung beans into a paste. After adding more water, the
slurry is passed through a fine mesh (cloth) to separate out
the cellulose. The slurry is then allowed to settle on a series
of sloped starch tables for several hours. Eventually, starch
settles to the bottom of the aqueous mung bean solution while
water concurrently runs off the sloped tables. The starch
sediment is then collected from the tables and dried. In this
process, the water, which is in fact a protein liquor, can ·be
recovered by the described precipitation method to make mung
bean protein concentrate.

The manufacture of protein concentrates from various

legumes using this or other described methods deserves atten-
tion since they mostly stem from conventional legume processing
methods. Legume protein concentrates have nutritional sig-
nificance because they are high in protein and their physical
and chemical natures make them adaptable in various food uses.
Both new and traditional foods can be prepared from legume
protein concentrates leading to an increased amount of protein
in the diet.

54
 BY-PRODUCT UTILIZATION OF LEGUME PROCESSING

By-products that are either a direct or indirect result

of legume processing or utilization have economic and social
as well as nutritional importance. The main by-products that
come directly from legume processing are husks, obtained by
milling and decortication, and starch, obtained by protein
extraction from air classification or slurry centrifugation.
Those by-products obtained indirectly are parts of the legume
plant. To this latter group belong vines, sterns, straw, leaves,
and pods, which are part of typical leguminous crop plants. They
are eaten either by man or animals.

An analysis of grain fractions of several legumes showed

that the seed coat or husks contain a relatively low amount
of protein (7-11%) and a high amount of fibre (20-32%) (Singh
et al. 1968). Nutritional importance of husks as a ruminant
feed source is apparent. The husk and pods of pigeon pea
(C. cajan) are fed to cattle (Kachroo 1970). In addition,
milling of pigeon pea for the preparation of dhal provides as
much as 15% of total yield for cattle feed (Khare et al. 1966).
Husk is a major portion of this amount with dhal powder and
small brokens contributing the remainder. Also, by-products of
milling chickpea (C. arietinum) are fed to livestock in India
(Kurien et al. 1968; Purseglove 1968).

Starch manufacture was referred to in the discussion on

processed legumes by new and improved technologies. In the
preparation of legume concentrates by protein extraction (and
precipitation), air classification, or slurry centrifugation,
the production of legume starch is a very important economic
factor. Mung bean (P. aureus) starch is traditionally used in the
preparation of Chinese-style noodles. Other legume starches can
be used in food preparation, which ordinarily require a food starch.
Knowledge of the physicochernical properties of these starches in
relation to their gelatinization properties, swelling capacity,
and pasting characteristics would aid in further development and
utilization of these starches in food products.

Relatively few studies on the starches and low-molecular

carbohydrates of legumes have been reported. Lineback and
Ke (1975) found that the arnylose (linear fraction) contents of
chickpea and horse bean (V. faba) starches were 20.6 and 29.3%
respectively, on a dry weight basis. Corresponding amylopectin

55
(branched fraction) contents of the starches were 73.2 and 66.8%,
respectively. The legume flours (68-72% extraction) contained
about 40% starch. These starches exhibited single stage swell-
ing during gelatinization. The Brabender hot paste viscositv
patterns were relatively stable during stirring at 95°c -
indicating that the granules are very resistant to swelling and
fragmentation. Pasting temperatures (67-68.5°c) for both
starches are higher than the 56-59°C reported for wheat starches.
Lineback and Ke (1975) further reported an 8% content of low-
molecular carbohydrates in the legume starches, the predominant
one being sucrose. Lesser but relatively substantial amounts
of stachyose and raffinose were found. A study of cowpea
(i:igna sinensis) starch illustrated similar physicochemical
properties associated with legume starches. Tolmasquim et al.
(1971) reported that cowpea starch contains a high linear con-
tent (amylose). In addition, cowpea starch granules undergo
limited swelling when heated to a temperature above that of
gelatinization and have great resistance against shear at 95°c.
The paste, upon cooling, shows a high viscosity, indicative
of retrogradation. An average amylose content of 30-40% was
reported by Schoch and Maywald (1968) in the starch fraction
of lentils, lima beans, chickpeas, and navy beans. (The
amylose/amylopectin content (%) in wheat starch is 23/67.)
Lima bean starch has properties similar to cereal starches, i.e.
moderate granule swelling and a low pasting peak. In contrast,
and in agreement with other studies, lentil, chickpea, and navy
bean starch granules exhibited restricted swelling, reduced
solubilization, stable hot paste viscosities with no pasting
peak, and a resistance to mechanical fragmentation.

The physicochemical properties associated with legume

starches have direct bearing on new types of legmne processing
and utilization. The reported size of starch granules was
10-14 microns for cowpeas, whereas chickpeas and broad beans
contained some starch granules that were 17-29 microns and 17-
31 microns in size, respectively (Tolmasquim et al. 1971;
Lineback and Ke 1975). Starch granule size is an important
feature when considering air classification for protein-starch
separation. One main property of many legume starches, as
associated with food uses and product development, indicates
that it is possible to obtain viscous and stable pastes even
when low concentrations of the starch are used.

The various parts of leguminous plants can provide an

additional source of food and feed. Accordingly, dried vines
from chickpea plants are used as cattle feed and green parts
of pigeon pea and black gram (P. rrrungo) plants provide
excellent fodder, while broad beans and cowpeas are also grown
for hay and silage (Purseglove 1968). The roots of cowpeas are
eaten in the same way as sweet potatoes in East Africa (Purse-
glove 1968).

56
 In India, stalks from pigeon pea plants are used for
various purposes, including roofing and basket making. In
addition, old woody parts of this plant are used for fuel, and
charcoal is made from the thick stem (Kachroo 1970).

The development of legume-processing industries in rural

areas has the advantage of economically utilizing by-products
as animal feed. Alternatively, food use application of other-
wise feed by-products can be developed by modified microbial
technology. The conversion of waste carbohydrate into protein
by the growth of microorganisms, namely bacteria, moulds, and
yeast, is similar to established simple processes for preparing
various traditional fermented foods. The production of single-
cell proteins, based on substrates of legumes processing food
wastes warrants special consideration.

57
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In presenting a review of legume processing and utiliza-

tion, the potential for increasing the consumption of legumes,
based on new and improved processing technologies is evident.
Investigations into the modification of present processing
systems, the adaptation of these systems to a wide variety of
legumes, and the development of new and simple processing
technologies, thus providing processed legumes in food forms
that fit existing legume consumption patterns, are needed.

Traditional legume foods based on present processing

methods are listed in Table 20. It is apparent that many of the
traditional foods can be prepared from a variety of legumes.
The availability of the processed legume forms, primarily
whole, husked legumes, and flours can promote increased legume
consumption. Mechanical decortication by abrasive milling,
followed by grinding and sieving, as previously discussed in
this report, can play a major role in providing an economical
source of processed legumes.

Similarly, new legume foods can be developed based on

new processing methods. As illustrated in Table 21, legumes
in the form of instant powders, protein concentrates, and flour
lend themselves to a variety of food uses. The introduction of
these methods as part of the rural food industry can promote
their increased use.

Various investigations have been conducted into the prepara-

tion of protein-rich foods, based on cereals and legumes. These
have included reconstitutable powders, for both adult and child
feeding, milky beverages, soft drinks, soups, baked goods, and
pasta products (Weisberg 1972).

Bal Ahar, an infant food currently being marketed in India,

contains a mixture of 70% cereal flours (wheat or maize) and
30% legume flours (groundnut, chickpea, and mung beans). It
has a protein content of 22% and a 2.2 (standard casein, 2.5)
protein efficiency ratio. In addition, the development of
high-protein low-cost items in the form of biscuits has gained
considerable attention (Parpia 1969). Various blends of
chickpea, broad bean, and lentil flours, in combination with
a cereal staple have been used in the preparation of reconstitut-
able powders for infant feeding in Algeria, Egypt, and Turkey

58
(Kapsiotis 1969}. In Lebanon, a mixture of parboiled wheat
(70%} and chickpea flour (30%} was used to develop Laubina,
an infant food containing over 15% protein and having a protein
efficiency ratio of 2.1, compared with standard casein
(Tannous et al. 1965). The prevalence of malnutrition among
children in Ethiopia has prompted research into the development
of protein supplements containing chickpea and pea flours,
combined with cereal staples (Agren et al. 1969). Similarly,
in Peru, broad bean flour has been used in the initial investiga-
tion of protein supplements for use in baked goods, soups, and
noodles (Bacigalupo 1969).

Future Research Needs

Specific interest in protein-food promotion has focused on

the preparation of bread in which a percentage of the wheat
flour is replaced by specific legume flours. This mixture of
wheat flour with a legume protein source is termed a "composite
flour." Various investigations into breads from composite flours
have involved the use of soybean flour and concentrates. However,
other food legumes have been overlooked (Hulse 1974). The
increasing popularity of bread in many of the less-developed
countries (FAO 1969) warrants broader research in this area.

The use of legume flours in bread-making is presently

receiving support from IDRC. Research into composite flour
technology, based on a low-energy mechanical dough development
process, has been investigated (Bushuk and Hulse 1974; McConnell
et al. 1974). The introduction of a bread-making system suitable
for preparing ethnic breads containing legume flours can pro-
note legume utilization in an important dietary staple in
developing countries.

Future research in legume processing and utilization must

reflect the need to increase their status to one of an accept-
able, nutritious, and easy-to-prepare food product. Specific
areas of research that have been overlooked include legume
cooking quality, properties of legume constituents, biochemical
factors in legumes associated with their nutritive value, and
the role of legume carbohydrates in flatulence.

Studies on the chemical nature of whole legumes and husks

are necessary to provide information for establishing efficient
cooking methods. Procedures for objectively determining the
cooking qualities of legumes should be established. These
methods should be based on desirable functional properties
associated with food preparation. An investigation into the
cooking quality of stored beans is also needed. Bean quality
for cooking decreases rapidly during storage, thereby causing
a reduction in bean consumption. A suggested approach

59
 (National Academy of Sciences 1974) to this problem would
include studies designed to (a) correlate storage conditions
(temperature, relative humidity, and time) and cooking
quality of good quality seeds; and (b) detect biochemical
changes in the seed after harvest. This research would identify
optimum storage conditions for various bean varieties and
suggest physical or chemical treatments to inhibit undesirable
changes or enhance desirable ones.

In addition, work concerning the agronomic aspects of

legume cooking quality is required. In such a study, the
influence of soil minerals and other environmental factors upon
the cooking characteristics of legumes would be monitored.
M::>difications to traditional cooking practices could subsequently
be undertaken.

Properties of specific legume constituents, particularly

proteins, starches, and lipids, would provide information on
the factors responsible for desirable sensory attributes in
food products. A systematic approach to the characterization
of these constituents, as well as a study of their physico-
chernical properties, could be conducted on specific popular
food preparations in developing countries.

Additional research is needed to identify the antinutri-

tional factors present in legumes. The unavailability of many
essential amino acids in legumes that have been cooked to the
point at which all the known toxic factors have been destroyed
suggests the presence of other antinutritional factors. As
stated by the National Academy of Sciences (1974), primary con-
cern should be the presence of factors that interfere with
proteolysis, their identification, and the development of
processing methods that inactivate or destroy them.

Flatulence, i.e. the production of gas in the intestine

or stomach, has long been associated with the ingestion of
different leguminous seeds. The presence of oligosaccharides
of the raffinose family in these food materials are suspected
of playing a major part in flatus formation. The two primary
oligosaccharides, stachyose and verbascose, have been reported
in a variety of legumes including chickpeas, cowpeas, field
beans, lentils, pigeon peas, and lima beans. High levels of
stachyose (2.5, 2.7%) and verbascose (4.1, 4.2%) have been
found in chickpeas and pigeon peas, respectively (Cristofaro
et al. 1974). Initial investigations into the processing
of legumes to lower the oligosaccharide content has suggested
soaking or blanching as possible methods. Further investigation
into this and other methods of processing to eliminate flatus
formation, e.g. germination, fermentation, is warranted.

Cristofaro et al. (1974) concluded that the sugars of the

60
raf finose family are not digested because of the absence of the
enzyme alpha-galactosidase. These large carbohydrate I1Plecules
subsequently come in contact with bacteria of the lower intestine
resulting in flatus formation. Although it is clear that
stachyose and verbascose are involved in flatulence, they may
not be the sole responsible factor.

The role of legumes in the diet of people living in

developed countries is relatively minor. These grains, however,.
can provide an improved nutritional status to a large number
of people living in developing countries who otherwise would
be deprived of high-protein sources. At a time when population
pressures are straining available food supplies, the increased
availability and utilization of food legumes should be an
important goal for all concerned agricultural scientists.

61
Table 1. Calories and protein supplied by cereal
grains, food legumes, and nuts in diets
in the developing countries (% of total
calories and proteins).

Calories Protein

Africa 58.5 61. 3

Asia and Far East 72.1 77.3
Latin America 47.0 54.8
Near East 67.0 72.0
All developing countries 65.2 70.3

Source: FAO (197lc).

Table 2. Protein consumption (grams per

day) per capita by major food
groups.

Meat,
eggs,
Starchy Pulses Vegetables fish,
Cereals roots & nuts & fruit & milk Total

North America 15.9 2.4 4.1 4.9 70.7 98.2

Central America 31.6 0.5 11.9 2.0 22.8 58.0
Caribbean 21.4 3.3 8.3 2.2 22.8 58.0
Africa 33.3 5.2 8.5 1.9 12.1 61.0
Near East 45.1 0.6 4.7 3.3 12.2 65.9
South Asia 32.3 0.5 8.6 0.6 6.3 48.3
China 31.8 2.9 10.8 2.2 8.8 56.5

Source: Abbott (1973) •

62
 Table 3. Comparative annual average rate of growth (%) in
production, selected crops, 1961-63 to 1969-71.

Total agricultural
production, Total Starchy
1961-63 to 1973 Wheat Rice grains roots Pulses

Africa, south
CJ'
of the Sahara 2.7 5.1 4.4 2.5 2.7 1.9
w
Far East 2.9 7.5 2.5 3.1 5.5 -0.7

Near East and

Northwest Africa 3.2 2.0 4.5 2.4 2.9 3.0

Latin America 2.9 1.3 3.4 3.3 4.7 3.0

Total 2.9 4.4 2.7 3.0 3.9 0.7

Source: FAO (1973a); UN (1974).

Table 4. Percentage change in world population
and pulse production, 1949-72.

Total Food
Population food per capita Pulses

Developed 22 60 32 87
Latin America 62 65 2 100
Near East 57 65 2 48
Asia and Far East 51 65 9 21
Africa 52 47 -3 88
All developing 53 62 6 40
World 40 61 15 49

Source: FAO (197lb, 1973b).

Table 5. Possible protein supplements for cereal foods and feeds.

Synthetic amino acids Animal proteins Fish proteins

Lysine Egg Fish meal (dried and

defatted fish)

Methionine Milk Fish protein concentrate

(solvent extracted fish
Whey flesh or whole fish:
ca. 90% protein)

Animal blood
Meat by-products
Bird feathers
Processed wool

Plant proteins Microbial proteins

Legume flours Yeast )Substrates

Oilseed flours )include carbo-
Cereal germ Algae )hydrates, hydro-
Cereal bran ) carbons (natural
*Cereal protein concentrate Micro fungi)gas, petroleum
*Legume protein concentrate )wax, etc.),
Leaf and grass concentrates Bacteria )industrial and
Coffee pulp concentrates )agricultural
)wastes, and
) by-products

* By particle size separation, aqueous, or solvent extraction.

64
Table 6. Protein content of principal
calorie and protein sources.

Protein content {g/100 g)

Rice, brown or husked 7.5

Maize, grain or whole meal 9.5
Millet, grain 9.7
Oats, meal 13.0
Rye, whole meal 11.0
Wheat, whole grain 12.2
germ 22.9
bran 13.6
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 22.1
Broad bean (Vicia faba) 23.4
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) 20.1
Cowpea (Vigna spp.) 23.4
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) 25.6
Lentil (Lens esculenta) 24.2
Lupin (Lupinus spp.) 31.2
Peas (Pisum sativum) 22.5
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) 20.9
Soybean, seed (Glycine max) 38.0
cake 46.0

Source: FAO (1970).

65
 Table 7. Proximate analyses* of some food legumes in the semi-arid tropics.

Nutrient

Legume (botanical name) Moisture Protein Ash Fibre Fat Carbohydrate

% % % % % %

O'I
Cajanus cajan 10.l 19.2 3.8 8.1 1.5 57.3
O'I Cicer arietinum 9.8 17.1 2.7 3.9 5.3 61.2
Lens esculenta 11.2 25.0 3.3 3.7 1.0 55.8
Phaseolus aureus 9.7 23.6 4.0 3.3 1. 2 58.2
Phaseolus lunatus 12.6 20.7 3.7 4.3 1. 3 57.3
Phaseolus mun go 9.7 23.4 4.8 3.8 1.0 57.3
Phaseolus vulgaris 11.0 22.0 3.6 4.0 1.6 57.8
Pis um sativum 10.6 22.5 3.0 4.4 1.0 58.5
Vici a faba 14.3 25.4 3.2 7.1 1.5 48.5
Vigna unguiculata 11.0 23.4 3.6 3.9 1. 3 56.8

*Whole dried seed.

Source: Purseglove (1968) •

Table 8. Legumes in human nutrition.

Botanical name Common name(s)* Areas of consumption

Cajanus cajan Pigeon pea India, Pakistan,

Red gram Middle East, East
Congo bean Africa

Cicer arietinum Chickpea India, Pakistan

Bengal gram
Gram

Lens esculenta Lentil Near East, North

Split pea Africa, India,
Red dhal Central and South
America

Phaseolus aureus Mung bean South, Southeast, and

(Vigna radiatus) Green gram East Asia, East
Golden gram Africa, India

Phaseolus lunatus Lima bean Tropical America,

Sieva bean West Indies,
Butter bean Madagascar

Phaseolus mungo Black gram India, Iran, East

(Vigna mungo) Africa, West Indies

Phaseolus vulgaris Kidney bean North, Central, and

Pea bean South America,
Navy bean Mexico, East
Haricot bean Africa
Pinto bean
Snap bean
Common bean
Black bean

Pisum sativum Green pea Mainly temperate

Garden pea zones, parts of
Pea India and Africa

(con' t)

67
{Table 8, con't)

Vicia faba Broad bean Temperate zones,

Horse bean Near East, North
Faba bean Africa, Central and
Windsor bean South America

Vigna unguiculata Cowpea Asia, Tropical Africa,

(Vigna sinensis) Blackeye pea West Indies, China
Catjan cowpea
Hindu cowpea
Kaffir bean

*First listing represents the most common name for the

variety in the region where it is usually consumed.

Sources: Aykroyd and Doughty (1964); Stanton et al. (1966);

Purseglove (1968); Kachroo (1970).

68
 Table 9. Amino acid content of wheat plus chickpea (Cicer arietinum) {mg/gN).

WHO
Amino recommended
Chickpea* Wheat {67%), acid amino acid
Wheat* (Cicer arietinum) chickpea { 33%) Score composition**

°'
~
Lysine 179 428 304 89 340
Threonine 185 235 209 85 250
Methionine
& cystine 253 139 196 89 220
Leucine 417 468 443 100 440
Isoleucine 204 277 241 96 250
Valine 276 284 280 90 310
Phenylalanine
& tyrosine 469 541 505 133 380
Tryptophan 68 50 59 100 60

Source: *FAO {1970) ; **WHO {1973) •

 Table 10. Amino acid content of rice plus chickpea(Cicer arietinum) (mg/gN).

WHO
Amino recommended
Rice (75%) , Acid amino acid
Rice* Chickpea* chickpea (25%) Score composition**

Lysine 237 428 333 98 340

Threonine 244 235 240 96 250
-..i Methionine
0 & cystine 212 139 176 80 220
Leucine 514 468 491 112 440
Isoleucine 238 277 258 103 250
Valine 344 284 314 101 310
Phenylalanine
& tyrosine 540 541 540 142 380
Tryptophan 102 50 76 126 60

Source: *FAO (1970) ; **W»O (1973).

 Table 11. Available supplies in energy and protein in 1965 and 1970 expressed
as a percentage of per capita nutritional requirements.

Available supplies
as % of res,uirements
Daily per capita
requirements* 1965 1970

calories Protein** Calories Protein** Calories Protein**

World 2385 38.7 100 169 101 173

Developed regions 2560 39.5 116 221 121 229

Developing regions*** 2284 38.4 93 142 96 147

-.J
......
Asia and East Asia*** 2223 36.6 89 135 93 141
Latin America 2383 37.7 104 169 106 172
Africa 2335 41.5 92 140 93 141
Near East 2456 45.5 94 145 97 147

Asian centrally
planned economies 2355 38.3 86 151 88 153

*Revised standards of average requirements (physiological requirements plus 10% for food
wastage at household level).
**Provisional data expressed in grams of local protein, i.e., adjusted for protein quality
difference in national diets as compared to an ideal or reference protein.
***Excluding Asian countries with centrally planned economies.
Source: Kracht (1974)0
Table 12. World production of major legumes, 1972.

World production % world legume

Botanical name (1000 metric tons) production

Glycine max 53024 49.4

Arachis hypogaea 16887 15.7
Phaseolus vulgaris 10899 10.2
Pisum sativum 10218 9.5
Cicer arietinum 6718 6.3
Vicia faba 5326 5.0
Cajanus cajan 1720 1.6
Vigna unguiculata
(Vigna sinensis) 1260 1.2
Lens esculenta 1182 1.1

World total 107234 100

Source: FAO (1973b).

72
 Table 13. Price fluctuations of the principal legume crops and oilseeds in
international trade 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975 (for long tons (2240 lb),
in U.S. dollars).

1972 1973 1974 1975

January Jul/Aug January Jul/Aug January Jul/Aug January Jul/Aug

Beans 336.60 269.50 270.25 465.50 1173.00 1071. 00 432.90 386.26

Peas 149.18 183.75 219.73 392.00 816.50 583.10 468.00 342.20
-..J Broad beans 103.00 85.75 103.40 196.00 149.50 154.70 150.93 121. 52
w
Lentils* 178.50 176.40 197.40 428.75 425.50 483.14 456.30 466.55
Soybeans 132.86 140.63 270.75 276.35 259. 00 300.50 224.50
Groundnuts 251.18 267.05 324.30 529.00 655.20 272. 34
Rapeseed 126.48 135.24 177.43 419.75 458.06
Cottonseed 97.00 106.00 225.00 235.00 260.00 175.00
Sesame* 330.00 327.00 310. 00 480.00 585.00 635.00 650.00

*Metric tons.

Source: The Public Ledger (1972-75).

Table 14. Volume and value of pulse exports
and imports, and as a percentage
of production, 1972.

Exports Imports
1972 1972 Exports as Imports as
1000 mt $m 1000 mt $m %of produc. % of produc.

World 1893 349 1987 401 4 5

Developed 662 129 1334 268 18 36

N. America 307 63 29 9 27 26
w. Europe 311 59 1071 213 15 52
Oceania 37 5 16 5 47 20
Other 6 2 217 42 15 54

Developing 960 172 594 123 4 3

Africa 428 61 77 17 9 2
Latin America 168 40 223 55 4 5
Near East 132 29 106 19 8 6
Far East 232 41 183 31 2 1

Central
planned 271 48 59 10 2 0
Asia 119 18 25 3 1 0
USSR & Europe 152 30 34 7 2 0

Source: FAO (1973c).

74
Table 15. Demand projections, pulses and nuts.

Level of total demand

(1000 metric tons) % increase
1965 1975 1980* 1965-80

World 34641 45340 52615 52

Economic class I 3803 4285 4510 19

North America 857 863 914 7
Western Europe 2397 2733 2877 20
EEC 1143 1251 1320 15
Oceania 41 52 60 46
Other developed 543 626 687 27

Economic class I I 23773 32440 38049 60

Africa 3332 4486 5276 58
Latin America 4478 6042 7035 57
Near East 1069 1562 1892 77
Asia and Far East 14744 20207 23812 62

Economic class III 7107 8855 9954 40

Asian centrally
planned economies 5490 7032 7880 44
USSR - Eastern Europe 1563 1826 1999 28

*Trend projection.

Source: FAO (197la).

75
Table 16. Yield of various products during milling
(wet method) of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)

Product composition Yield (%) Remarks

Dust and dirt o. 71 Rejected

Dust, shriveled grain, and
pulse (6.25% of yield) 4.50 Cattle feed
Pulse, shriveled grain,
stems, other grains 2.29 Pulse (38. 75%)
sieved out
Pulse (large size) and stems 2.95 Pulse (89.5%)
sieved out
Fine husk, dhal flour,
fine broken dhal 9.16 Cattle feed
Husk - coarse 0.87 Cattle feed
Husk - fine 4.39 Cattle feed
Dhal flour and free husk 2.44 Cattle feed
Pulse with husk 13.40 Recondition
with water,
shelling
Big broken dhal 1.89 Low-grade dhal
Dhal* - dehusked split pulse 54.42 Dhal
Unaccounted losses - drying,
loss of dhal flour, dirt,
etc. 2.98

*Total yield of dhal on basis of actual pulse milled was 76.1%.

Source: Khare et al. (1966).

76
Table 17. Pulse milling dry vs. wet method.

Advantages Disadvantages

Dry method

Cooks better, cotyledon More costly due to higher

softens easily percentage of broken dhal

Larger quantities of Requires longer processing

dhal can be prepared time due to repeated drying
and milling steps

More advantageous method

of dehusking

Wet method

15-20% higher dhal yields Requires longer cooking time

Better taste Small depression in centre

of dhal is present

Easy husk removal due to Laborious and dependent on

pre-soaking climatic conditions

Traditional chakki (sheller) Causes losses of grain

is more suitable for wet- from birds and insects
processed grains during outdoor drying

More advantageous method

of splitting

77
Table 18. Pulse varieties of India.

English name Regional name Botanical name

Bengal gram Channa, gram Cicer arietinum

Chickpea
Red gram Arhar, Tur Cajanus cajan
Pigeon pea
Green gram Mung, Mug Vigna radiatus
Black gram Udid, Urid Phaseolus mungo
Mash, Kalai
Lentil Maur, Masoor Lens esculenta

source: Pulses in India, Conference on Milling of Dhal,

Mysore, 17-19 Feb 1971.

Table 19. Average yield of dhal from different

legumes using various methods.

Maximum Horne- Traditional Improved

theoretical scale commercial CF TRI
yield, methods, methods, process,
Legume % % % %

Bengal gram
(chickpea) 88 75 75 84
Red gram
(pigeon pea) 88 68 75 85
Black gram 87 63 71 82
Green gram
(rnung bean) 89 62 65 83

78
Table 20. Traditional food legume processing
and utilization.

Processing Processed Food

method form form

Pounding, Meal, Unleavened breads,

grinding, flour, biscuits,
milling grits, cakes,
paste, noodles,
dhal, porridges,
whole gruels,
stews,
sauces

Boiling Whole, Stews,

husked vegetable dishes
and soups,
unhusked condiments

Roasting, Whole, Snacks,

parching husked garnish
and
unhusked

Frying Whole, Snacks,

husked breads,
and cakes
unhusked,
flour,
paste,
batter

Puffing Whole, Snacks

unhusked

Germination Whole, Bean sprouts,

unhusked curry,
vegetable dishes

Fermentation Flour, Fried doughs,

paste, oriental foods,
batter condiments

Agglomeration Flour Cereals,

cous-cous

Canning, Whole, Vegetable dishes,

(steaming) unhusked salads

79
Table 21. Legume processing and utilization by
new and improved technologies.

Processing method Processed form Food form

Mechanical Whole legumes, Traditional foods:

decortication and flour, porridge, stew,
milling grits, gruel, cous-cous,
paste etc.
New foods:
ethnic breads,
pasta products,
snack foods
(e.g. chips),
confectionaries

Precooking, Whole, dehusked Traditional foods

drying, legumes, quick- as above
grinding cooking legumes, New foods:
instant legume beverages, snack
powders foods and dips,
soups,
oriental foods

Agglomeration, Legume protein Legume-cereal mixtures:

air classification, concentrates ethnic breads,
precipi ta ti on baked goods,
pasta products,
infant foods,
cakes, pancakes
Simulated foods:
rice,
meat analogs
Meat extenders
Snack foods

80
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