DETERIORATION OF STEEL IN CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION

Frost action is seldom a problem of steel in concrete because the temperature rarely drops below
freezing. This presentation therefore deals only with the corrosion of the steel. Figure 1.

Figure 1

As shown in Figure 2, the corrosion rate of steel is a function of the alkalinity of its environment. At high
pH, the tendency of steel to corrode is negligible; the steel is "passive". Cured concrete contains large
amounts of lime, which render the concrete strongly alkaline, having a pH of between 12 and 13. Thus,
steel embedded in concrete normally does not rust. If, however, the lime in the concrete is leached out or
neutralized by carbonation (the transformation of the lime into calcium carbonate through a reaction with
carbon dioxide), the passive state of the steel is terminated and corrosion will occur.

Figure 2 (from Reference 1)

Corrosion of steel will take place even in highly alkaline media if chloride ions are present. The
mechanism through which chloride ions promote corrosion and break down the passivity of steel is not
fully understood. It is known, however, that chlorides are not consumed in the process; they act as
catalysts and their harmful effect, once begun, does not diminish with time.

Unfortunately, the most common deicing salts used on the roads, sodium chloride and calcium chloride,
are chloride-based. These chemicals mix with snow and ice and are carried into parking garages by cars.
When the snow and ice melt, the chlorides infiltrate the concrete, reaching the steel in a relatively short
time. The corrosion activity is proportional to the concentration of the chlorides. Once corrosion begins,
cracks caused by the buildup-of bulky corrosion products develop in the surrounding concrete. The
buildup of pressure eventually causes spalling of the concrete and exposure of the reinforcing steel. This
process is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3

THE MECHANISM OF CORROSION

Corrosion is an electrical chemical process that can best be described by considering a simple model of a
galvanic cell, as shown in Figure 4.In this example, the cell consists of two electrodes made of iron (Fe)
and copper (Cu). The electrodes are in electrical contact and are immersed in an electrolyte (water
containing some dissolved salt such as copper sulphate).

Figure 4

Metallic iron, in the presence of moisture and oxygen, has a tendency to revert to its stable state, iron
oxide. In the first step of this process, the iron dissolves as ferrous ions (Fe++), liberating two electrons
(2e-). This process, called the anodic reaction, represented by Equation 1, renders the remaining
undissolved iron, the anode, negatively charged.

Fe Fe++ + 2e- (1)

Before any further positively charged iron ions can be released from the iron electrode, its negative
charge has to be neutralized. The consumption of the electrons occurs in a reaction at the copper
electrode, the cathode. This reaction, shown in Equation 2, involves the conversion of water (H2O) and
oxygen (O2) into hydroxide ions (OH-).

2e- + ½ 02 + H20 2OH- (2)

The hydroxyl ions and the iron ions form a precipitate consisting of the ferrous hydroxide which, if
exposed to oxygen, forms ferric hydroxide, the familiar reddish brown rust. The electrolyte liquid
completes the electric circuit and the galvanic cell can function continuously.

CORROSION PREVENTION

Corrosion of steel in concrete is caused by galvanic action. Thus, to prevent corrosion it is necessary to
eliminate the elements essential to the functioning of the galvanic cell, which can be identified as
follows:

1. the anode, where corrosion takes place, and the cathode, which does not corrode but maintains
the ionic balance necessary for corrosion to proceed;
2. electric continuity between the anodic and cathodic areas;
3. oxygen;
4. moisture;
5. chloride ions, which act to terminate the passive state of the steel;
6. electrolyte surrounding the electrodes.

Each of these essential elements will be examined as to whether elimination of it is feasible and whether
such an approach is a practical way of preventing the deterioration of parking garages.

Anodic and Cathodic Areas

The development of anodic and cathodic areas in reinforced concrete does not require the presence of
two dissimilar metals; variations in the steel due to its chemical composition, its physical state caused by
the level of stress, or even the composition of the surrounding environment, result in one portion of the
steel acting as the cathode while another portion of the steel acts as the anode (Figure 5). Such variations
always exist and they provide the potential for the formation of a galvanic cell. It is not practical, from
either a technical or economical point or view, to try to eliminate these differences. It is important to
recognize, however, that embedding in the concrete metal components other than reinforcing steel can
aid the formation of galvanic cells. For this reason, conduits for the lighting system, for example, should
be mounted on the surface rather than embedded in the concrete.
Figure 5

Breaking the Electric Continuity

If the reinforcing steel is coated with highly dielectric material, the electric continuity is broken and the
galvanic process prevented. An epoxy coating, fusion-bonded to the steel, is currently used almost
exclusively for this purpose and with very good results. Some concern has been expressed, however, that
in the case of fire, temperatures may reach the softening point of the epoxy, with a resultant loss of bond.
Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that the required fire rating of garage decks containing epoxy-
coated steel is met.

Exclusion of Reactants

Corrosion of steel can also be avoided by preventing the entry of oxygen, water and chlorides into the
concrete. This can be achieved in various ways. If good drainage is provided so that pending of water on
the surfaces is avoided, the opportunity for contaminants to soak into the concrete is greatly reduced. The
effective slope of the deck, after drying shrinkage, creep and settlement, should be at least two percent
and drains must be located at the low points in the deck. It is also important to design, construct and
maintain expansion joints in such a manner that they will be well functioning and durable. Failure to do
so could result in channelling of water and salts into the interior of the deck.

The housecleaning of garages, although almost never done at present, is an effective and economical way
to minimize the buildup of salts. Most of the salt in a thick crust visible in most garages on dry winter
days will eventually find its way into the concrete if it is not washed away. The floors should be swept as
often as possible, but at least once a year, preferably in the spring.

Although important, these measures by themselves are insufficient to ensure good performance. The
reinforcing steel has to be protected with good quality concrete of adequate thickness to prevent contact
with the brine.

CONCRETE PROPERTIES

The permeability of concrete increases exponentially with the water/cement (w/c) ratio, as shown in
Figure 6. A concrete with low w/c ratio therefore is of great benefit in reducing the penetration of salt, as
demonstrated in Figure 7.

EFFECT OF WATER/CEMENT RATIO ON PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE (93%

HYDRATED)
Figure 6 (from Reference 3)
MAXIMUM SALT CONTENT VS DEPTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS W/C RATIOS

Figure 7 (from Reference 4)

Since chlorides act as a catalyst for the corrosion of steel, the constituents of the concrete must not
contain significant amounts of soluble chloride. In this respect, aggregates and admixtures are important.
The use of calcium chloride admixtures should be avoided.