Computer Hardware - 2

Sarlahi Computer Institute
&
Training Center
a}+° rf]s, a/xyjf–%,;nf{xL
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Introduction of Computer
Computer eGg] zAb Latin efiffsf] zAb "Computare" af6 cfPsf] xf] h;sf] cy{ lx;fa
lstfa ug{' (Calculate) x'G5 . To;} u/L c+u|]hL zAb Calculate sf] cy{ klg lx;fa lstfa
jf ul0ftLo sfo{ ug{' eGg] x'G5 . cfheGbf sl/a 40-50 jif{ klxn] Calculater k|rngdf
cfPsf] lyof] h;n] Digital System df sfd ub{Yof] . To;s} ljsfzs|ddf Computer sf] lgdf{0f
eof] h'g w]/} 7"nf] dfqfdf Data Processing ug{] ;fwgsf] ?kdf :yflkt eof] . h;n]
ubf{ cfw'lgs k|lalwsf] ljsf;qmddf Computer ckl/xfo{ ;fwg eof] .
Computer sf s]xL ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .
 5f]6f] / z'4 ?kdf sfd ug{] ;fwg .

 6f9fsf] 7fpFaf6 klg Data k|fKt ug{ ;Sg] ;fwg .
 ;fgf] 7fpFdf w]/} Data Store ug{] ;fwg .
 Logic lbg / Program af6 lbOPsf] ;"rgfnfO{ k5\ofpg ;Sg] ;fwg .
 lg/Gt/ / bf]xf]-ofP/ Calculation ug{] ;fwg .
 dflg;sf] Logical ljsf;df ;xof]u ug{] / sfdnfO{ sd ug{] ;fwg .
 Input sf] ?kdf Data lnP/ Output sf] ?kdf Result lbg] ;fwg . cflb .
csf{] zAbdf Computer l56f] / z'4 tl/sfn] Data Processing ug{] Electronic pks/0f
xf] . h;n] Data nfO{ Digital Code df Processing ub{5 . Computer n] o;df Store ul/Psf] Program
df ePsf] ;"rgf (Instruction) sf] cfwf/df Input lbPsf] Data nfO{ Automatically Store ug{],
processing ug{] / Result sf] ?kdf Output ug{] sfd ub{5 .
Basic Functions of Computer

1. Speed and Accuracy:- Computer n] Pp6f sfd Ps k6sdf ub{5 . o;n] hf]8\g], 36fpg], letter
x? t'ngf ug{] Alphabetic qmd ldnfpg], w]/}j6f Letter x? Copy ug{] jf ;fg{] sfd
ljgf ;d:of ub{5 . t/ dxTjk"0f{ s'/f eg] Speed sf] x'G5 . Computer n] hf]8 tyf
36fp h:tf sfd ug{ 80 Nanosecond hlt ;do vr{ ub{5 . t/ Computer n] hlt l56f] sfd
u/] klg uNlt ub{{}g . Computer sf] Programme 7Ls 5 / ;xL ;"rgf lbOPsf] 5 eg]
Computer Circuit n] nfvf}+sf] ;+Vofdf q'lt ljgf g} sfd ug{ ;Sb5 . of] klg Computer
sf] Pp6f dxTj k"0f{ljif]iftf xf] .
2. Processing:- h;/L xfdLn] ;+sng u/]sf ljleGg k|sf/sf hfgsf/Lx? sf] ljZn]if0faf6
hLjgsf af/]df ljleGg wf/0ff / tYox? Kf|fKt ub{5f}+ To;}ul/ Computer n] klg
o;nfO{ Input lbPsf] Data nfO{ Processing u/L ;"rgfsf] ?kdf Output ub{5 . Data Processing
sf] k|of]u Data df ePsf] Information nfO{ s|d ldnfpg ul/G5 . h'g Information k|fKt
ug{] ;d'xnfO{ w]/} pkof]uL x'G5 . Information eg]sf] Data df ePsf] vf; hfgsf/L
xf] . h;af6 ljif]z pb]Zo k|fKt x'G5 eg] ;xL s'/f yfxf kfpg ;lhnf] x'G5 .
Computer n] s'g} klg k|sf/sf] Data Processing ubf{ lgDg cg';f/ ub{5 .
Raushan Raj Singh 1

3. Input / Output Operation:- Computer n] Input Device af6 Data :jLsf/ ub{5 eg] Processed Data Out Put
device nfO{ lbG5 .
n] Alphabetic jf Numeric Character xf]; jf cGo s'g} ;
4. Text Manipulation and Calculation:- Computer Circuit
+s]t x?x'g\ . ;a}nfO{ Number sf] ?kdf Process ub{5 .
5. Logic/Comparison Operation :- Computer ;+u Logic Operation ug{] Ifdtf klg x'G5 . ha xfdLn]
t'ngf ug{' kg{] b'O{ Data Input lbG5f}+ To:tf] cj:yfdf Computer n] Logic Operation
ub{5 . Computer Logic tLg k|sf/sf] x'G5 . h:t}
A, B eGbf ;fgf] A<B
A / B a/fa/ 5g\ A=B
A, B eGbf 7"nf] 5 A>B
6. Storage and Retrival Operation :- Computer n] Data nfO{ Store ub{5 / cfjZos k/]sf] ;dodf
k'g lkmtf{ lbG5 .
7. Storage :- Computer ;+u w]/} 7"nf] ;+Vofdf Data Store ug{] Ifdtf x'G5 . Computer sf]
Storage Ifdtf KB, MB / GB df gflkG5 . Computer df Store u/]sf] Data t'?Gt} jf kl5 klg k|
fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . h;n] ubf{ Data ljZn]if0f u/L l56f] lg0f{o lng ;xof]u k'-
ofp+5 . Computer sf] of] sfd Banking Reservation Airline Traffic Control cflb sfddf w]/}
pkof]uL x'G5 .
8. Diligence:- Computer dflg;n] agfPsf] Machine xf] . of];+u bf]xf] -ofP/ sfd ug{]
Ifdtf x'g'sf] ;fy} lg/Gt/ sfd ul//xg ;S5 . Computer sf] of] Ifdtf Data Processing /
Quality Control sf] sfddf w]/} pkof]uL x'G5 .
9. Versatility :- Computer n] l56f] ultdf sfd ug{ ;S5 . ;fy} o;nfO{ h'g;'s} k|sf/sf]
Data Processing ug{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . Computer sf] oxL ljif]iftfn] ubf{ s'g} k|
sf/sf] Processing ul/ cfzf ul/Psf] Result k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}n] Computer sf] k|
of]u lbgfg'lbg a9\b} uO/x]sf] 5 .
dflg;sf] w]/}h;f] sfddf Computer n] ;xfossf] e'"ldsf v]Ng] ePsf]n] Computer
nfO{ dflg;;+u t'ngf u/]/ x]g{ yflnPsf] 5 . h'g ;do cg';f/ ;fGble{s klg 5 .
dflg; / Computer aLr t'ngf

Computer pb]Zo dflg;
Input Key Board, Mouse Data Input lng cfFvf sfg cflb
Output Monitor, Printer Result / output d'v xft
ug{
Storage Main Memory Data I/P u/]kl5 lbdfu (Brain)
cfjZos gkbf{ ;Dd / O/P x'g'
eGbf
cufl8 Data /fVg
ALU, Processor Data Processing ug{ / Processor Brain
nfO{ Control ug{
Processor
Control Unit H.D., F.D Permanent Storage ug{
Back up Paper , Book
Computer Hardware and Software
Computer cWoogsf b'O kIfx? 5g\ . tL x'g\

Hardware / Software
Raushan Raj Singh 2

Computer sf Mechanical Parts x? h:t} Main Machine, Keyboard, Monitor, Printer , Mouse cflb
Hardware cGtu{t kb{5g\ cyjf Computer sf tL efu h;nfO{ b]Vg, 5'g / cg'ej ug{
;lsG5 ltgLx?nfO{ Hardware elgG5 . To;}u/L Computer sf Hardware nfO{ sfd nufpg
cfjZos kg{] ;:rgfx?sf] ;d"xnfO{ Software elgG5 cyjf Computer sf Hardware nfO{ sfd
u/fpg k|of]u ul/g] Command x?sf] ;d[xnfO{ Software elgG5 Software pTkfbg,
dd{t;Def/ tyf Operate ug{] dflg;nfO{ Software Engineer / Hardware ;+u ;DalGwt
dflg;nfO{ Hardware Engineer elgG5 . Computer sf b'O{ kIfnfO{ dflg;;+u t'ngf
ug{ ;lsG5 . dflg;sf] zl// eg]sf] Hardware xf] eg] z/L/leq /x]sf] cfTdf Software xf]
h;n] z/L/sf] lgoGq0f ub{5 jf sfd ug{ lgb{{]zg lbG5 cyfjf z/L/sf] cl:tTj sfod
/fV5 . hj z/L/ cfTdfljxLg x'G5 To;sf] s'g} cy{ x'b}g To;}u/L Computer sf] klg
Software ljgf s'g} cl:tTj /xFb}g .
a. Hardware :- Computer sf ;a} Component x? Hardware cGtu{t kb{5g\ . h:t} CPU, Printer,
Keyboard, Monitor, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Chips, Diodes, Capacitors, Cables, Optical Disk , Modem cflb tyf ;a}
Peripherals x? Hardware x'g\ . ltgnfO{ b]Vg / 5'g ;lsG5 . Hardware, Software / Storage
g} ;+ul7t eO{ ljleGg Character Screen df Display ug{ Data Store ug{ Processing Result print
ug{] h:tf sfd ub{5 . Hardware To;df Programmer n] n]v]sf] Electric Pulse sf] ?kdf
/x]sf] Program sf] Instruction df e/ kb{5 h'g lglZrt sfd ug{ vf; Hardware Component
dfkm{t input lbO{Psf] x'G5 . Hardware xf]; jf Software h'g;'s} kIf xf];\ Ps csf{]
ljgf sfd ug{ ;Sb}g .
b. Software :- ;fdfGotof Software eGgfn] Computer Sytsem df k|of]u ul/Psf] w]/} Program
x?sf] ;d'x xf] . of] Computer ;+u ;DalGwt clt dxTjk"0f{ wf/0ff xf] . Computer
sf] Ifdtf / ;Lldttfjf/]df a'em\g rfxg] dflg;n] Software af/] a'em] k'U5 elgG5 .
Computer dfq Pp6f Mechine xf] h;n] Number sf] ?kdf Store ePsf] Information nfO{ dfq}
Processing ug{ ;Sb5 . Computer n] To;df Store ePsf] Data / Instruction x?df h] Command 5
To;} cg';f/ pQm Data nfO{ Process ug{ ;Sb5 . Instruction sf] s'g} klg jf x/]s
;d'xnfO{ Programme elgG5 . Computer Program x?sf] ;+ul7t ?k g} Software xf] . Software
ljleGg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . Software nfO{ lgDg cg';f/ ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .
Tailored Software / Packaged Software
s'g} ljz]if sfd ug{ Design ul/Psf] Software nfO{ Tailored Software
I. Tailored Software :-
elgG5 . h;/L Tailor n] Pp6f AolQmnfO{ gfk]/ agfPsf] sk8f c?nfO{ ldNb}g
To;}u/L o;af6 tf]lsPsf] eGbf cGo sfd ug{ ;lsb}g . Typing tutor Calculator, Certificate
Print ug{ agfOPsf] Software cfbL Tailored Software sf pbfx/0f x'g\ . x/]s sfdsf nflu
km/s km/s Software Design ug{ ;lsG5 . Tailored Software Design ug{ High Level Language x?
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) BASIC (Beginners all Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), FORTRAN (Formula
Translation) Pascal, Logo, C Language cflb k|of]u ul/G5 .
II. Packaged Software :-s'g} Application ;+u ;DjlGwt Program x? sf] ;d'x (Set) nfO{
Packaged Software elgG5 . h'g w]/} k|of]u stf{n] k|of]u ug{ ;Sb5g\ . Computer
pTkfbs jf Aofj;flos ljif]if1 x?sf] ;+Ë7g nfO{ "Software House" elgG5 . h;n] Software
pTkfbg jf Design ub{5g\ / w]/} u|fxsnfO{ j]Rg ;Sb5g\ .
Packaged Software sf kmfObfx? lgDg 5g\
 ;d:of ;dfwfg ug]{ pkef]Qmfsf] ;do / k};f art x'G5 .

 pkef]Qmfn] k/LIf0f ul/Psf]] / /fd|f] Software k|fKt ug{ ;Sb5 .
Raushan Raj Singh 3

 t'ngfTds ?kdf l56f] / ;lhn} k|fKt x'G5 .
Package
 ;lhn} k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
Package Software sf s]xL j]kmfObfx?

 k|fKt Software gldNbf] eO{ ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ ;d:of x'g ;S5 .
 ;Ë7gn] Package g} lsGbf ;]jf / sfddf lgoGq0f sd eO{ sd{rf/L nfO{ a9L
sfdsf] ;[hgf x'g ;S5 .
 s]lx Package sf] gofF Version k|fKt x'g] lalQs} lgoldt Upgrade ug{'kg{]
x'G5 .
w]/} k|of]udf cfpg] Package Software lgDg 5g\
Graphic Package b. Word Processing c. Data Processing d. MS word e. Excel etc
System Software :-
Operating System klg ;dfa]z ul/Psf] Program sf] Set nfO{ System Software elgG5 .
h'g ;a} ;|f]t / Computer Operation nfO{ Joj:yfkg ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . Operating System n]
Application Program cg';f/ Computer nfO{ Automatically sfd ug{ cg'dlt lbG5 . cGo s'g} Program
nfO{ Translet ug{] ;]jf pknAw u/fpg / k|of]u stf{n] rfx] cg';f/sf] Result Output
ug{ cfjZos kg{] Data Aoj:yfkg ug{ Supervision ub{5 . of] Memory Unit, Control Unit /
Arithmatic and Logic Unit ;+u ;+ul7t eP/ a:b5 . To;}u/L Operating System n] I/P , O/P tyf House
Keeping Operation nfO{ klg Control ub{5 . Operating System Hardware / Software sf] aLrdf /xG5 .
Operating System n] Computer nfO{ lbPsf] Instruction nfO{ Hardware sf] nflu / Hardware n]
lbPsf] Instruction User sf] nflu Intreprater sf] sfd ub{5 . jf:tjdf Operating System Hardware /
Software sf] dWo:y xf] . Operating System Programming Language sf] ;xof]un] pTkfbg ul/G5 .
Operating System sf] / Language Processor sf] af/]df tn j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 .
Operating System :-
Operating System klg Pp6f Programme xf] . o;n] Application jf Utility Software Run eO/x]sf]
j]nf kbf{ a;]/ sfd ub{5 . Operating System n] cfwf/e't sfdx? h:t} :- Application Program Disk
af6 k9\g] Key Board af6 cfpg] ;"rgf ;+sng ug{] h:tf sfd xf]l;of/k"j{s u/fpF5 .
Operating System Model / Brand df e/ kb{5 .
Operating System s]xL tn k|:t't 5g\ .
1. DOS OS/2 ATX Main Frame Computer

2. XINEX, UNIX, CP/M/SED Mini Computer
3. MS-DOS, PC-DOS finder Micro Computer
4. NOVOL/LAN, LAN tistic, Banyan Networking
5. Inrresent O/S :- Win95, WinNT, Linex etc.
Language Processor :-
Program n]Vg k|of]u ul/g] Code x?sf] Set Language xf] . oxfF Programming sf nflu
tLg txsf Language x'g cfjZos 5 . oL Language Software pTkfbg ;+u ;DalGwt 5g . tL
lgDg 5g\ .
1. Machine Language :-
of] Ps k|sf/sf] Computer Language xf] . Computer n] Binary Number jf Binary Digit dfq}
a'em\b5 . To;}n] Software ljz]if1 jf Hardware ;+u ;DalGwt AolQmn] dfq} Machine df
of] Language k|of]un] Program ug{ ;Sb5 . of] Language af6 Programe n]Vbf emsf{]
nfUg], w]/} ;do lng] / w]/} ;d:of cfpg] vfnsf] x'G5 . Machine Language df n]v]sf]
Raushan Raj Singh 4

Code jf l;w} Computer Memory df Load ug{ ;lsG5 . Computer n] Binary Format df dfq}
Statement
Data Store ug{] ePsf]n] High Level jf Low Level Language a'em\b}g h;n] ubf{ ltgLx?nfO{
Machine Language dfq} Translate u/]/ dfq Computer n] a'em\b5 .
2. Low Level Language :-

Low Level Language klg Machine;+u ;DalGwt Language xf] h'g Instruction Machine Language ;
+u d]n vfG5 . of] Language df Computer sf] Main Memory ;+u ;DalGwt sfd / Address x?
Memonic Code df n]lvG5 . Memonic Code :- ;Demg ;lhnf] x'g] u/L agfOPsf] Code nfO{
Memonic Code elgG5 . Low Level Language sf] ljsf; Machine Language af6 Program n]Vbf x'g]
;d:ofnfO{ x6fpg ul/Psf] xf] . of] Language nfO{ k|fo]u ug{' eGbf cufl8 Machine
Language df kl/at{g ug{' kb{5 . lsgeg] Computer n] Machine Language afx]s cGo s'g}
klg Symbolic Language a'em\b}g . Low Level Language sf] k|of]u Programmer nfO{ sfd ug{
;lhnf] xf];\ eGgfsf] nflu ul/G5 . o;sf] pbfx/0f Assembly Language xf] . Pp6f gofF
Joj:yf ul/Psf] Assembly Language sf] Version nfO{ "Pseudo Assembling Language" elgG5 . (Pseudo
cjf:tljs) of] Machine ;+u :jtGq 5 / lzIffsf nflu pkof]uL 5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu
CESIL(Computer Education in Schools Instruction Language ) lng ;lsG5 .
Low Level sf ;Ldfx?M

a. Program n]Vbf t'nfgfTds ?kdf al9 ;do nfUg] .
b. of] Machine ;+u ;DalGwt 5 . To;}n] To:tf Instruction Set x? Machine cg';f/ agfOG5 /
k|of]u ul/G5 . To;}n] oL Instruction Set h'g;'s} Machine df k|of]u ug{ cj/f]w
k'U5 .
df ePsf ;d:of x6fpg High Level Language sf] ljsf;

3. High Level Language:- Low Level Language
ul/Psf] xf] . To; afx]s ;lhn} Program agfpg tyf kl/jt{g ug{ ;lhn} Pp6f af6
csf{] Computer df ;fg{sf nflu klg High Level Language sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . High Level
Language ;d:of;dfwfgd'vL Machine ;+u} :jtGq tyf h'g;'s} Mechine ;+u klg ldNg]
vfnsf] x'G5 .
High Lecel Language sf ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .

 o;sf cfkm\g} ;+s]t, jfSo / Vocabulary x'G5 .
 Programme Language / Statement sf] ?kdf n]lvG5 / To;nfO{ k|of]u ug{' cufl8
Machine Language df kl/jt{g ul/G5 . o;nfO{ Compiler gfd u/]sf] Pp6f ljz]if Program
n] cfkm} Translate ub{5 .
 o;df cfjZos Library x? pktflnsfsf] ?kdf ;dfj]z x'G5g\ .
 of] ;d:of;dfwfgd'vL 5 . Programmer n] yf]/} nDAofP/ Machine ;+u :jtGq /x]/
sfd ug{ ;S5 .
 Program n]Vg Ps Set lgod x'G5 To;nfO{ Syntax elgG5 .
 High Level Language sf] Instruction nfO{ ;w} Statement elgG5 .
o;sf pbfx/0fx?:- MS Access, C, C++, Visual Basic, Basic Logo, Pascal, Query Language cflb x'g\ .
Compiler :- o;n] High Level Language af6 Machine Code df Translation ub{5 . o;sf ljz]iftfx?
lgDg 5g\ .
 cGo s'g} Language af6 Machine Language df Translate ub{5 .
 ;Dks{sf nflu cfjZos pk tflnsfx? Klg o;d} ;dfj]z x'G5 .
Raushan Raj Singh 5

 Translation ubf{ uNtL kQf nfu] Tabulate u/L Display ul/lbg] .
Assembler :- Low Level Language af6 Machine Language df Translate ub{5 . Compiler / Assembler b'a}
Computer sf] main Memory df Store x'G5g\ Machine Instruction agfpF5 . ha Assembly Processing ;lsG5
ta ;a} Processing sf] ;'rgf Ps} k6s ;ls|o x'G5 .
Assembler sf ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .

 Menmonic Code af6 Machine Code / Symbolic Address af6 Machine Address agfpb5 .
 cfjZos kg{] Sub Routine x? ;a} o;d} ;dfj]z x'G5 .
 Storage Area tf]lsPsf] x'g'kb{5 .
 Source language df ePsf] uNtL kQf nufP/ b]vfOlbg' .
 Secondary Storage Media af6 Object Program pTkfbg ug{' .
 Source Code sf] Printed List / Object Code sf] l6Kk0fL pTkfbg ug{' .
Interpreter :- Interpreter a]Un} vfnsf] Translator xf] h;n] s'g} Program Language nfO{ Machine
Code df abNg] geO{ CPU sf] cfb]z cg';f/ Program Statement ;Lw} pknAw
u/fpF5 / k'g Translate ub{5 . cyjf Instruction Loop df Retranslation ub{5 .
Utility Software
Utility Software nfO{ Service Program klg elgG5 . o;n] pkef]Qmf (User)
Program
nfO{ lalzi6 ;]jfx? pknaw u/fpFb5 h:t} :- s'g} sfd ug{ ;lhnf] kfg{', Data
Transfer ug{' Disk Management ug{, Virus Scan tyf Remove ug{' cflb .
C. Utility Software nfO{ lgDg sfddf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5

 File Copy ug{ .
 Record lglZrt s|ddf ldnfpg .
 System Utilities x? :- xfn s'g File n] Memory Peripherals jf User n] s] ul//x]sf]5 ;"rgf
pknAw u/fpg' .
 Data sf] Location kl/at{g u/L Edit ug{ .
 File Maintenance Utility :- o;n] File x?nfO{ s|da4 kfg{ k"g s|d ldnfpg jf sfd
cg';f/ 5'§fpg] sfd ub{5 .
 Program df ePsf] q'l6 5'§fpg .
 Dump Utility : - Main Storage df ePsf] ljifo ;"lr Display df Copy ug{ cflb
Programming
High Level Language Low Level Language(Assembling Language )
Programme Program
Source Program Objective Program
Complier Machine Language
Assembler
Computer System :-
eGg] zAb ljleGg cy{df k|of]u x'g ;S5 . Computer sf] ;Gbe{df System
System
eg]sf] vf; pb]Zo k|fKt ug{sf nflu k|of]u ul/Psf] ljleGg Parts x?sf] ;+u7g
xf] . Computer eg]sf] Pp6f PsLs[t Parts x?sf] ;d"x xf] . h'g ;femf pb]Zo k|fKt
Raushan Raj Singh 6

ug{sf nflu rn]sf] x'G5 . To;nfO{ Program elgG5 . Computer System eg]sf] To:tf] k|
s[of xf] h'g vf; pb]Zo k|flKtsf nflu cfkm} ;ls|o / of]Uo x'G5 .
;fwf/0ftof Computer System tLg cfwf/e"t efux? ldn]/ ag]sf] x'G5 . tL

x'g\ .
 Input device :- o;n] Computer nfO{ Data lbG5 .
 Central Precessing Unit :- o;n] ;a} k|sf/sf arithmetic tyf Logic sfo{x? ub{5 .
 Output Unit :- o;n] Processing eO;s]sf] Data nfO{ Result sf] ?kdf Display ub{5
oxfF Input Device, Central unit / Output Device ;a}sf] ;d"xnfO{ Computer System elgG5 .
Computer sf] Pp6f efun] csf{] efu ;+u Cable dfkm{t Communicate ub{5 .
Computer sf] cfwf/e"t l;4fGtM

w]/} k|sf/sf Input Device x'g ;Sb5g\ t/ Key Board, Mouse , Hard Disk, Flopy Disk cflb
d'Vo Input Device x'g' . Computer sf] Main Memory n] Instruction Data nfO{ a'em\5 hxfFaf6
Computer n] Processing ug{] Data k|fKt ub{5 eg] Display n] Display ug{] Result k|fKt ub{5 .
To;}u/L Printer n] Print ug{] Result k|fKt ub{5 .
Monitor (Visual Display Unit ):-
x/]s Computer df Display Device sf] ?kdf Monitor x'G5 g} . o;n] Computer sf] Hardware /
Software sf] Interpretation nfO{ Display u/fO lbG5 . Monitor CRT Type sf] x'G5 . Monitor df ;'rgf
Binary Digit df hfG5 h;nfO{ xfdL Alphanumeric ?kdf b]Vg ;Sb5f}+ . x/]s Screen df Electric
Current n] 6Nsg ;Sg] kbfy{ /flvPsf] x'G5 . h;nfO{ Pixel elgG5 . Pixel w]/} espy]
Screen df Resulation (Minimum Area Maximum Focusing) /fd|f] x'G5 / Character jf Graphic /fd|f] ;+u
b]lvG5 .
Monitor sf k|sf/x? lgDg 5g\ .

 MDA – Monochrome Display Adaptor
 CGA – Coloured Graphic Adaptor (Red, Green and Blue )
 MCGA – Multi Colour graphic Adaptor
 EGA – Enhanced graphics Adaptor
 VGA – Video Graphic Array
 SVGA – Super Video Graphic Array
Central Processing Unit :- CPU nfO{ Computer sf] d'6' elgG5 . o;df lgDg efux?
x'G5g\
 Primary Storage
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Control Unit
leq x'G5 . of] ;+u Clock Generator , ROM, BIOS, Floppy disk, Drive, Hard
CPU Main Machine Box
Disk Controler Cards, Expansion Slots
cflb hf]l8Psf x'G5g\ . CPU / cGo efux? sf] ;DaGw
(Compuer System) tn b]vfOPsf] 5 .
Primary Storage :- o;nfO{ Main Memory klg elgG5 .
o;nfO{ lgDg pb]Zosf nflu k|of]u ul/G5

 Input Device af6 Data cfO;s]kl5 Processing x'gcl3 Data /fVg
Raushan Raj Singh 7

 sfd ug{] vfln 7fpFsf] nflu Processing ul//xG5 / cfGtl/s result nfO{ Hold ug{ .
 Process e};s] kl5 t/ Output x'g' cufl8 Data Hold ug{ .
 Processing u/]sf] Result nfO{ Storage Area df Hold ul//fVg .
Arithmetic and Logic Unit :-

of] CPU ;+u} agfOPsf] x'G5 . ;a} lsl;dsf sfd tyf lg0f{ox? o;} Unit n]
ub{5 . I/P Device af6 cfpg] Data nfO{ Memory n] Hold ul//fVb5 / cfjZos k/]sf] a]nfdf
ALU df hfG5 . Primary Storage df s'g} klg lsl;dsf] Processing x'Fb}g . s'g} cfGtl/s
kl/0ffd lg:Sof] eg] Tof] Memory df g]} uP/ a:b5 / k'g cfjZos kbf{ kml]/ ALU df
g} hfG5 . Processing eP/ ;lsg'eGbf cufl8 Data k6s k6s Memory / ALU df cf]xf]/-bf]xf]/
ul//xG5 . ha Processing ;lsG5 ta dfq} Output Device df Display x'G5 . ALU n] ;a} k|sf/sf
Processing ubf{ Binary System cg';f/ And, Or / Not Logic cg';f/ Boolen Algebra df cfwfl/t eP/
ub{5 .
Control Unit :-
Control Unitn] CPU leqsf] sfdnfO{ ?kfGt/ ug{] Order ldnfpg] tyf lgb{]zg
lbg] sfd ub{5 . t/ Control Unit n] Data Processing ub{}g . o;n] s]GbL|o lgoGqssf] ?
kdf Data Processing ug{] Component x?sf] sfdnfO{ lgoGq0f ub{5 . ;a} eGbf klxnf
Program Storage Area af6 Program Instruction 5fg]/ Control Section df k7fp+5 . ToxfF To;nfO{
Interprete ul/G5 / cGo cfjZos sfdsf] nflu ;DalGwt 7fpFdf k7fOG5 . o;/L Processing
g;lsP;Dd cfjZostf cg';f/ Instruction nfO{ ljleGg 7fFpdf ;lqmo agfP/ k7fOG5 .
Memory :-
of] Computer sf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ efu xf] . o;nfO{ Computer df Data Store ug{ k|
of]u ul/G5 . o;n] Input lbO{Psf] Data CPU df hfg'eGbf cufl8 CPU af6 lg:s]sf] s'g}
cfGtl/s glthf jf CPU af6 Processing eO{;s]kl5 Output x'g'eGbf cufl8 sf] cj:yfdf Data
Store ub{5 . Computer df k|of]u ul/g] Memory klxn] Vaccume tube To;kl5 Transistor / xfn Chips
sf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/G5 . Memory vf; u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf] x'G5 .
a. Primary Storage :- 1. ROM / df System Software jf Computer n] Operate ug{ cfjZos kg{]
2. RAM/ ROM
System Diagnostic tyf ul/G5 . h'g c:yfoL x'G5 .
RAM Data Store
b. Secondary Storage :- Computer df k|of]u x'g] Data nfO{ :yfoL ?kdf Store ug{ Secondary Storage
Device sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . o;df Hard Disk, Floppy Disk tyf Tape drive kb{5g\ .
Key Board :-
of] Pp6f I/P Device xf] . h'g;'s} k|sf/sf] Computer sf] klg Key Board k|d'v Input
Device xf] . em§ x]bf{ Key Board Type Writer sf] b]lvP klg Computer Key Board sf] k|ljlw /
sfo{ k|0ffnL eg] km/s 5 . ha Key Board df s'g} Key lylrG5 To;nfO{ Key Board sf]
Matrix n] Scan ub{5 . Matrix n] AscII (American Standard Code for information Interchange ) jf EBCDIC(Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code )
cg';f/ Scan ub{5 h; cg';f/ Ps k6sdf 1 b]lv 8 bit ;Dd (1Byte) Information CPU df
hfG5 . / Key Board nfO{ Pp6f Cable dfkm{t\ hf]l8Psf] x'G5 o:tf] qmdnfO{
CPU
Scan Code elgG5 . Scean Code n] h'g;'s} Key lyr] klg cnu cnu klxrfg ub{5 . s'g Key
lyr]sf]jf 5f]8]sf] To;} cg';f/ Matrix n] km/s kms Scan Code Generate ub{5 . Key sf] ;
+Vof / Key df n]v]sf] ;+s]t afx]s ;a} Key Board x? p:t} x'G5g\ .
Raushan Raj Singh 8

u/L tLg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . Key Board df
Key Board 1. XT (83Key) 2. AT (101 Key) 3. Enhanced (103 Keys)
ljleGg k|sf/sf Character klg Generate ug{ jf Key Board sf] Language Change ug{ klg
;lsG5 . Key Board df k|of]u ul/Psf Key x? lgDg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ .
1. Main Key 2. Numeric Key 3. Function Key and Operating Key
Printer :-
Printer Pp6f hl6n Computer Output Device xf] . Computer sf] sfd Data Processing u/L Result
Output lbg' xf] . Monitor Computer Soft Out Put Device xf] lsgeg] Power Off ug{] lAlQs} Monitor df
s]xl klg Display xF'b}g t/ Print u/]sf] Result ;w} Display x'g ;S5 . Printer x? klg ljleGg k|
sf/sf kfO{G5g\ . Printer nfO{ Non Impect / Impact eg]/ b'O{ efudf afF8\g ;lsG5 . Non
Impact eGgfn] d;L 5g{] / Impact eGgfn] Ribbon df xfNg] eGg] a'lemG5 . Dot Matrix
Printer Impact Printer xf] . o;n] Print ubf{ Head n] Ribbon dflyaf6 Paper df Print ub{5 . Dot Matrix
sf] Pin sf] ;+Vofcg';f/ Quality df e/ kb{5 . o;sf] Speed cGo Printer sf] eGbf sd x'G5 .
To;}ul/ Laser Printer n] Data af6 Laser / Laser af6 Toner Develop u/L Paper df Print ub{5 . Laser
sf] Print ug{] Ifdtf klg a9L x'G5 . h;n] 132 Character Width Wise 64000 Paragraphs/Minute Print
ub{5 . To;}u/L Inkjet n] Paper df d;L Spray u/]/ Print ub{5 . o;sf] Speed Dot sf] eGbf
a9L / Laser eGbf sd x'G5 .
Generations of computer :-
;g\ 1962 df ePsf] a}1flgsx?sf] ;Dd]ngn] Computer sf] ljsf;nfO{ ljleGg
Generation df ljefhg ug{] lg0f{o u/]sf] lyof] To;} cg';f/ Computer nfO{ ljleGg
Generation df ljefhg u/sf] lyof] . h;sf] cfwf/ Memory lyof] . x/]s Generation sf Computer df
k|of]u ul/g] Memory Device km/s lyof] .
Generation Duration Memory Device

Frist 1943-1958 Vaccume Tube
Second 1958-1965 Transistor
Third 1965-1973 LSI Chips
Forth 1973 ………… VLSI Chips
Fifth Incomplete Biochips
1979 lt/ Pp6f Marciam Ted Hoff gfd u/sf Intel sf Engineer n] Microprocessor Chip sf] af/]df
cfkm\gf] ljrf/ Japanese Calculator Company sf] k|ltlglwsf] ?kdf k|:t't u/]sf lyP . klxnf]
Microprocessor Intel yf]/} Instruction ;lxt ;lqmo ePsf] lyof] . h;n] Pp6f ;dodf yf]/} dfq}
Data Processing ug{ ;SbYof] . Intel n] 1971 df 8008 / 1974 df 8070 Micro processor sf] pTkfbg
u/]sf] lyof] .
1976 df Hewlett Packard sf Technican Steve wozniak n] MOS Technology sf] Processor lsg]/ NofO{
To;s} cfwf/df Pp6f Computer tof/ kf/]sf lyP . Tof] lyof] Apple I h'g Homebrew Computer Club
Silicon valley df k|bz{g ul/Psf] lyof] . kl5 Wozniak sf ;fyL Steve Jobs sf] ;Nnfx cg';f/ Apple
nfO{ Computer pBf]usf] ?kdf :yflkt ul/of] / 1984 df sd d"Nodf p:t} Hardware / Software
sf ;fy} b]vf k-of] af:tjdf Apple dfq} lyPg 1984 lt/ ljleGg Software Supplier x? ldn]/ lgs}
nf]slk|o Personal Computer sf] Design u/] .
First Generation of computer :-
of] Generation sf] Computer Vacumme Tube sf] k|of]u u/]/ agfOPsf] lyof] . 1937 df
Howard n] Aiken Marki gfd u/]sf] Computer Vacumme Tube k|of]u u/]/ agfPsf lyP Mark-I 51 ft nfdf]
3ft rf}8f 8 ft cUnf] / 32 Tone lyof] . To;df 18000 Vacumme Tube / 7 nfv 50,000 Parts x? k|of]u
Raushan Raj Singh 9

ul/Psf] lyof] ljleGg Component hf]8\g em08} 500 miles nfdf] tf/ sf6]/ k|of]u
ul/Psf]] lyof] . pQm Mainframe Computer n] u'0fg ug{ 4.5 Second / hf]8sf] lx;fa ug{ 1 sec
lnGYof] . Tolt a]nf EDVAC, UNIVAC-I, Mark-IENIC, Z-3, Z-4 cflb Mainframe Computer x? agfOPsf lyP
. t'ngfTds ?kdf EINAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calcultor ) k|efasf/L lyof] . o;nfO{ John
Mauchly and J Prespert Eckert Jr n] 1946 df lgdf{0f u/]sf lyP . of] Computer n] cGo Computer n] 30
lbgdf ug{] sfd Ps} lbgdf ug{ ;Syof] . o;nfO{ American Office x?df 1947 b]lv 1955
;Dd k|of]u ul/Psf]] lyof] .
Second Generation of Computer :-
1949 df Transistor sf] cfljisf/ ePsf] lyof] . Transistor n] Vaccume Tube n] eGbf a9L
Data Store ug{ ;SbYof] . Pp6f Transistor n] 1000 a6f Tube sf] ;§fdf sfd ug{ ;SYof] .
To;}n] Second Generation sf] Computer Transistor sf] k|of]u u/]/ agfOPsf lyof] . To;}n] of]
Generation sf] Computer ;fgf] l56f] / k|efjsf/L lyof] . IBM n] 1950 df klxnf] k6s (IBM650)
Computer ;fwf/0f pb]Zosf nflu pTkfbg u/sf] lyof] To;}ul/ remington Rand n] UNIVAC-I
lgdf{0f u-of] h;sf] pb]Zo lyof] , Business Data Processing To;} ;dodf B5000, 200Series, CD1604,
160A, GE635, 645, 200, 400 Series, 800 Series 7070, 7080, 7090, 1400 Serial 1600 50/ UNIVAC – II, cflb Computer x?
lgdf0f{ ePsf lyP .
Third Generation of Computer :-
;g\ 1950 b]lv 1963 aLrsf] ;dodf Silicon Chips sf] lgdf{0fn] k"0f{tf kfO;s]sf]
lyof] . IBM Compration n] Memory sf] ?kdf IC k|of]u u/]/ Computer ahf/df NofO;s]sf]
lyof] . To;sf] pbfx/0f 360 lyof] 1964 df Computer df Visual Display Unit High Speed Printer / Storage
sf] ?kdf Magnetic Tape k|of]udf cfO ;s]sf lyP . ;a} Computer Company n] 1965 kl5 IC k|of]u
ul/;s]sf lyP . Multiprocessing / Multiprogramming h:tf ;'ljwf klg o;} Generation df g} pknAw
ePsf lyP . jf:tjdf Computer sf] ahf/ o;} Generation df lj:tf/ ePsf] lyof] . 5700, 67000, 7700,
3000 Series 6000 Series , DPDS , DPP-11 Series GE 600 series GE23, 200 Series, 600 Series, Syrmz 360 Series , System 370
Series Spercira 70 Series , 1108, 9000 Series Century Series cflb h:tf Computer x? o;} k':tfdf pTkfbg
ePsf Computer lyP .
Fourth Generation of Computer :-
1971 df klxnf] k6s Microprocessor sf] ?kdf Intel 4004 Chips Intel Corporation n] ljsf; u/]sf]
lyof] . IC sf] ljsf;sf] kl/0ffd g} Micro Computer sf] ljsf;sf] sf/s lyof] . 1973 ;Dd w]/}
American Company x?n] Micro Computer sf] pTkfbg ul/;s]sf lyP . II System , ASI, ALR, Macintosh, IBMPC
Agtec, Wang Laser, Letron, Sean and Imex h:tf IBM / IBM Compitables Microcomputer x? ahf/df cfO;s]sf
lyP . Cicrocomputer Data Processing df w]/} k|efjsf/L ;fgf], 5f]6f], pko'Qm / kl/s[t
lyof] . o;n] 7'nf] kl/df0fsf] Data nfO{ ;fgf] 7fpFdf /fVg ;Sb5 . Microcomputer Note Book
Size df klg pknAw x'G5 . o;n] Mini jf Mainframe ;+u klg Modem dfkm{t\ Communication
ug{ ;Sb5 . Fourth dfkm{t Communication ug{ ;Sb5 . Fourth Generation sf ;a} Computer df
Microprocessor k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 h;sf] Number cg';f/ Speed / Ifdtf af/] hfgsf/L lng
;lsG5 . o;df VLSI k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 h;df rf/nfv Component x? ;dfj]z x'G5g\ . Fourth
Generation sf Microprocessor x? lgDg 5g\ .
8088XT, 8086NT, AT80286SX, 80286DX, 80386DX, 80386Dx, 80486, Pentium , Pentium 2 Pentium 3
Fifth generation of Computer :-

sf] of] Generation eljiodf ljsf; x'g] ljZjf; ul/Psf] 5 h;df Galium Arsenide k|
Computer
of]u u/]/ agfOPsf] Processor / Memory sf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'g]5 . o:tf] Computer n] k|
fs[lts efiff a'em\g] ;f]Rg] zlQm x'g]5 . h;nfO{ Artificial Intelligence elgG5 . tL Computer
x? xfnsf eGbf lgs} hl6n x'g] cg'dfg ul/Psf] 5 .
Raushan Raj Singh 10

Classification of Computer
On the Basis of Work :- sfdsf] cfwf/df Computer nfO{ tLg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5M
a. Analog Computer b. Digital Computer / c. Hybrid Computer
 Analog Computer:-
Analog Computer sf] k|of]u ef}lt sdfgx?sf] gfk lng h:t} Temperature , Pressure , Scale,
Distance cflb gfKg ul/G5 . Analog Device n] Fuel sf] k|jfxsf] cfwf/df kl/df0f / To;sf]
d'Nosf] gfk hfFr ub5{ . Car sf] Speedometre, Sismograph, Pulse type Telephone sf] dx;'n
lgwf{/0f ug{] d]l;g cflb Analog Computer sf] pbfx/0f xf] . To;}u/L Kidney sf] Stone sf]
Size kQf nufpg] d]lzg dgf]/f]u pkrf/ ljlwdf k|of]u ul/g] photography Machine klg Analog
Computer x'g\ .
 Digital Computer:-
?kdf k|fKt u/]sf] Signal Processing u/L Result lgsfNg] Computer nfO{ Digital
Digital
Computer elgG5 . o;n] Digital Signal sf] ?kdf k|fKt Data nfO{ l56f] / z'4 ?kn] Processing
ug{ ;D5 . h;n] ubf{ Digital Computer sf] k|of]udf Aofkstf cfPsf] 5 . o;nfO{ ljleGg
k\sf/sf Report tof ug{ Data x? ljZn]if0f ug{ jf Graphic Presentation ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
 Hybrid Computer:-
Analog / Digital b'j} Computer sf] ;du| ?k g} Hybirid Computer xf] . o;n] Analog af6 Digial /
Digitalaf6 Analog df Data Transfer ug{ ;Sb5 . o;sf] k|of]u Jet Plane, Hospital 7""nf 7"nf
pWf]ux? cflb 7fpFdf k|of]u ul/G5 h;n] Analog jf Digital h'g;'s} k|sf/sf] klg Data
Processing u/L Result lbg ;S5 .
On the Basis of Size:-

a. Mainframe Computer b. Minicomputer c. Micro Computer
Size sf] cfwf/df Computer nfO{ dflysf]cltl/Qm Super / Ultra Computer sf] ?kdf klg
auL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ Super / Ultra Computer ljlzii6 k|ljlw / vf; k|of]hgsf nflu dfq}
agfOg] x'Fbf To;df ;a}sf] kx'Fr gx'g ;S5 .
 Main Frame Computer:-

of] klg Pp6f System xf] . o;n] l56f] Processing ug{ / w]/} Store ug{ ;S5 . of]
w]/} 7"nf] Size df x'G5 . Pp6f Mainframe Computer Installation ug{ em08} 100 Sq ft 7fp
cfjZos kb{5 ;fy} w]/} dxFuf] / w]/} ;do;Dd l6Sg g;Sg] vfnsf] x'G5 . o;df
CPU, 4 b]lv 8 Tape Unit, 4 b]lv 6 j6f Hard disk Unit, Ups , Line Printer , Modem , Main Display Unit 100/200 j6f
Work Stion x'G5 . To;}n] o;df Ps} k6sdf w]/} hgfn] Data Entry ug{ ;Sb5g\ . of]
7"nf] kl/df0fdf Data Precessing ug{'kg{] 7fpdf k|of]u ul/G5 . h:t} lgjf{rg cfof]u,
k/LIff lgoGq0f sfof{no, tYofÍ ljefu, cflb 7fpFdf Mainframe computer sf] k|of]u ul/G5
.
 Minicomputer :-
of] Computer dWod Size sf] Computer xf] . o;n] Ps k6sdf 50 j6f ;Dd Terminal ;+u
Communicate ug{ ;Sb5 . o;nfO{ Desk top Publishing, data Processing , programming ug{ jf Local area
Networking cflb sfddf k|of]u ul/G5 . of] Microcomputer eGbf Powerful / vlr{nf] 5 . t/ xfn t
Microcomputer klg lgs} Powerful cfO;s]sf] 5 . Minicomputer Nepal df klg ljleGg sfof{nox?df
k|of]u ul/Psf] lyof] .

 Micro Computer:-
df cfwfl/t 5 . Micro Computer Personal Computer sf] ?kdf 3/df jf
Micro Computer Micro Chips
Office df k|of]u ul/G5 . xfn Microcomputer klg a9L Power tyf Ifdtfdf / ljleGg Model /
d"Nodf pknAw 5 Microcomputer df Data Processing, Programming, Net working h:tf ;a}h;f] sfdx?
ug{ ;lsG5 . Micro Computer Note book Size df klg pknAw 5 . o;n] ubf{ Computer sf] k|
of]udf cem} Jofkstf cfPsf] 5 .
On the Basis of Brands :-
xfn ahf/df w]/} k|sf/sf Computer pknAw 5g\ . w]/} Company x?n] Computer
pTkfbg ub{5g\ . ltgLx?sf cfkm\g} Brand 5g\ . t/ klg Brand sf] cfwf/df k|fljlws
kIfnfO{ ;d]t Wofg lbP/ juL{s/0f ubf{ Microcomputer nfO{ tLg efudf juL{s/0f
ug{ ;lsG5 .
a. IBMPC b. IBM PC (Compatible) c. Apple/Macintosh
 IBM PC :-
Pp6f cd]/LsL Company xf] h'g 1924 df America df :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . o;n] 1945
df agfpg yfNof] . of] Company n] agfPsf] Computer nfO{ IBM elgG5 /
Mainframe Computer
Micro Computer nfO{ PC elgG5 . IBM Company n] pTkfbg u/]sf] Computer alnof], /fd|f] High
Speed / pko'Qm x'g] ljZjf; ul/Psf] 5 . IBM n] Computer sf] Design df dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf
v]n]sf] 5 .
 IBM Compatible :-
IBMsf] l;4fGtdf agfOPsf] Computer nfO{ IBM Compitible elgG5 . IBM Compatible
nfO{ IBMsf] Duplicate klg elgG5 . IBM Compatible n] IBM n] ug{] ;a} sfd ug{ ;Sb5 .
IBM Company n] Software klg pTkfbg ub{5 . IBM Computer Run ug{] ;a} Software n] IBM
Compatible klg Run x'G5 . IBM Compatible Computer ljZjdf 80% n] k|fof]u ub{5g\ . s]xL IBM
Compatible Computer x? lgDg 5g\ ASL, SCAN, ALR (Adranace Logic Research) NOC (Nippon Electronic Company),
Spectrum, Agtec, Sherry, IT200, Litronsystem, Company Syntax, Wang Laser etc
 Apple/Macintosh:-
lt/ cd]l/sfdf :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . o;n] IBM sf] Architecture / System
Apple Company 1970
Configuration eGbf a]Un} k|sf/sf] Computer agfpg] lg0f{o u¥of] . h;sf] Software klg IBM
Compatible ;+u ldnb}g . o;sf] Software /fd|f] / rnfpg ;lhnf] 5 . xfn o;sf] Brand Macintosh
xf] . of] g]kfndf vf; ul/ Word Processing sf nflu a9L k|of]u ul/Psf]] kfOG5 .
On the Basis of Model :-
vf; u/L IBM Computer nfO{ Model sf] cfwf/df tLg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 a. XT,
b. AT / c. PS/2
 XT (Extra Technology) Computer:-

sf] jf:tljs Speed 4.77 MHz xf] . of] Computer
XT Computer Processor sf] gfdsf] cfwf/df
8086 xf] . kl5 o;df s]xL ;'wf/ u/]/ 8088 agfOof] 8086 jf 8088 Computer nfO{ XT Computer
eg]/ lrlgG5 .
 AT (Advance Technology) Computer :-
eGbf l56f] x'G5 . w]/} sfd ug{ ;S5 / dxFuf] klg kb{5 .
AT Computer XT
80286 SX kl5 sf ;a} Processor k|of]u ul/Psf Computer x? AT Computer x'g\ . AT Computer df
Processor sf] cltl/Qm Coprocessor klg k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 h'g Processor cg';f/ x'G5 .
h:t} :- 286-287,386-387

 PS/2 Computer :-
1990 kl5 n] csf{]
IBM Model sf] ljsf; u-of] h;nfO{ PS/2 (Personal System/2) Computer
elgG5 . PS/2 Computer IBM jf IBM Compatible eGbf w]/} l56f] x'G5 . IBM n] agfPsf Laptop
Computer PS/2 Base df 5g\ .
Micro Processor
Introduction :-
sf] d'6' xf] cyjf Micro Processor Computer sf] ;a}eGbf
Micro Processor Computer
dxTjk"0f{ efu xf] . of] Semiconductor Device xf] . xfn k|rngdf /x]sf Microprocessor VLSI(Very
Large Scale Integration) ?kdf agfOPsf] x'G5 . Micro Processor sf] Block Diagram tn lbOPsf] 5 .
Register Array :-
of] Temporary Memory xf] . of] Micro processor sf] Pp6f efu xf] . h;df w]/} j6f Register
sf] ;d'x x'G5 . o;sf] k|of]u Program agfpg] ;dodf Data nfO{ c:yfoL?kdf Store
ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf] k"g: k|of]u Input lbPsf] Instruction jf Data sf] cg';f/ ul/G5 .
ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit ) :-
of] Processor sf] csf{] k|d'v efu xf] . h;n] ;a} k|sf/sf Arithmetic tyf Logic Operation
ub{5 . o;n] Logic Operation ubf{ AND, OR, EX-OR h:tf Logic k|of]u ub{5 . ALU sf] Internal
Block Diagram tn lbOPsf] 5 .
Adder :- b'O{j6f Number nfO{ hf]8]/ Result lgsfNb5 .

Accomulator :- o;n] ALU n] klxn] u/sf] Result nfO{ Temporary Store ub{5 . of] Register
xf] .
General Purpose Register (GPR) :- of] klg Register xf] o;n] ljleGg k|sf/sf Information nfO{
ub{5 . aflx/af6 lbOPsf] Information Main Memory df Store x'G5 / CPU n] k|fKt ug{
store
;do nfUg ;S5 . t/ o;df eP CPU n] t'?Gt} k|fKt ug{ ;Sb5 .
Control Unit :-
of] klg sf] csf{] dxTjk"0f{ efu xf] . o;n] Master Clock Generate u/L
Processor
ljleGg Sub System x?nfO{ Control ug{ Control Signal k7fpF5 . ;fy} Input Device af6 cfPsf]
Information nfO{ Decode u/L To;}cg';f/ Address Signal , Read tyf Write Signal tyf I/O Control Signal
ljt/0f ub{5 . of] Section df Data Processing eg] x'Fb}g . 5f]6s/Ldf eGbf of] ;Dk"0f{
Computer System sf] s]GbL|o lgoGqs xf] . Control Unit sf] Block Diagram tn lbOPsf] 5 .
Control Unit sf Parts

 Instruction Register (IR)
 Program Counter or, Instruction Address Counter (IAC)
 Clock Generator
 Pulse Sequencer
 Opcode decoder 6. Pulse Distributor
 Program Status word (PSW) Register
Microprogrammed Control Unit df Operation Code Decoder / Pulse Distributor ;Lw} hf]l8b}g o;df
lgDg yk Unit x? klg x'G5g\
 Control Memory Unit
Control Memory Address Register
 Micro Instruction Register Instruction Address Counter (IAC )df Memory
csf{] Instruction Fetch ug{]
Memory Address x'G5 . ha Pp6f Instruction Fetch ul/G5 IAC a9\5 . To;}n] Tof] Point
csf{]] Instruction sf nflu Address x'G5 . Memory af6 Instruction Fetch ug{' eg]sf]

df Transfer ug{' xf] . hj Jump jf Branch Instruction ;lqmo x'G5 . IAC df
Instruction Register
Jump Address ;lxt Load x'G5 . x/]s Instruction df Pp6f Opcode x'G5 ;fy} tnsf dWo]
Ps jf Tof] eGbf j9L klg ;dfj]z x'g ;S5 .
1. Operand 2. Aperand Address 3. Register Address 4. Constant .
Hardware Control unit df , Opcode ljZn]if0f Decoder n] ub{5 . Opcode n] x/]s

Opcode
Instruction nfO{ Ps Line df Output ub{5 . Output Line Insstraction Decode ePkl5 dfq} Active x'G5 .
Clock Generator n] lglZrt qmd cg';f/ lg/Gt/ Clock Pulse pTkfbg ul//xG5 . Pulse Sequencer n]
Clock Signal nfO[ k|of]u u/]/ timing State Generate ub{5 . Pp6f Instruction rf/ jf kfFr Step df
ljeflht eP/ ;lqmo x'G5 . k|To]s timing State ljleGg r/0fsf Instruction Cycle ;+u ;DjlGwt
x'G5 .
Clock Distributor Center df /xG5 . o;df Computer sf] x/]s micro Operation ;lqmo
kfg{ Pp6f Line x'G5 . Pulse Distributor sf] x/]s Output Line Control Point df l;w} hf]l8Psf]
x'G5 . Pulse Distributor df Macro Operation Pulse Output ug{ Pp6f generator Circuit k|of]u ul/Psf]
x'G5 . o;df b'O{j6f Signal I/P x'G5g\ .
1. Timing Pulse
2. Optput Line Opcode Decoder af6 lbOPsf] Operation Code sf nflu Pulse Distributor n] Instruction sf nflu
;a} cfjZos micro Operation PulsePs Ps u/L qmd;+u / Micro Operation aLr b'/L /fv]/ Generate
ub{5 .
Program Status Wrd (PSW) Register df CPU sf] l:ylt j0f{g ug{ w]/} k|sf/sf Status bit
x'G5g\ . To;nfO{ Flags elgG5 . b'O{ k|sf/sf Fag lgDg 5g\ .
Interrupt Enable (IE) :- ha Bit '1' 5 CPU n] Interrupt Request eg]/ lrGb5 . ha of] '0' Bit x'G5
CPU n] Interrupt of Request nfO{ a]jf:tf u/]/ Pending ul/lbG5 . NMI (Non markable Interrupt ) o;sf]
ckjfb xf] .
Over Flow :-
hj bit '1' x'G5 . o;n] To; eGbf cufl8sf] Arithmetic Operation Over flow ePsf] l:ylt
b]vfp+5 . ALU sf] nDjfO{ eGbf Arithmetic Operation nfdf] ePdf Over Flow x'G5 .
Bus Organization
System Bus
MicroprocessornfO{ cGo Sub System ;+u hf]8\g] af6f]nfO{ System Bus elgG5 .
jf:tjdf of] Pp6f tf/x?sf] ;d"x xf] . h;df Data / Address Binary Form (0 / 1) df Transfer x'G5 .
System Bus n] Pp6f Sub System b]lv csf{] Sub System ;Dd bit nfg] jf Nofpg] sfd ub{5 .
o;/L System Bus n] One To One Base df sfd ub{5 . System Bus n] Control unit af6 k|fKt Time
Control Signal 4f/f ljleGg Sub System sf nflu ;do ljefhg u/]sf] x'G5 . Microprocessor df tlg
k|sf/sf ;}4flGts sfd u/fOG5 .
1. Memory Read 2. Memory Write 3. I/o Read 4. I/o Write ,
Bus sf k|sf/ lgDg 5g\ .

 Data Bus :-
CPU / Computer Sub System lardf Data cf];f/k;f/ ug{] tf/x?sf] ;d"xnfO{ Data Bus
elgG5 . of] Bi – Directional x'G5 . 8 bit sf] Data bus ePsf] Microprocessor af6 '00' b]lv 'FF) (28 =256)
;Ddsf] 8 Bit Data Transfer ug{ ;Ifd x'G5 . Data bus af6 Flow x'g ;Sg] clwstd ;+Vof . . . .
. . . . 925610) xf] . Data bus n] Microprocessor sf] cfGtl/s ;+/rgfnfO{ zlQmzfnL

agfp+5 . cyjf Data bus sf] Word lenth cg';f/ Pegister sf] Size lgwf{/0f x'G5 . 8085/8088A
Microprocessor 8 bit Porcessor xf] eg] 80286 , Zilog = 8000 jf Motorala 68000 16 bit Processor sf] pbfx/0f
xf] . 386 DX 32 bit Data bus x'G5 . To;}n] o;n] 80286 sf] t'ngfdf b'O{ u'0ff Data Transfer
ug{ ;S5 . Pentium Processor df 64 bit Data bus x'G5 . s'g} s'g} Microprocessor sf] aflx/L /
cfGtl/s Data Bus km/s x'G5 . Internal Data Bus eGgfn] Microprocessor n] Internal Sub System ;+u
Communicate ug{] Data Bus eGg] a'lemG5 . External Bus eGgfn] Printer , Monitor , Floppy Drive,
Hard Disk cflb ;+u Communicate ug{] Path eGg] a'lemG5 . 386 SX df aflx/L 16 bit / leqL
bus 32 bit x'G5 .
 Address bus :-
;fdfGotof Address bus 16 bit sf] x'G5 . h;nfO{ A0 b]lv A15 ;Ddn] lrGg ;lsG5 .
of] Unidirectional bus xf] . o;df Address Signal of t Peripheral af6 CPU tkm{ jf CPU af6 Peripheral
tkm{ Flow x'G5 . Microprocessor n] Address bus sf] k|of]u Peripheral / Memory sf] Location yfxf
kfpg] ub{5 . Computer df System Peripheral jf Memory Location sf nflu Binary number df Addrss
lbOPsf] x'G5 . To;}cg';f/ Processor n] pQm Device nfO{ lrGb5 . ;fdfGotof
Peripheral / Memory Location sf nflu 16 bit sf] Address bus k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . Address bus sf] ;
+Vofn] Memory Location jf Peripheral sf] clwstd ;+Vof jf Ifdtf hfGg ;lsG5 . Addressable
Location sf] ;+Vof lgDg ;'qaf6 yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 Addressable Location = b/2n
oxfF, N= Number of Address Line x'G5 . 8085 Processor sf] address bus sf] ;+Vof 16 bit
xf] . To;}n] Addressable Loxation sf] Ifdtf 216 = 65536 cyf{t em08} 64 KB x'G5 . oxfF First
Address 10000000000000000) / clGtd Address (. 10 – 16 j6f) jf (FFFFSub Sc) xf] .
8088 / 8086 Processor df 20 bit sf] address bus 5 To;}n] 220 = 1048576 jf 1024KB (1MB) x'G5 .
8086/8088 Up sf] 1 MB sf] clwstd Address Location DOS sf] nflu cfjZos kg{] 640KB
Memory d'Vo sf/0f xf] . DOS sf] Design ;j{k|yd IBM PC sf nflu ul/Psf] lyof] h;df
8088/8086 Microprocessor k|of]u ul/Psf] lyof] . oxfF k|yd 640KB sf] Memory Location Program sf]
nflu / afFsL 384 KB Display Memory BIOS ROM Memory / cGo k|of]usf nflu ul/G5 . gofF
Generation sf Processor x? 80386, 486, Pentium df 32 bit address bus x'G5 . of] Memory Location df 23L
4096 Megabyte jf 4 Gb address ug{ cg'dlt lbg ;S5 .
 Control Bus :-
Control Bus nfO{ CPU sf] Control Unit af6 Generate x'g] Timing Pulse nfO{ Transfer ug{ k|
of]u ul/G5 . o;sf] ;fy} Control bus n] cGo Signal h:t} Read Write Signal klg Transfer ub{5 .
of] bus Unidirectional bus xf] . o;nfO{ s'g} klg Line bit Transfer ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . hals
cGo bus nfO{ Data Output ug{ dfq} k|of]u ul/G5 . hjsL cGo Bus nfO{ Data Output ug{
dfq} k|of]u ul/G5 . Microprocessor To:tf] Device xf] h;n] cGo Peripheral Device ;+u
Communication ug,{] Computer System df Timing / cGo Control Signal k|bfg ug{], Data Transfer ug{
Direction ug{] Memory sf] Instruction cg';f/ ljz]if Computing pb]Zo k'/f ub{5 . microprocessor Unit
df Power Supply / Pp6f Crystal aflx/ af6 hf]8\g] k|fjwfg klg x'G5 . ljleGg Computer df
k|of]u ul/g] Microprocessor sf af/]df cWoog ul/G5 . h'g Pp6f cfbz{ Processor xf] .
MicroProcessor 8085
8085 Ps 8 Bit sf] General Purpose Microprocessor xf] . h;sf] Memory Addressing Ifdtf 64 KB 5 .
40 Pin sf] of] Device +5 sf] Signal Power Supply af6 rNb5 o;sf] Clock Speed 3 Mhz 5 . of] Micro
Processor 8080A sf] Enhanced Version xf] . o;sf] Instruction Set klg 8080 A sf] h:t} xf] . t/ Pin df
eg] leGgtf 5 Microprocessor 8085 sf] k|of]u ul/Psf 40 Pin sf] sfdsf] j0f{g lgDg cg';f/
5.
 Address Bus

 Data Bus
 Control tyf States Signals
 Interrupt and Peripherals Signal
 Power Supply / Frequency
 Serial IO Parts
Address Bus
 Lower Order Address Bus
 Higher Order Address bus
Address Line A0 b]lv A7 ;Dd Lower Order Address bus x'g\ . oL lines nfO{ D0 b]lvD7 ;+u
hf]l8G5 . To;}n] o;nfO{ Multiplexed Address / Data Lines (AD0-AD7) klg elgG5 . hals Higher
Order Address Bus Multiplex ul/Psf] x'b}g Microprocessor 8085 sf] 8 a6f Pin s]jn Address sf nflu
dfq} k|of]u ul/G5 . of] A8 b]lvA15 ;Dd x'G5 .
Data bus :- Microprocessor 8085 sf] ;+u x'G5 .

data bus Address bus
Control tyf Status Signal :- Signal sf] of] ;d"xdf b'O{ k|sf/sf Control Signal RD (Read Signal /
WR(Write Signal) x'G5g\ . o;sf] cltl/Qm cGo tLg j6f Signal x? IO/M(Input-Output/Memory) S1 / S0
klg x'G5g\ . oL States Signal Program sf] k|s[lt 5'6\ofpg k|of]u ul/G5 . oxfF Ps ljif]z
Signal ALE (Address Latch Enable ) klg x'G5 . h;n] Lower Order Address Bus af6 Data / Address
5§ofpg] sfd ub{5 .
 ALE :- of] Positive tkm{ pGd'v Pulse xf] . h'g 8085 n] sfd ug{] x/]s ;dodf
Generate ub{5 . ALE Signal Address jf Data Bit xf]Og . o;fnO{ Multiplexer af6 Lower Order
address / Data Bit af6 Data / Address 5'§ofpg] sfdsf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 .
 RD :- of] Active Low Signal xf] . of] Signal cfpg] Processor n] IO jf Memory Device df Data
Bus af6 cfPsf] Data nfO{ Read ub{5 .
 WR :- of] klg Active Low Signal xf] . hj Microprocessor n] of] Signal k|fKt ub{5 . tj I/O
jf Memory Device df Data Write ub{5 .
 I/O MEM :- of] Signal I/O jf Memory sf] sfo{sf] ljrsf] cGt/ :ki6 kfg{ k|of]u
x'G5 . hj Low x'G5 . Memory sfo{ ug{ lgb{{]z ub{5 eg] High x'bf IO sfo{ .
IO jf Memory Control ug{ of] Signal Generate ug{ RD jf WR Signal ;+u} ld;fOG5 .
v. S1 jf S0 (States Signal )
S0 S1
0 0 No Work
1 0 Write
0 1 Read
1 1 Latch
power supply jf Clock Frequency :- o;df +5 Volt lbOG5 eg] . o;df k|of]u ul/Psf] Crystal
n] 3 Mhz sf] Clock pTkfbg ub{5 .
Interrupt jf Peripherals Signal

I. INTR II. RST 7.5 III. RST 6.5 IV. RST5.5
V. Trap

oL Signal x? dWo] s'g} klg Signal Microprocessor nfO{ k|fKt ePdf Intrrupt Acknowledge Signal
Geerate ub{5 .
Intr- Interrupt request :- CPU n] sfd ul//x]sf] ;dodf cGo Input Device af6 Signal I/P lbPdf
To;n] CPU nfO{ ub{5 . of] x/]s I Device ;+u x'G5 .
Interrupt Request
RST (Reset Interrupt Request Signal ) RST 7.5, 6.5, 5.5 oL Sigal x? dWo] Microprocessor n] k|
fyldstf s|d cg';f/ Peset u/fpb5 .
Trap Input :- o;nfO{ Microprocessor n] pRr k|fyldstf lbG5 . To;afx]s Microprocessor n]
tLg k|sf/sf Signal k|of]udf Nofp+5 .
 Reset Signal :- Microprocessor n] Pp6f sfd /f]s]/ csf{] z'? ug{ o;sf] k|of]u
ub{5 . hj Address bus df cGo Peripherals hf]8\g' kg{] x'G5 . pQm ;dodf Ready
Signal sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . tj dfq} kl5 hf]l8Psf] Device sf] sfd ug{ Microprocessor
tof/ x'G5 .
 Hold (Input Siganl) :- o;n] s'g} Peripheral Device jf DMA jf Address jf Data Bus n] Request
u/]sf] b]vfp+5 .
 HLDA (Hold AcKnowledge ) :- Hold Request nfO{ :jLs[t lbG5 .
 Ready I/P :- Peripheral sf] Signal jf Data :jLsf/ ug{] a]nf;Dd Processor nfO{ Read jf
Write ug{ jf6 /f]s nufp+5 .
 Reset Out :- Peripheral nfO{ Reset u/fpg k7fpg] Signal.
6. Serial I/O
 SID :- s'g I/P Device jf6 I/P lbg] xf] . ;f] Information CPU nfO{ lbg] .
 SOD :- Microprocessor n] Data Output lbg] Device nfO{ Information lbg] .
Intel 80286
of] 8088 sf] ;'wfl/Psf] Version xf] . cyf{t of] 8086 rNg] Software n] rNb5 t/
o;sf] Speed al9 5 . of] Multi-user Processor xf] . h;n] Pp6f ;dodf g} ;a} sfd ug{]
geO{ Pp6f sfd Store ul//x]sf] ;dodf csf]{ sfd z'? ug{ gofF sfdnfO{ Load ug{ /
Store ug{ klxnf] sfdnfO{ lkmtf{ lbg cflb sfd Ps} ;fy ug{ ;Sg] ePsfn] o;nfO{
Multi-user jf Multi Tasker Processor elgG5 . of] 68 Pin df CLCC(Ceramic LeadLess Chip Carrier ) PLCC (Plastic
Lead Chip Carrier ) PGA (Pin Grid Array) df pknAw 5 .
80286 sf] s]lx k|d'v ljz]iftf

 16 Bit data Bus
 High Clock Rate Bus Cycle
 24 Bit Address Bus
 Xenix, Unix, MSDOS Operating System Support ug{ .
 lgDg Clock Speed df pknAw
286 – 12 12.5 MHz Internal 25 Mhz External
286 – 10 10mhz " 20 Mhz "
286 – 8 8 Mhz " 16 Mhz "
2486 – 6 6 Mhz " 12 Mhz "
Intel 80286n] Real Adress Mode tyf Protected Virtual Address Mode df klg sfd ug{ ;S5 .
o;n] Real Mode df sfd ubf{ 1 MB Addressable Ifdtfsf nflu 20 bit Address bus k|of]u ub{5 . t/
Protected Mode df 16 MB Addressable Ifdtfsf nflu 24 bit Address Bus k|of]u ub{5 . 286 n] Virtual

Mode df klg sfd ug{ ;S5 o:tf] cj:yfdf 1 GB Addresing Space pknAw x'G5 . o;sf nflu
Support IC sf] k|of]u ug{' kb{5 . h'g ;a} eGbf klxn] RAM df Load x'G5 .
Global Driscripter Tabler (GDT) / Local Discripter Table (LDT)
Discripter Ps o:tf] Word xf] h;n] Computer sf] Memory / Program jf Task jLr Switching ul/
gofF Function nfO{ kl/eflift ul/lbG5 . Discripter Pp6f Program ;+u rln/x]sf] ;dodf
bf]>f] Program nfO{ sfof{Gjog ug{' k/]df klxnf] / bf]>f] b'a} Program sf] Data
nfO{ Transfor ug{ klg Control ub{5 . RAM df Discripter nfO{ Select ug{ cfjZos k/]df
Selector 4f/f Segent Register sf] dfg k|of]u ub{5 . o;df k|To]s Discripter 8 Bit sf] x'G5 (LDT)
Table df atfOPs]f Discripter nfO{ h'g ;'s} Program df klg k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ (GDT) sf]
Discripter s'g} Program 4f/f 5fGg ;lsG5 oL b'O{ Discripter sf] cltl/Qm Interrupt Discripter klg
x'G5 . of] Discripter Table df Protected Virtual Address Mode df Microprocessor n] k|of]u u/]sf]
ljleGg Interrupt nfO{ kl/eflift ub{5 . sfdsf] cfwf/df 286 nfO{ ljleGg efudf
afF8g ;lsG5 .
I. Address Unit :-
286 df ljif]z Memory Management jf Memory Protection Section x'G5 o;n] a. Task Seperation b.
programm or data Integraiti / c. Task Switching Operation af6 Operating System nfO{ cnu ug{] h:tf sfd
ub{5 .
hj 286 Microprocessor Protected Virtual Address Mode df x'G5 . b'O{ jf b'O{ eGbf al9 k|
To]s Stage df pQm sfo{nfO{ clGtd ?k lbgsf nflu Instruction x? ljgf kl/jt{g Pp6f
nfO{ csf{]df abNg] / cnu cnu Store u/]/ k'g k|fKt ubf{ ;lx sfd ub{5 . pQm
Mode df b'O{ sfd Ps} ;fy ug{ ;lsG5 . Operating System jf cGo Program df s'g}
cK7\of/f] kb{}g .
II. Bus Interface Unit :-
o;n] cfGtl/s Data Transfer / jflx/L BUS sf] Aoj:yf ub{5 . Bus Unit n] Code PreFetch Unit
tyf Execution Unit nfO{ k|fyldstf ;fy Set ub{5 . Execution Unit sf] sfdnfO{ Interface Unit n]
pRr k|fyldstf sf ;fy ub{5 . hj o; ;+u cltl/Qm Clock Pulse x'G5 . tj Interface Unit tyf
Code Prefetch Unit df Memory af6 qmdcg';f/ Instruction Load ug{] cg'dlt lbG5 .
III. Code Prefetch Unit :- o;n] Memory af6 Instruction lgsfn]/ Store ub{5 . s'g} Block vfnL
eof] eg] of] vfnL Block df Instruction sf] cl3Nnf] Set k|bfg ub{5 . o;/L Code Prefetch Unit
df 6 byte Instruction Store ub{5 . / To;nfO{ Decoding ul/ sfof{Gjog ub{5 .
IV. Execution Unit :- o;n] ;a} Instruction nfO{ sfof{Gjog ub{5 .

V.. Instruction Decoding Unit :- o; Unit n] 1 Word Instruction nfO{ Decoding ul/ Fifo cg';f/ Store
ub{5 . 80286 df s'n 15a6f Register rf/ j6f ;d'xdf /flvPsf] x'G5 .
a. General Purpose Register :- of] 16 bit sf] 8 j6f Register xf] . of] Arithmetic and Logic Function sf
nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . oL 16 bit k|of]u x'G5 . eg] 8 Bit Piar sf] ?kdf k|of]u x'G5 .
b. Seg ment Register :- of] Unit Code Stake / Data Memory df k|ToIf Load ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
of] klg 16 bit sf] rf/ j6f x'G5 .
c. Base jf Index Register :- 286 df Memory location / Address of Ps vf; Memory Segment Location k|fKt
ug{ rf/ j6f General Perpose Register sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .

d. Status jf o;df 16 Bit sf tLg j6f Register x'G5 . of] ljif]z sfd h:t}
Control Register :-
Instruction Pointer sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . h;df cl3Nnf] Instruction (h'g sfo{fGjog
ug{' 5 ) sf] Address s|d ;lxt x'G5 .
Intel 80286 sf] Pin sf] sfd

Pin 1 (BHE) O/P :- of] High Enable Pin xf] o;n] Data Transfer sf nflu Higher Order Bits D8 – D15 sf]
pkof]u lgwf{/0f ub{5 .
Pin 2, 3, 55, 56, 58 :- k|of]u ul/Psf] 5}g .
Pin 61 (Peack) Out put of] Processor Extension Acknowledge Pin xf] . Peak Output Signal n] Processor Eextension
Indicate ub{5 . Data Oprand Transfer ub{5 .
Pin 52 (CAP) Input :- of] Pin df Pp6f 0.047 MicroFarad sf] Capacitor x'G5 . h;n] leq af6 cfpg]
Signal nfO{ Filter ub{5 .
Pin 53 (ERROR) I/P :- Microprcessor Extension df s'g} sfof{Gjogdf ulNt ePdf Microprocessor nfO{
Error Signal (Active Low) lbG5 .
Pin 54 (BUSY) :- of] Processor Extension Busy jf Error Pin xf] . o;n] Microprocessor sf] Processor Extension
Signal Low ePdf Processor n] High gx'g] a]nf;Dd sfd /f]Sb5 .
Pin 61(PEREQ) I/P :- o;n] Processor nfO{ Oprand Request ub{5 jf Processor Extension nfO{ Data Transfer
ub{5 .
Pin 66 (OD/INTA) O/P/ Code Interrupt Acknowledge :- o;n] Memory Data Read Cycle nfO{ Instruciton lbG5 .
Intel 386
of] Pp6f cfw'lgs Microprocessor xf] . o;n] Multi Trasking jf Multiprocessing l;4fGtdf sfd
ub{5 . o;sf] cltl/Qm of] Multiple Operationg System sf nflu klg pkof]uL 5 . SX 16 bit / DX 32
Bit Processor xf] . To;}n] DX l56f] 5 . of] 132 Pin PGA xf] .
80386 sf k|d'v laz]iftfx?

 Internal Clock , 2, / 16Mhz External Clock 33 Mhz / 40 Mhz
 32 Bit sf] 8 j6f General Perpose Register
 32 Bit internal Data bus
 24 Bit Address tyf 16 bit Data Bus (SX df External)
 e.External Cache Memory support ug{] .
 4 GB Address Space
 8086 sf] Object Code cg';f/ sfd ug{] .
 Hardware Debuging nfO{ Support ug{] .
 Pipeline Instruction Execution
 Numeric Co- Processor
 Virtual Memory Support sf nflu Intignated Memmory Management sf] k|of]u .
80386 nfO{ lgDg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .
a. Central Processing Unit :-

 Code Prefetch Unit :- o;n] Program sf] eljio sf nflu Instruction lgsfNg] / 16 Byte FIFO
s|ddf Store ub{5 .
 Decoder Unit :- Instruction (Opcode ) nfO{ Decode ub{5 .
 Execution Unit :- o;df 32 Bits sf] 8 j6f General Perpose Register x'G5 h'g Address /
Calculation ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . Numeric Calculation , Shift Operation cflbsf] Speed a9fpg

Pp6f Protection / Test Unit sf] klg k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . h;n] rln/x]sf] Program
n] Memory Segment Access gu/L bf]>f] Program sf] nflu lbP glbPsf] Check ub{5 .
b. Memory Management Unit (MMU) :- o;nfO{ klg lgDg cg;';f/ alu{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5
.
 Segment Unit :- of] Unit df Pp6f Component x'G5 h;n] Data Location sf] Fetching nfO{
ult lbG5 . o;} Unit df Segment Register / Discripter Table x'G5 . h;n] k|of]udf
cfO{ /x]sf] ljleGg Program sf] ljrdf Isolation ub{5 . h;n] ubf{ CPU sf] Protected
Virtual Address Mode df sfd ubf{ Operating System / Program sf] ljrdf ;d:of cfpb}g .
 Paging Unit :- o;n] Segnent Unit df ag]sf] k|To]s Memory Segment nfO{ ljleGg Page
df ljefhg u/]/ Segment Unit nfO{ ;xof] ub{5 . o;df Page sf] Ifdtf 4 MB x'G5 .
of]] Unit n] Globel jf Local Discripter Table k|of]u u/]/ Microprocessor n] Processing ub{}
u/sf] ljz]if ;"rgf Store ub{5 . Processor n] Protected Virtual Memory Mode df sfd
ul//x]sf] ;dodf paging Unit sf] ljz]if dxTj x'G5 . hj s'g} Program sf] ljrdf
Switching x'G5 . tj Paging Unit n] Logical Address nfO{ Liner Address df abNb5 . h'g vf;
Location jf gofF Program sf] Page ;+u ;DalGwt x'G5 . h'g cj sfof{Gjog x'g
cfjZos x'G5 .
c. Bus Interfacing Unit :- 386 sf] of] Unit df lgDg ljz]iftf x'G5 .
 Address Pipelining
 Dynamic Data Bus Sizing
 Direct Byte Enable Signal (Data bus sf] k|To]s Byte sf nflu)
of] Unit n] Microprocessor / cGo Peripherals System sf] ljrdf Interfacing sf] Aoj:yf ub{5 ;fy}
Data Transfer / Data Fetching sf nflu agfOPsf] Request nfO{ k|fyldstf lbO{ Set ub{5 . of]
Unit n] Address Data jf Introl Siganl klg Generate jf Processing ub{5 . ;fy} Microprocessor / cGo Bus
Master sf] ljrdf Data Transfer klg ub{5 . (386 n] Real Mode, Protected Mode / Virtual Mode df sfd
ub{5 .
80386 sf s]xL Register x? .
 General Perpose Registers :-o;df 32 Bit sf 8 j6f General Perpose Register x'G5g\ . oLgLx?df
Data jf Address Store ub{5 . oL Register n] 1, 8, 16, 32 / 64 Bit Data Operand nfO{ Support
ub{5 . oL ;a} Register nfO{ 8 Bit / 32 Bit Mode df k|of]u ul/G5 .
 Instruction Pointer :- o;nfO{ EIP elgG5 of] 32 Bit sf] x'G5 . o;nfO{ Program sf klxn]
sfof{Gjog ug{ of]Uo Instruction nfO{ sfo{ ?kdf Nofpg Microprocessor n] k|
of]u ub{5 .
 Flags Register :- of] 32 Bit sf] x'G5 . h;df 386 sf] ;a} Status x'G5 .
 Segment Register :- of] 16 Bit sf] x'G5 . h'g Selector Valae nfO{ Store ug{ k|of]u
ul/G5 . of] Valve Processor n] Memory Segment nfO{ lrGg k|of]u ub{5 . h'g
jt{dfg Program sf nflu cfjZos ?kdf k|of]u x'G5 .
 Segment Discripter Register :- o;df 32 Bit Segment Base Address 32 Bit Segment Limit / cGo cfjZos
Parametre x? x'G5g\ . h;n] Memory segment nfO{ b]vfp+5 .
 Control Register :- oL 32 Bit sf tLg Register x'G5g\ . 386 Microprocessor df cGo rf/ Register
x? GDTR, IDT, LDT, TSS (Task State Segment) x'G5g\ . hj Micro Processor n] Virtual Mode df sfd
ub{5 tj ltgLx?s]f ljz]if sfd ub{5 . o;sf cltl/Qm 6 j6f Debug Register b'Oj6f

Test Register x'G5 . Debug Register n] Debug pb]Zosf nflu / Test Register RAM/CAM Memory
sf] Test Control ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
Microprocessor 80386 DX sf] Pin x?sf] kl/ro
386 Dx 132 Pin sf] IC xf] . o;sf] Pin x?nfO{ Row / Column cg';f/ lrGg ;lsG5 . o;sf]
Pin 386 sf] h:t} k|of]u ul/Psf]] 5 . t/ s]lx cltl/Qm Pin x? lgDg 5g\ .
Pin A13, B13, C13, C12, :- oL Pin x? Byte Enable sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 .
Pin E12 (BE*0) D*0 D*7
Pin C13 (BE*1) D*8 D*15
Pin B13 (BE*2) D*16 D*23
Pin A13 (BE*3) D*24 D*32
Pin E14 (ADS) Address Status :- Address Status nfO{ r]s ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
Pin B10, A11, A12 (W/R, D/C, M/IO) :- oL Signal x? Operation cg';f/ ljleGg ljlwdf Status Signal sf] ?kdf k|
of]u ul/G5 .
M/I0# D/C# WR# Buscycle Type Locked
Low Low Low Intrrupt acknowledge Yes
Low Low High Does not Occur -
Low High Low I/o Data Read No
Low High High I/O Data Write No
High Low Low Memory Code Read No
High Low High Halt Shut Down
BHE0# High BHE0# Low
BHE1# High BHE1# High
BHE2# Low BHE2# High
BHE3# High BHE3# High
High High Low A1-A31 Low A1-A31 Low Some Cyc High
High High High Memory Data Read Write Som Cyc
Pin C14 (B516) (Bus Size 16 ) :- of] Pin af6 Bus Size lgwf{/0f x'G5 .
Intel 80386Sx
sf] Quard Flat Pack Package df lyof] . sd vlr{nf] lyof] . o;sf] Internal 32 /
386Sx 100 Pin
lyof] . To;} u/L 24 Bit Address Bus u/fpYof] . Byte Select Lines ;+Vof
External 16 bit Data Bus
b'O{ lyof] . Lines A*23 tyf M/IO Numeric Processor nfO{ Select Lines sf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf]
lyof] . cGo cj:yfdf 386 Dx / SX p:t} 5g\ . Computer Reset ubf{ DX efu 3h df reser ePdf
386x / 23 h df Reset ePdf SX eg]/ lrlgG5
386 Family sf cGo Processor
 80386SL:- of] 386 SX sf] xf] o;df Sleep Mode klg 5 . Note sf nflu
Low Power Version
pko'Qm cflb o;sf ljz]iftf x'g\ .
Internal Cache 25 MHz Clock Rate Power Managenent
 386 SLC :- of] Intel sf] ;xof]un] IBM n] agfPsf] Processor xf] . o;sf Pin 386X sf]
a/fa/ 5 . Internal Cache 8KB, 16, 20 / 25MHZ Clock Rate o;sf ljif]ztf x'g\ .
Intel 80486 DX
of] 80386DX sf] ljsl;t ?k xf] . h;df 386Dx df kfOg] ;a} ljz]iftfsf ;fy} Internal
Numeric Co- Processor 80387, Cache Memory Controller 82386 klg ;dfj]z 5 . of] 1989 df CMOSIV Technology
df 168 Pin PGA, 8KB Internal Cache, Parity Checker , Parity Generator , 128KB jf 256 KB External Cache Real
Mode, Virtual Address Mode tyf Virtual 86 Mode df sfd ug{ ;Sg] u/L agfOPsf] lyof] .

80486 sf] ljif]iftfx?
 25/33 MHZ Clock Rate.
 24 bit Address line
 32 bit data bus
 8KB Internal Code tyf Data Cache
 Floating Point Unit
 Paged Virtual Manageement (256 Pages)
 External Cache Support
 Large Software Base df sfd ug{ of]Uo
 4 GB Physical , 64 terabyte Virtual tyf 1 GB Maximum Segment Size
 Internal Numeric Co- Processor
a. Brust Mode Operation :-
o;n] 386DX n] eGbf w]/} l56f] sfd ug{ ;S5 . o;sf] ALU Data Transfer Rate 64 Bit Words
5 . hj Microprocessor n] aflx/L Memory Data Internal Cache df Load ub{5 . To; kl5 Brust Mode k|of]u
ub{5 . Memory Read sfo{ Microprocessor n] ub{5 t/ I/O Read sfo{df Cache n] ;"rgf lbb}g .
To;}n] hj Ps k6s Memory Read ub{5 tj Internal Cache nfO{ Check ub{5 . olb Cache df data
cfPsf] eP Read ug{ aGb ub{5 . o;/L 486 sf] Speed df ;'wf/ ul/Psf] 5 .
Microprocessor 486 n] Result nfO{ Internal Cache df rf/ j6f Write Memory df Write ub{5 .
o;n] Speed ;'wf/ ug{ w]/} ;xof]u ub{5 . hj Data Bus pknAw x'G5 . tj Tof] Data
System df Write ub{5 . hj System Memory df Data Write x'G5 . To;} a]nf UP 486 n] Parity Checker
Generate ub{5 . of] Data sf] ;fy RAM df Store x'G5 . hj Memory df Data Read ub{5 tj Parity
klg Read ub{5 . parity Checker Unit n] of] Chek ub{5 / s'g} ulNt e]6]df PCHK Signal sf]
pkof]u ul/ System nfO{ ;ts{ u/fpb5 . Micro Processor Paged Virtual Management n] Mode df Virtual
Address Internal Program n] Generate u/s]f 20 Bit Liner Address nfO{ 256 Pages df ljefhg ub{5 . To;
kl5 k|To]s nfO{ 4 GB Physical Address Memory Space df Store ub{5 . of] Memory sf nflu
cltl/Qm Hardware ljgf EMS Standard Program 4f/f sfof{Gjog ug{ ;lsG5 . 486 df s'g} klg
I/O Port k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . h'g Protected ?kdf x'G5 . h;n] ubf{ To;df hf]l8Psf] Device
sf] ;'/Iff x'G5 . 486 df k|of]u ul/g] ;a} Register 386 ;+u ldNg] vfnsf] x'G5 . To;
afx]s Floating Point Co- Processor sf nflu k|of]u u/]sf] Register x? gofF 5g h'g lgDg 5g\ .
 Base Structure Register

 System Level Register
 Floating Point Register
Base structure Register
 General Perpose Register :-

 o;df 8 j6f Register x'G5g\ . kk|To]s 32 Bit df x'G5 / 8 Bit jf 16 bit df klg
jgfpg ;lsG5 . o;nfO{ Data tyf Address Hold ug{ k|of]u ul/5 .
 Segment Registers :-
 of] ;a} 16 Bit sf] x'G5 h;n] at{dfgdf Addressable x'g] Memory sf] dfg Hold ub{5
.
 Flags tyf Instruction Pointer Registers :-
 of] 32 bit Flags Register xf] . of] 486 sf] s]lx sfdnfO{ Control ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
o;n] System sf nflu Microprocessor sf] Status b]vfpg] sfd klg ub{5 . FP Register Data
tyf Intruction Pointer Register xf] . o;df cufl8 sfof{Gjog x'g] Instruction sf] Store
ub{5 .
System Level Register

o;df rf/j6f Control / rf/ a6f Address Register x'G5g\ .
 Control Register :- CR0 n] MSW nfO{ Hold ub{5 . CR1 n] Intel n] eljiodf ljsf;
ug{] gofF s'/fnfO{ ;'/lIft /fv]sf] 5 . CR2 Page Fault Liner Address nfO{ Hold ub{5
. eg] CR3 Page Directry sf] ?kdf k|of]u ub{5 .
 System Address Registers :- o;df (Globle Driscripter Table) GDTR, IDTR, LDTR tyf (Task State
Segament Register ) TSSR x'G5g\ . oL 386 DX df h:t} ul/ k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .
Floating Point Register
o;df 8 Data Pagister R0 b]lv R7 Ps TAG Ward tyf Status Word Register b'O{ Instruction tyf Data
Pointer Register x'G5g\ . oL 80387 tyf To;sf] Counter Parts sf] Floating Point Register h:t} x'G5g\
 Data Register :- oL Register R0- R7 ;j} 8 Bit Register xg\ h'g 32 Bit sf] 20 j6f Register h:t}
x'G5 .
 TAG Word tyf Status Word Register :- k|To]s data Register nfO{ Pp6f :jtGq TAG
Word 4f/f b]vfOG5 . of] TAG Word 20 Bits n] ag]sf] x'G5 . o;n] Pp6f :jtGq Data
Register nfO{ b]vfp+5 . 486 df Stack nfO{ k|of{Kt Handeling ug{ of] Register TAG
Word sf] k|of]u ub{5 . csf{] tkm{ 16 bit Status Word Microprocessor sf] Flooating Point sf]
Status df Information lbG5 .
 Instruction tyf Data Pointer Registers :-oL b'O{ j6f x'G5g\ / 80387 df h:t}
k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;n] ALU sf] Parallel df sfd ub{5 . o;n] Numeric Processor
n] sfd ubf{ ulNt kQf nufpg] / To;sf] (uNtL Instruction sf]) Addreess / vf;
Instruction ;+u ;DalGwt Numeric Oprand sf] Address Store ub{5 . 486 df o;sf] cltl/Qm
6 j6f Debug Registers tyf kfFr Test Register klg k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .
 Debug Registers DR0, DR1, DR2, DR3, oLgLx?df Brake Points sf] Address x'G5 . h'g Debuging
sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 .
 Debug Register DR7 :- of] Debug Control Register xf] h'g Brake Point nfO{ Seting ug{ k|of]u
ul/G5 .
 Debug Register DR6 :- o;n] vf; ;dodf Brake Point s]f at{dfg Status nfO{ Indicate ub{5 .
 Test Register TR6 tyf TR7 :- of] Buffer sf] Test nfO{ Control ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
 Test Registers TR3, TR4 tyf TR5 :- o;n] Internal Cache Test ub{5 .
Microprocessor 486 sf] kl/ro

o;df 168 j6f Pin x? 5g\ h'g 386Dx df h:t} 5g\ To; dWo] Co- Processor / Cache 486
df Internal ePsf] x'bf To; ;DalGw Pin x? k|of]u ul/Psf] 5}g . 486 df Brust Mode , Internal
Cache Control tyf Parity Generator / Parity Checker x?sf nflu gofF Pin k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
Pin Q8 (A20) (Mask) / (A20M) I/P :-

Microprocessorn] Internal Cache / sfof{Gjog ug{' cufl8 A20 n] Mask
Memory Read Write
ul/lbG5 . hj Protected Address Virtual Mode df sfo{ ul//xG5 Tolt a]nf A20 n] Masking ub{}g
.
Pin N3, F1, A5 (DP*0-DP*3) :-

of] Parity Bits xf] h;n] Memory Write ug{] ;dodf k|To]s k6s Data Byte
nfO{ lgb{]zg lbG5 / kl5 Memory Read ubf{ Microprocessor n] o;nfO{ Read ub{5 .

Pin D16 tyf
tyf BS16) IP :- of] Bus Size Pin xf] . o;n] Microprocessor ;+u Interface
D17 (BS8
ug{] aflx/L Device n] UP nfO{ Word Size sf] af/]df ;"rgf lbG5 h'g of] Pin 4f/f Handle
ug{ of]Uo x'G5 .
Pin Q16 (Plock) O/P :-

hj s'g} Bus n] ;DalGwt sfd ug{ Ps eGbf al9 Cycle sf] cfjZostf x'G5 . tj
Microprcessor n] o; Pin df High Signal k7fp+5 . o;n] ug{] sfd k'/f eP kl5 of] Pin k'g Low
x'G5 .
Pin H15 (BRDY) :-
of] Microprocessor sf] Brust Ready Signal I/P xf] . Microprocessor n] of] Signal l:jsf/ u-of]
I/P
eg] o;df lbOPsf] Data Processing ug{ tof/ /xG5 . of] Signal External Device n] UP
nfO{ lbG5 .
Pin R16 (Blast) O/P :-
Up n] Brust Signal k"0f{ u/]kl5 Interface device nfO{ Brust Signal l:jsf/ u/]sf] ;"rgf
lbG5 .
Pin Q15 (BRFQ) O/P :-
of] Internal Bus Request Signal Pin xf] . Internal Bus sf] cfjZostf k/]df Microprocessor n] of]
Siganl O/P ub{5 .
Pin D17 (BOFF) I/P Block Off :-
s'g} of] Pin df cfPdf Microprocessor n] Bus sf] k|of]u 5f]l8lbG5 . of] Signal
Siganl
RDY jf BRDY Signal sf] Ps Higher Priority Signal xf] .
Pin F15(KEN) I/P Cache Enable :- of] Pin df hj Ps Active Sigal k|fKt x'G5 . tj UP n] Internal Cache df
Data Write ub{5 .
Pin C15 (FLUS) I/P :- of] Pin df Active Signal ePsf] v08df Microprocessor n] Internal Address Strobe I/P
Address Bus df Address Load ul/lbP kl5 Microprocessor sf] Pin df Signal I/P lbOG5 h;n] Microprocessor
nfO{ Address Load ePsf] ;"rgf lbG5 .
Pin A17 (Ahood) IP/ Address Hold :- of] Pin df Active Signal x'Fbf Microprocessor n] Address Bus nfO{
External Bus Controller nfO{ 5f]l8lbG5 / Ps Address IP k|fKt ug{ t}of/ x'G5 .
Pin L15 (PWT) Op/Page Wrie :- Microprocessor 4f/f k|of]u ul//x]sf] Program n] of] Signal Output ub{5
of] Pin Internal Cache sf] External Cache ;fy ;xof]u sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 .
PinJ17(PCD) O/P Page Cache Disable Pin :- hj KEN df Active Signal x'G5 . tyf of] Pin df Signal Output
x'G5 . tj Internal Cache Disable x'G5 .
Intel 80486Sx
o;df Internal Numeric Co-Processor 5}g . Speed Data Processing afx]s 486DX sf] a/fa/ g} 5 .
486 SX sf s]lx ljz]iftf lgDg 5g\ .
 Clock Rate 20Mhz – 25 MHz

 16 bit Data tyf 24 bit address bus
 386 DX eGbf bf]Aa/ Speed
 486 DX sf] Mother Board df of] k|of]u ug{ ;lsb}g
486 Family sf cGo Processor

1. 80486SL :- o;n 486SX sf] Low Power Version xf] . Laptop df k|of]u ul/G5 .

2. 80486 DX2 :- o;n] 486DX sf eGbf bf]Aa/ cfGtl/s Clock Rate df sfd ub{5
To;nfO{ "Double Clock Micro Processor klg elgG5 ;"?df o;nfO{ Over Drive Microprocessor klg
elgPsf] lyof] . k|yd Over Drive Co- Processor 487SX lyof] / o;sf] Speed klg plt g} lyof] .
o;sf] Internal Clock 50 Mhz / External Clock 25 Mhz dfq} lyof] . 486Dx2 486Sx sf] Double Clock tyf
486DX2 – 50 sf] Double Clock 486DX4 100Mhz xf] .
3. Microprocessor 486 SLC2 :- of] Intel sf] ;xof]un] IBM n] pTkfbg u/]sf] lyof] . of]
Double Clock, Low-Power tyf Internal Cache 16KB ePsf] UP xf] .
gofF CPU sf] ljz]iftfx?

kl5Nnf Degisn sf CPU x? SuperScalar / Super Pipelined 5g\ . Super Scalar Pipeline Design df
w]/} Instruction x? Ps} k6s b'O{ j6f Pipe Line af6 ;dfGt/df ;ls|o x'g ;S5g\ . Superpipe
lining n] Data Flow df Pipeline Stage sf] ;+Vof a9fP/ ;'wf/ u/]sf] 5 . Instruction sf kQmL
Pipeline jf Simultaneously h;/L ;'s} lbPsf] eP klg Result sf nflu cg'dlt lbG5 . o;nfO{
Removing Data Dependency Technique elgG5 . Pp6f Pipelline af6 cfPsf] Instruction sf] Processing
g;lsb} csf{] Pipe line af6 cfPsf] Instruction nfO{ cg'dlt lbPdf Processing lgoGq0f aflx/
hfG5 . Register Renaming n] Register Data nfO{ Cache jf Main Memory sf] :jLs[lt ljgfg} CPU
nfO{ Dynamic Control ug{ l;kml/; ub{5 . Mutiple Branch Preditetion n] bf]>f] ;+efAo af6f]
k|of]u ug{ lgb{]zg lbG5 . s'g} s'g} CPU df 64 KB jf Tof] eGbf klg w]/} Internal
Cache k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . PsLs[t Cache n] Data / Instruction nfO{ s'g} cg'kftdf Hold ul/
/fV5 . h;n] a/fa/ Size df 5'§} Data / Intrustion sf] Hit Rate nfO{ a9fpF5 . CMOS Circuit
ePsf] CPU sf] I/P Pin Compatibility sf nflu Standard eGbf sd 3.3 V Processor Run x'G5 . oxfF ;a}
Fully X86 Binary Code Compatiable CPU sf] af/]df 5nkmn ul/G5 . t/ ;a} Frist Generation nfO{
Support ug{] Industry Standard MMX TM Instructions df cfwfl/t 5g\ .
Pentium / To; kl5sf Processor sf s]lx ljz]iftf lgDg 5g\ .
 64 Bit Data Bus / 32 Bit Address Bus.

 Instruction / Data Dual Cache
 Enhanced Error Detection Feature
 Pipelining Addressing
 Superscalar ;+/rgf
 Branch Prediction Feture
 Internal 64 bit Coprocessor
 32 Bit Register
gofF CPU sf d'Vo tLg ljz]iftf lgDg 5g\ .

a. Superscalar Structure :-
80486 Micro Processor df ;fdfGo ALU sf] cltl/Qm Ps Floating Point Unit x'G5 . o;} ;
+/rgfnfO{ Pentium o;sf ;dfgfGt/ tyf kl5sf CPU df To;nfO{ ;'wf/ u/]/ agfO{Psf] 5
h;nfO{ Superscalar ;+/rgf elgG5 . Pentim df of] Super Scalar ;+/rgfdf tLg Execution Unit 4f/f
agfOPsf] 5 . o;df Floationg Unit klg 5 h;n] Floating Point pTkfbg ub[5 . hjsL ALU n]
Numeric Calculation ub{5 eg] . b'O{ cltl/Qm Executing Unit n] Register / Register Memory Instruction
nfO{ ;fdfGo Instruction df sfof{Gjog ub{5 . Intel n] Pp6f ;+zf]lwt Pipelining Designn
4f/f Logic Operation sf nflu b'O{ j6f Execution Unit agfPsf] 5 . o;}nfO{ csf{] zAbdf
Pp6f Floating Point Unit / b'O{j6f nfO{ Dual Intiger Processor eGg ;lsG5 . o;/L Pentium n] Ps
Clock Cycle df b'O{ Floating Point sf] cltl/Qm b'O{ Insturuction Execute ug{ ;Sb5 . o;/L Ps
Clock df Excute x'g] b'O{ Instruction x? ;dfg Address jf Data sf] x'g ;Sb}gg\ . csf{]
zAbdf o;/L Ps} k6s sfo{fGjog x'g] Instruction n] csf{]nfO{ Interfering ug{' x'b}g .

sf] o:tf] ljz]iftfnfO{ Multi threading elgG5 . 486 df Pp6f Instruction sfof{Gjog u/]
Pentium
kl5 bf]>f] sf] nflu klxnf] sfd ;a} ;lsg' kb{Yof] t/ Pentium df b'a} Instruction Ps}
k6s Execute x'g ;Sb5 . To;}n] Pentium df 486 df eGbf 40% l56f] Speed df Program ug{
;lsG5 .
b. Dual Cache Strucutre :-
486 df Pp6f Internal Cache Memory lyof] . Pentium df Instruction sf nflu cnu cnu Cache
Memory k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . o;n] Microprocessor sf] Speed a9fpg ;xof]u ub{5 .
c. Branch Prediction Logic :-
Microprocessor n] Sub Routione Instruction
h:t} Jump Instruction nfO{ sfof{Gjog ug{ ;Sb5 .
hj Instruction sf] Branch Control Group af6 o:tf] k|sf/sf] Instruction, Microprocessor n] s'g] Program
sfof{Gjog ul//x]sf] ;dodf cfp+5 . tj of] t'?Gt} gofF Memory Locatoin af6 Instruction
nfO{ sfof{Gjog ug{ z'? ub{5 . hj Return Instruction k|fKt x'G5 tj Microprocessor af:tljs
Memory Location df lkmtf{ cfO{ cGo Instruction sf] k'g sfof{Gjog ug{ z'? ub{5 .
w]/} 7'nf] jf hl6n Program df Branch Instruction n] Morcoprocessor nfO{ w]/} Slow agfpF5 .
o; ;d:ofnfO{ x6fpg Pentium df Branch Prediction Logic k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . of] Locig sf]
pkof]u u/]/ Pentium n] jf:tljs ?kdf o; ;Dd cfO{k'Ug' eGbf klxn] Forthcoming Branching
Instruction Location yfxf kfpg] Ifdtf /fVb5 . csf{] zAbdf Pentium n] Instruction k|fKt x'g'
eGbf klxn] Microprocessor n] Coming Branching Instruction nfO{ Sense ub{5 . h;/L Branch Prediction
Logic n] Microprocessor Coming Instructiion nfO{ Sense ub{5 . To;} u/L 8KB Cache RAM n] o;nfO{
t'?Gt} Sub Routine Instruction sf] ?kdf Load ub{5 . oxfF of] Cache Instruction nfO{ Store
ug{sf nflu dfq} Reserve /flvG5 . hj Branching Instruction k|fKt x'G5 . Tof] gofF Memory
Location df hfg' nfO{ ;do w]/} nfUb}g Tof] t'?Gt} Cache df Load e} xfNb5 . o;
ljz]iftfsf] cltl/Qm Pentium df k|of]u ul/g] Nmeric Co-Processor klg 486 sf] eGbf w]/}
l56f] 5 . o;sf] Pipelining Structure df klg a[l4 ul/Psf] 5 . Microprocessor n] k|fKt ug{]
Instruction Set nfO{ Ps} k6s sfof{Gjog gu/L UP n] To;nfO{ ;fgf] b'O{ efudf
ljefhg ub{5 . Tof;nfO{ Ps} k6s sfof{Gjog ub{5 . csf{] zAbdf Microprocessor
nfO{ k|fKt x'g] Instruction Set ltg tkm{ km}lnPsf] Pipe df hf]l8Psf] h:tf] x'G5 .
h;n] ubf{ Tof] a/fa/ efudf b'O{ tkm{ ljefhg x'G5 . Microprocessor n] o;/L cfpg]
Instruction nfO{ Ps kl5 csf{] sfof{Gjog ul/ ;dosf] art ub{5 . olb Pipelining gx'g] xf]
eg] Microprocessor Pp6f Memory Locationn df hfG5 / To;kl5 k'g lkmtf{ cfO{ csf{] Location
af6 sfd ug{ yfN5 . h;n] ubf{ al9 ;do vr{ x'G5 . Pipeling n] of] ;d:ofnfO{
;dfwfg u/sf] 5 . Pentium Processor df csf{] ljlzi6 u'0f System Management Mode sf] k|of]u
xf] . x'g t of] klg 486 df h:t} tLg Mode h:t} Real Mode Protect Mode / Virtual Mode df sfd
ub{5 . t/ System Memory Management Mode sf] ;+of]hgn] Memory sf] pkof]udf ljlzi6tf k|
bfg ub{5 . cGo cltl/Qm ljz]iftfdf Power Managemet tyf High Level Security k|bfg ub{5 .
Pentium k|of]u ul/Psf s]lx ljz]if Register x?

Pentium df k|of]u ul/Psf ;a} Register x? ;a} h;f] 486 df h:t} 5g\ t/ Control / Flag
Register df s]lx kl/jt{g ul/Psf] 5 ltgLx? lgDg 5g\ .
a. Control Register :-
i. CD (Cache Disable ) :-
of] Pentium sf] Internal Dual Cache Memory Control ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 CD = 1 ePsf]
cj:yfdf Cache df Data Load x'b}g jf CD = 0 ePsf] cj:yfdf Cache df Data nuftf/ Load e}/xG5
.
 NW (Nowrite Through ) :- o;n] Cache sf] sfo{ Mode 5gf}6 ub{5 .

 AM (Alignment Mask) :- o;nfO{ Protected Mode df k|of]u ul/G5 . o;n] Checking / Alignment
ub{5 .
 WP(Write Protect) :- WP=1 ePdf gofF Data Memory Page df Write x'G5 . WP = 0 ePdf Data Write
x'b}g .
 NE (Numeric Error) :- NE = 1 ePsf] cj:yfdf FERR Pin df Pp6f Active Signal Generate x'G5 .
h;n] Numeric Processor n] ulNt u/]sf] ;+s]t ub{5 .
 VME (Virtual Mode Extension ) :- o;n] Virtual Interrupt Flag nfO{ pkof]u ug{] cg'dlt lbG5 .
hjsL Processor Protected Mode df sfd ul//x]sf] x'G5 . olb VME = o eof] eg] Interrupt
x'b}g . To;}n] Processor Protected Mode df rln/x]sf] x'G5 .
 PVI (Protected Mode Virtual Interrupt) :- of] klg VME h:t} ul/ k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .
 TSD (Time Stemp Disable) :- o;n] RDTSC Instrucion cyf{t Read Time Stemp Counter Control ub{5 .
 DE (Debuging Extention) :- hj of] Set x'G5 . tj IO Brake Point sf] cg'dlt lbG5 .
 PSE (Page Size Exetension) :- 4MB Memory Page ug{ Paging Unit nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 .
 MCE (Machine Check enable) :- o;n] Machine Check ug{ Interrupt nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 .
b. E- Flag (Extended Flag Register) :- of] Register df rf/ gofF Flag Bits hf]l8Psf] x'G5 .
h;n] sf] s]xL gofF ljz]iftf x?nfO{ Control ub{5 . h'g lgDg k|sf/ 5g\ .
Pentim
 ID (Identification Flag Register ) :- of] Flag CPU ID Instruction sf nflu k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .
 VIP (Virtual Interrupt Pending) :- Mircoprocssor sf] Protected Mode df Pp6f Virtual Interrupt Request
agfPsf] x'G5 . TotL a]nf of] Flag Set x'G5 .
 VIF (Virtual Interrupt Flag) :- of] VIP sf] ljkl/t Flag xf] .
 AC (Alignment Check) o;n] Control Register CRO df AM Bit sf] Status b]vfpb5 .
c. BIST (Built In Self Test ) :- Computer nfO{ On ubf{ BiST Enable x'G5 . Computer sf] Power
Switch On ubf{ Processor sf] INIT Pin df Pp6f High – 1 Signal lbO{Psf] x'G5 . hj Reset Pin
df Signal n] ckm\gf] Status df Logic – 1 b]lv Logic – 0 kl/jt{g ub{5 . Test z'? x'G5 .
of] Test df 150 Micro Sec df Processor sf] cflGtl/s ;+/rgfsf] 70% Check ub{5 . Test sf] Out
Put EAX Register df Store x'G5 . olb Test Result EAX = 0 x'G5 . tj Processor sf] ;a} lrh l7s
x'G5 . of] cj:ydf Processor sfd ug{ tof/ /xG5 t/ EAX = 0 ePg eg] Processor df
s'g} ;d:of x'G5 .
Pentium Processor sf Pin sf] klro

Pentium Processor sf] 237 Pin dWo 100 j6f Pin Power Supply / Ground sf nflu k|of]u
ul/Psf] 5 .
Pin No U5 (A20M) Address Bit 20 Mask :- Microprocessor Real Mode df k|of]u ubf{ Himem Sys
Driver;+u pkof]u ug{ of] Pin df Signal lbOG5 .
Pin No A31 b]lvA3 I/O:- oL Address Bus Pin x'g . h;n] (512K*64) Memory Location df Addressing
ub{5 . Bit A0,A1 / A2 nfO{ Bus Enable (BE0 – BE7) df Encode ul/G5 .
Pin P3 (AP) I/O :- of] Address Bus Parity (;d) Pin xf] . o;n] ;a} I/O Data Transfer ug{ ;dfgtf k|bfg
ub{5 .
Pin W3 (APCHK) O/P :- of] Address Parity Pin xf] hj s'g} Address Parity df Error Detect ub{5 .
of] Pin '0' Logic df x'G5 .
Pin P4 (ADS) O/P :- of] Address Data Strobe Pin xf] h'g gofF Bus Cycle z'? x'g] ;dodf Active
x'G5 . csf{] zAbdf hj Ps Memory jf IO Address Bus df Load x'G5 tj of] Pin df Signal Active
x'G5 .

PIN L2 ( A HOLD) : of] Bus Hold Request Pin xf] . hj Processor nfO{ of] Signal k|fKt x'G5 . tj
t'?G5 Addrss / cl3Nnf] Cycle sf nflu Address Parity signal nfO{ Hold ub{5 .
Pin W1 jf U4 (BE7 jf BE0) O/P :- of] Bytes Enable Pin xf] . of] Data Byte, Word Double jf Data sf]
Quad Word sf] sfo{ Select ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . of] Signa Address Bit A0, A1, / A2 af6 Microprocessor
n] cfGtl/s ?kdf Generate ub{5 .
Pin L4 (BRDY) I/P :- of] Brust Ready Signal Input xf] . hj Data Bus 4f/f Data Write ub{5 . tj External
Device n] o; Pin df Brust Ready Signal lbG5 .
Pin T3 (BuSCHK) I/P :- Bus Cycle l7s 5 5}g Check ub{5 .
Pin K4 (B Off) I/P Back Off :- afFsL /x]sf] Bus Cycle 5f]8\g' kbf{ of] Pin sf] k|of]u
x'G5 . hj Processor nfO{ of] Signal k|fKt x'G5 . To; kl5 cfpg] ;a} Bus Cycle 5f]8]/
System n] pkof]u u/]sf] Bus nfO{ pknAw u/fp+5 .
Pin V2 (BREQ) O/P :- (Bus Request ) :- Bus k|of]u ug{ Request cfP kl5 . Processor n] Internal Bus
Request Generate ub{5 .
Pin T8 W21, T7, TW20 (BT0-BT3) (Branch Trace) OP :- of] Traget jf Special Cycle sf] Least
Significant Bits xf] .
Pin B2 B3 (BP2, BP3) D2, C3 (PMO/BP0) (PM1/BP1) Brake Point Off Performance Moniter :- of] Brake
Point BP0 – BP3 Debuging Register 3 jf 2 sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . o;n] Brake Point Match ePsf]
b]vfp+5 . Debuging Mode Control Register df b]vfp+5 . Debuging Mode Control Register df Monitering
Bits n] Performance Monitoring Pin PM0 jf PM1 4f/f Set ub{5 .
Pin 4 (Cache) O/P :- Internal Cache df Data Read jf Write ePsf] Microprocessor sf] of] Pin n]
b]vfp+5 .
Pin K18 (CLK) I/P :- of] Processor sf] nflu Clock I/P Point xf] .
Pin D63 b]lv D0 :- I/O Data Bus h;n] Processor Memory I/O System ljr Data Byte, Data Word Double Word jf
Data Quad Word Transfer ub{5 .
Pin DP7 b]lvDP 0 I/P :- Data Parity Bus :- hj UP n] s'g} Data Write ul//x]sf] 5 tj Output Data sf
nflu Pp6f Parity Set ub{5 . hj Microprocessor n] Data Read ub{5 . tj Parity Ser n] Check
ub{5 .
Pin V4 (D/C) Data Control jf Code Bus Cycle :- of] Pin df Logic 1 x'G5 eg] System n]
Memory n] IO af6 Data k|fKt ul//x]sf] b]vfp+5 . t/ Microprocessor Suspend Status jf Hold jf cGo
s'g} Request sfof{Gjog ul//x]sf] eP of] Pin df Logic '0' x'G5 .
Pin A3 (EWBE) IP/ External Write Buffer Empty :-
External Device df ug{ cfjZos k/]df External System n] Pp6f Signal Input lbG5 .
Data Write
Pin M3 (EADS) I/P :- of] Pin df Data Bus sf] Ps Cycle df Ps dfGo Address lbPsf] ;'rgf lbg
Pp6f Signal Input lbOG5 .
Pin U2 (FLUSH) I/P :- Microprocessor sf] of] Pin df Signal k|fKt ePdf Internal Cache df ePsf]
Data ;a} x6fO{ lbG5 . t/ hj of] Pin df Logic '0' x'G5 . Microprocessor n] Reset Mode df sfd
ul//x]sf] x'G5 . tj t'?Gt} Test Mode df hfG5 .
Pin H3 (FERR) OP/ Floating Point Error :- Co-Processor n] s'g} ulNt u/]df pQm ;"rgf
lbG5 .
Pin M19 (FRCMC) I/P Fumnction Redone Check Master/Check mode :- of] Pin df Signal Logic 1 xF'bf U n] Reset
Mode df sfd ul//x]sf] eP Master Mode df Reset x'G5 . t/ '0' Logic x'Fbf Microprocessor Reset Mode
ePdf Checker Mode g} /lx /xG5 .
PIN W2 (HIT) OP :- o;n] Cache Memory df dfGo Data ePsf] b]vfp+5 .

n] Modified gofF Signal Cache Line df
Pin M4 (HITM) Hit In Modified Line ) OP :- Microprocessor
vf]lh/x]sf] ;'rgf aflx/L Master Device nfO{ lbg of] Pin df Modified Signal Output ub{5 . o;n]
Microprocessor n] Data gkfP;Dd Read ub{}g eGg] a'emfp+5 .
Pin Q3 (HLDA) OP/ Bus Hold Acknowledge :- Microprocessor of] ;dodf Hold State df
ePsf] ;'rgf lbg of] Pin df Signal Out put ub{5 .
Pin V5 (HOLD) I/P Bus Hold Request
Pin T19 (IBT) O/P Instruction Branch Taken
Pin N18 (INTR) I/P Maskable Interrupt
Pin C2 (IERR) )/P Internal Error
Pin S20 (IGNNE) I/P/ Ignore Numeric Error :- o;sf] sf/0fn] Numeric Processor n] u/]sf] Internal
Error nfO{ Ignore ul/lbG5 .
Pin T20 (INIT) I/P Processor Initiliziation (Warm Reset) :-
of] Signal sf] sf/0f Cache lrGg], Write Back Buffer / Floating Point Registers b]lvklxn] Reset
x'G5 . t/ o;nfO{ Ps k6s lrg] kl5 Reset sf nflu Microprocessor n] km]/L Tof] Signal k|
of]u ub{}g .
PIN A1 (INV) IP :- olb Inquare Cycle n] Internal Cache df HIT u/]s]f eP To;nfO{ cdfGo
agfO{ lbG5 .
PIN J2 (IU) OP/ Pipe Instruction Completion :-
Microprocessor n] of] Pin df lbg] Signal n]
df Instruction k"0f{ ePsf] b]vfp+5 .
U Pipe
Pin B1 (IV) OP/V – Pipe Instruction Completion :- V Pipe df
k"0f{ eP kl5 of] Signal O/P x'G5 .
Instruction
Pin J3 (KEN) I/P Cache Enable :- of] Signal k|fKt eP kl5 Internal Cache Enable x'G5 .
Pin V3 (Lock) Output /Locked Individual Buscycle :- hj Microprocessor nfO{ s'g} cufl8 Lock
n]v]sf] Instruction of] Pin df k|fKt x'Fbf Logic "0" x'G5 . Tolt j]nf Bus Cycle Lock x'G5 . of]
ljz]if ul/ Direct Memory Access sf] ;dodf x'G5 .
Pin A2 (M/IO) OP /Memory jf IO Bus Cycle :- o;df Signal High ePdf External Memory / Low ePdf IO
Device Select x'G5 .
Pin N19(NMI) IP/N On Maskable Intrrupt
Pin K3 (NA) I/P Next Address (External Bus Pipelingin sf nflu):- of] Signal System n] Microprocessor
nfO{ lbG5 o;n] Microprocessor nfO{ External Memory cufl8sf] Bus Cycel sf nflu tof/ 5
eGg] ;'rgf lbG5
Pin S3 (PWT) OP/Page Write Through / page Write Throuth for External Cache :- of] Output
n] Control Register df PWT Bit sf] l:ylt b]vfp+5 .
Pin W4 (PCD) O/P Page Cache (Internal) Disable :- o;n] Internal Page Caching Disable u/]sf] ;'rgf
lbG5 . o;sf] nflu Control Register df PCD Bit sf Status k|of]u ub{5 .
Pin M18 (PEN) I/P / Parity Check Enable) :- o;n] Machine Check Interrupt jf Exception nfO{ Enable u/fp+5
.
Pin U3 (PRDY) O/P / Probe Ready Output :- Microprocessor Debuging Mode df z'? x'Fbf of] Signal
lbOG5 .
Pin R3 (PCHK) O/P Data Bus Parity Error :- Parity Check ubf{ s'g} Error b]lvPdf Microprocessor
n] Pp6f of] Signal Output ub{5 .
Pin R18 (R/S) IP/ Intel Debug Port support Run /Stop :- of] Signal Interrupt sf] sf/0f Intel
Debuging ;+u} k|of]u ul/G5 .
PinL18 (RESET) IP / Processor Reset :- Microprocessor of] Signal k|fKt ubf{ Memory Location
FFFFFFFFFFFFFF df Store u/]sf] Reset Program nfO{ sfof{Gjog ub{5 . of] Signal n]
Microprocessor nfO{ Real Mode df Reset ub{5 .
Pin R4 (SCYC) Spilt Cycles for Locked Transfer :- olb Locked Bus Cycle Mis Align eof] eg] of]
Pin df Siganl Output x'G5 .

Pin 18 (SMI) I/P / System Management Intrrupt Request :- o;n] UP System Management Mode df
k|a]z ub{5 .
Pin T5 (SMIACT) O/P / System Management Mode Interrupt Active
Pin T21 (TCK/IDI) I/P Testability Clock I/P /test Data Input
Pin S21 (TDO) OP /Test Data Out :- of] Signal Tested Data nfO{ Shifting ug{ TCk ;fy k|of]u
ul/G5 .
Pin T19 (TMS) IP/ Test Mode select
Pin S18 (TRST) I/P Test Reset Input :- of] Signal n] Microprocessor nfO{ Test Mode df Reset
u/fpb5 .
tyf Write Bus Cycel :- o;df High Signal cfPdf System n] Bus Cycle n] Write u/sf] /
Pin N3 (W/R) OP /Read
Low cfPdf Read u/sf] b]vfp+5 . Pin N3 (WB/WT) IP/Write Back write :- of] Signal Microprocessor n] Data
Cache sf] sfo{ 5gf}6 ug{ k|of]u ub{5 .
Pentium PRO PROcessor sf ljz]iftfx?

a. 387 Pin PGA
b. Dual Voltage +3 / 3.3 V VCC
c. Pentium PRO Frist Version 256KB Level 2 II Version 512 KB Level 2 Cache
d. Real Mode df 64GB Addresing Capability
e. Instruction / Data cache cnu cnu
f. Instruction Cache , Instruction Fetch / Decoder Unit ;a}
;+u hf]l8Psf]n] (IFDU) 3 Instruction Clock
g. Jump Execution Unit , Address Generation Unit klg ;dfa]z 5 .
Pentium Pro sf] s]lx Control Register x? .

 VME :- Vrirual Mode Extension :- hj Microprocessor Protected Mode df sfd ul//x]sf] x'G5 . Tolt
j]nf Virtual Interrupt Flag nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 . VME = 0 ePsf] cj:yfdf Microprocessor Virtual
Mode df eP Interrupt Request ug{ ;Sb}g .
 PVI :- Protected Mode Virtual Interrupt :- o;n] klg VME n] h:t} sfd ub{5 .
 TSD (Time Stemp Disable) :- o;n] RDTSC cyf{t Read Time Stempcounter nfO{ Control ub{5 .
 Debuging Extension :- hj of] Set x'G5 . o;n] IO Brake Point Debuging nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5
.
 PSE (Page Size Extension) :- o;n] 2MB Pages df Memory Space nfO{ Page ug{ Paging Unit
nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 .
 MCE (machine check Enable) :- o;n] Machine Check ug{ Interrupt nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 .
 PAE (Page address Extension) : – hj of] Set x'G5 . o;n] Address Lines A32 b]lvA35 ;DdnfO{
Enable u/fpb5 .
 PGE (Page Size Extension) :- hj of] PGE PAE jf PSE ;+u Set x'G5 . tj Processor n] 64 KB
Extended Addressing Mode df sfd ub{5 .
Pentium PRO sf] Pin a0f{g

Pin A35 b]lvA3 ;Dd (Address) IO :- Address Bus Pin
Pin D0 b]lvD63 IO / Databus Pin :- Data Bus s'g} Data Transfer ug{ Ao:t 5 eg] Microprocessor
sf] I/P Pin df DBSY Siganl I/P lbG5 .
Pin A11(A20M) IP/Address bit 20 Mask Input :- Micro Proccessor Real Mode df k|of]u ul/Psf] ;dodf Himem Sys
Driver;+u k|of]u ug{ of] Pin df Signal lbOG5 .
of] Pin df Memory jf I/O Transfer ug{ Address Parity Bit lbOG5 . Address A23-A3
Pin U1 S9 (AP0-AP1) I/P :-
sf nfuL AP0 / A35 blv A24 ;Dd AP1 Parity Bit lbOG5 .
Pin W1 jf U4 (BE7 jf BE 0 ) OP/Bytes Enable Output:- of] Data Byte sf nflu ljsNk 5gf]6 sf nflu k|
of]u ul/G5 .

Pin A19 (BCLK) I/P/Bus Clock :- o;n] Microprocessor sf] Operating Frequency lgwf{/0f ub{5 .
Pin C5 (BERR) IO ./ Bus Error :- cGo Device af6 Machine Check Intrrupt (Non Maskable Intrrupt ) ug[sf nflu
Microprocessor df Input lbOG5 .
PIN AC 43 (BINIT) OP / Bus Intialazition :- h'g System sf] Switch on ug{] ljlQs} Active x'G5 .
Pin U7 (BNR) OP/ Next Request Signal :- Multiple Microprocessor System df Pp6f Microprocessor n] csf{]
Microprocessor nfO{ ;'lrt ug{ lbOG5 . hjsL Pentium Pro of] l:yltdf cGo s;}sf] Interrupt
Request Siganl nfO{ Receive ug{] cj:yfdf x'b}g .
Pin AC5 W3, AA-1, U9 (BR0,BR1, BR2, BR3) IP :- of] Pin df Microprocessor sf nflu Bus Reequest Signal
lbOG5 . of] Signal sf] k|of]u u/]/ ;dfg System df Ps ;dodf rf/j6f Pentium Pro Microprocessor
k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . Microprocessor sf] Lines BREQ0 b]lv BREQ3 klg o; cj:yfdf k|of]u
ug{ ;lsG5 .
Pin AE43 jf AC 39(BP2 BP3) O/P :- Microprocessor n] Brake Point Status b]vfpg of] Signal k|of]u ul/Psf]
x'G5 . of] Pin Debuging sf] ;dodf k|of]u x'G5 .
Pin AC41 jf AA39 (BPM0, BPM1) OP :- Debuging sf] ;dodf Programable Counters sf] Status jf Brake Point sf]
Status b]vfpgsf nflu Microprocessor n] Brake Point Monitor Signal k|of]u ub{5 .
Piin AC5 (BPR1) IP :- o;df Microprocessor nfO{ Priority Agent Bus Request Signal lbOG5 . h;n]
jt{dfgdf Bus Ao:t ePsf] ;'rgf lbG5 . hj o; Pin df Pp6f Active Signal x'G5 tj Microprocessor
nfO{ s'g} klg Bus n] Request ub{}g .
Pin Y5 (DEER) I/P :- of] Signal External Device n] Looking UP sf] ;dodf k|of]u ub{5 . of] ;dodf
cyf{t Internal Cache Memory nfO{ Search ub{5 . of] ;dPdf DEN Signal sf] klg k|of]u ub[5 .
Pin AC45, Y43, W39, AC47,W41, AA47, Y45,U39 (DEP0 b]lvDEP7 ;Dd) Op / Data Bus Error Correction Code (ECC)
Protection Signal :- Data df Single Bit Error Correction ug{ jf Double bit Error Detection ug{ lbOG5 .
Pin C17 (FERR) O/P :- o;n] Numeric Processor n] s'g} ulNt :jLsf/ u/]sf] ;"rgf lbG5 .
Pin A15(FLUSH) I/P :- of] Signal Input eP kl5 Internal Cache sf] Data x6\5 . t/ Microprocessor Reset
Operation df sfd ub{5 jf of] Pin Low ePdf Microprocessor Self Test df sfd ub{5 .
Pin C9 (FRECERR) IO/ :- hj Ps System df b'O{ Pentium hf]8LPsf] x'G5 tj Functional Re dendency Check
Error Signal k|of]u x'G5 . of] cj:yfdf b'O{ j6f Processor Ps hf]8fsf] ?kdf sfd ub{5 .
Pin AC3 (HIT) OP :- of] Signal n] Inquiring Device nfO{ Microprocessor n] Inquiry u/]kl5 Data k|fKt u/]/
Internal Cache nfO{ dfGo eof] eGg] ;'rgf lbG5 .
Pin AA7 (HITM) OP :- o;jf6 Output x'g] Signal af6 aflx/L Master device n] Microprocessor n] Inquiry Cycel
af6 gofF Data k|fKt u/]sf] / Cache df Load u/] kl5 dfq} Read ;'rgf k|fKt ub{5 .
Pin C3 (IERR) OP/ Internal Error (Parity or , Functional RedendencyERROR)
Pin A9 (IGNNE) OP / Ignore Numeric Error Indication Signal :- of] Signal sf] ;xof]un] Numeric Processor n]
b]vfPsf] ulNtnfO{ Ignore ul/lbG5 .
Pin C11 (INIT) IP/ Processor Initilization (Warm Reset) :- of] , Floating Point Unit
Sigal Cache Memory Write Back Buffer
Register cflbdf hfg' eGbf klxn] Microprocessor Reset x'G5 . Ps k6s Reset eP kl5 s'g} klg
lsl;dn] ToxL Signal Microprocessor Reset ug{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsb}g .
Pin AG43 jf AG41 (LINT)/INTR) , (LINT1,/NMI) IP :- of] Pin lgDg sfdsf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . a. Local
Interrupt b. Intrrupt Request Signal , Intr aflx/L Device 4f/f ul/Psf] Pp6f Interrupt Request AG43 df Input
x'G5 .
c. AG41 df External Device 4f/f ul/Psf] NON Maskable Interrupt Request xf] .
Pin V3 (LOCK) OP/ Locked (Individual ) bus Cycle :- of] Instruction Bus Lock ug{ k|of]u x'G5 . of] k|fo
DMA sf] ;dodf x'G5 .
Pin AA43 (PICCLK) IP / Clock Siganl Input Pin AA41 jf AE 41 (PICD0, PICD1) IO / Processor Interface Serial Data :-
Processor jf Interface device sf] ljrdf Bidrrectional Serial Data Transfor ug{ o;sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
PIn AG7(PWR Good) :- o;n] Power supply l7s ePsf] s'/f Processor nfo{ hfgsf/L lbG5 .

Pin W9, W7, Y3, W5 (REQ0, REQ1, REQ2, REQ3, REQ4, REQ5) IP :- Data Transfer ug{] k|sf/sf] jf/]df
kl/eflift ug{ Bit 0 b]lv Bit 4 k|of]u x'G5 h'g aflx/L Device n] l:jsf/ ub{5 .
Pin Y41 (RESET) I/P :- of] Pin af6 lbOPsf] Signal n] Microprocessor Real Mode df Reset x'G5 .
Pin AC47 (RP) IP :- o;df Parity Request Signal I/P lbOG5 . h; cg';f/ Microprocessor n] Parity Check ub{5
.
Pin AC9,AES AE7 (RS0, RS1, RS2) IP/ Response Status Signal :- o; cg';f/ Microprocessor n] Table df lgb{]zg
lbP cg';f/ sfd ub{5 .
Pin U3 (RSP) IP :- aflx/L Parity Checker Device 4f/f Response ul/Psf Parity Microprocessor n] Parity Error
ePsf] ;'rgf kfp+5 .
Pin W1 (SM1) SMMEM) IP System Management Interrupt Signal : of] Signal Microprocessor df lbbf Microprocessor n]
SMM df k|j]z ub{5 . hj Microprocessor System Management Interrupt jf Address Space
nfO{ sfof{Gjog ul//x]sf] x'G5 . TotL a]nf System Memory Management Mode Line Low Logic
df x'G5 .
Pin A3 (STPCLK) IP/ Stop Clock Input Signal :- of] Pin df Signal Low ePdf Microprocessor Power Down State df
k|j]z ub{5 .
Pin A5 (TCK) I/P / Testability Clock Signal
Pin A13 (TDI) IP/ Test Data Signal Input
Pin C13 (TDO) OP / Test Data Output :- Test Data Instruction Shift ug{ TCK ;+u} of] k|of]u ub{5 .
Pin C15 (TMS) IP/ Test Mode select Input :- of] Signal k|fKt eP kl5 Microprocessor Test Mode df k|j]z
ub[5 .
Pin Y9 IP :-of] Pin df External Device 4f/f Target Rady Signal lbOG5 . To; kl5 Microprocessor Data
Transfer ug{ tof/ /xG5 .
Pin AE 3 (ADS) I/O / Address / Data Strobe pin hj UP n] Memory jf IO df Address Load ub{5 of] Pin Active
Low x'G5 .
s]lx gofF Microprocessor / tLgsf ljz]iftfx?

Pentium III
of] Intel sf] Advanced CPU xf] . h'g Intel sf] k|d'v P6 Architecture df kb{5 . P6 Pentium Pro
b]lv z'? x'G5 . o;sf] jf/]df (P6 sf])Pentium Pro / Celeron Install ubf{ Bios df s'g} ;'rgf
lbOPsf] x'G5 . PIII Pp6f Slot df pknAb Device xf] . of] Note Book Version dfklg pknAw
5 . of] PII sf] Mother Board (h:t} SE 440 BX) df klg BIOS Microprocessor Grade u/]df k|of]u
ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf cGo ljz]iftf lgDg 5g\ .
 450 – 700 MHz Clock Rate

 100 MHz df External Device ;+u Communicate ug{] .
 o;df 70 j6f gofF Instruction Set 5g\ .
 4 Instruction per Clock Cycle
 3D Rendring , Video Image Comprasion, Internet Streaning Content cflb ljz]if sfd ug{ pko'Qm
Intel pentium II
Pentium II df Pentium MMX / Pentium PRO b'a} nfO{ Pp6} Chip df ;d]6]/ agfOPsf]
5 . 64 Bit Dual Independent Bus Architecture (System and Cache Bus) , 64 GB RAM df 2 Way Symetric Multiprocessing
ug{ ;Ifd, 16KB Instruction tyf 16 KB Data Internal Cache , 7.5 Million Transistor sf] 25 Micro Technology
cg[';f/ k|fof]u u/]/ al9 Speed / Low Power Consumption tyf Pentium PRO Processor sf] Dynamic
Execution df cfwfl/t CPU Clock sf] cfwf/df :jtGq Run x'g] Cache Bus , 166MHz tyf 333MHz Bus
Speed, PentiumII Syngle Edge Coontact (SEC.) df Pack ul/Psf] 5 . h;sf nflu Slot1 jf Slot 2 CPU Connector
ePsf] Mother Board cfjZos kb{5 . xfn of] 200MHz, 400Mhz, 450Mhz, 550MHz ;Dddf pknAw 5
.

Intel Celeraon
gofF Celeron CPU 128 KB on Board Cache / Slot 1 jf Socket 370 b'j}df pknAw 5 . Celeron
System ;:tf] d'No sf nflu gofF Design df ljz]if Architecture df pknAw 5 . Celeron Pentium II P6
Base df 7.5 Milion Transsistor / 25 Micro Technology df agfOPsf] 5 . 32 KB On Board Cache 1, Full MMX
Dynamic Execution Support df pknAw 5 .
Intel Pentium PRO

sf] gofF ljz]iftf ;lxt Release ul/Psf] 5 .
Pentium PRO Processor Dynamic Execution Technology
h;n] Multiple Branch dfkm{t Program Flow u/L vf; Instruction sf] kl/0ffd d'ns ;lqmotf (Eventual
Execution ) nfO{ ult lbG5 . of] k|lalw Data lj:n]if0fdf Executed Instruction sf] sfd sf]
cfwf/df Data sf] :jtGqtf / ;ls|otfdf Speed lbg vf; kl/jt{g x'g ;S5 . Super Scalar CPU ;
+u Ps eGbf al9 Instruction nfO{ ;u ;+u} ;ls|o kfg{] Ifdtf x'G5 . k|fKt ;+efAo
Computing Power nfO{ /fd|f] ;+u k|of]u ug{ Instuctiomnn x?nfO{ cg'dflgt (Speculative)
Instruction n] NofpFb5g\ . Pentium PRO 150 MHZ b]lv 200 MHz ;Dd / 16 KB Internal Cache ;lxt
pknAw 5 h'g 32 KB Cache ePsf pentium II / Pentium MMX ;+u t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 .
Intel Pentium MMX
Pentium MMX df 4.5 Milion Transsistor .33 Micro Technology
df agfOPsf] 5 . o;df Original Pentium /
Pentium Pro CPU sf] hDdf 32 KB 5 . Intel sf cg';f/ Pentium df
Double Level Instruction and Data Cache
eGbf Multimedia Performance Same Clock Speed 60% Faster 5 . of] SIMD (Sigle Instruction Multiple Data
Technology df cfwfl/t 5 . Intel MMX Technology df 75 gofF Instruction 4 gofF Data / 8 j6f 64 Bit Wide
MMX Techonology Register ;jdfj]z 5g\ . Pentium MMX CPU 166 MHz b]lv333MHz df pknAw 5 .
Intel Pentium R
of] dWo Superscalar Architecture df agfOPsf] klxnf] CPU xf] .
Pentium Processor Intel CPU
h;n] Per Clock Cycle Two Instruction Execute ub{5 . of] ToxL Frequency sf] 486 sf] eGbf 2 u'0ff
al9 Speed xf] . FPU (Floating Point Unit or Math Processor ) Per Clock Pulse Two FP – Instruction Excute ug{ ;S5 /
Pipeining ( Instruction Scheduling and Over Lap) klg 486 Same Clock Speed sf] eGbf 5 u'0ff al9
kfOG5 . ;fy} of] CPU On Chip Dual Processing Support ;fwf/0f Multi processor Mother Board / Soft Ware
Design / On board Interrupt Controller ;lxt Release ul/Psf] lyof] . o;df 3.3 Milion Transsistor ;dfj]z
5g\ . of] 5/7 Socket Processor xf] . 75 b]lv 200 MHz ;Dd pknAw 5 . 60 / 66 MHz Mode sf]
Processor dWod k|sf/sf] CPU xf] . of] 4 Socket Device xf] ._
AMD K6-3
K6-3 CPU AMD sf] K6 Line sf] ;aeGbf gofF CPU xf] . of] xfn 450 MHz df pknAw 5 .
256 KB On Board Cache ;lxt -h'g Brake Fast eGbf w]/} x'b}g_ pknAw 5 . o;sf] Full Advantage
sf nflu Super 7 Mother Board 100Mhz Cache cfjZos x'G5 . of] Over Clock sf] sf/0fn] Permanent
Damage x'G5 .
AMDK6-2
of] Pp6f CPU xf] . o;nfO{ AMD n] 5fofFdf kf/]sf] 5 . o;df xfn 3D sf] lj:t[t
5 . To;}n] of] Gammer sf nflu lk|o ePsf] 5 . s]xL Application df Intel sf] CPU
Instruction Set
sf] Out of Performance x'G5 . cyf{t AMD sf] Performance Intel sf] CPU sf] eGbf /fd|f] 5 . of]
Socket 7 CPU xf] . o;sf] gofF Version k'/fgf] eGbf w]/} l56f] Clock Speed df Run x'g ;S5 .
o;nfO{ k/fgf] Mother Board n] klg Support ub{5 . To;}n] o;sf] CPU l;w} Upgrade
ug{ ;Dej 5}g . lsgeg] of] CPU w]/} /fd|f] CPU xf] t/ Over Clock n] lju|G5 .
AMD K6

AMD K6 CPU RISC (Reduced Instruction set Computing ) CPU xf] . of] X86 sf] ;j} Instructioin / MMX
Instruction Set ;+u ldN5 . n] of] CPU Intel / Cyrix
AMD sf] 7 Socket ;+u ldN5 eg]/ 7f]s'jf
u/]sf] 5 . df Seven Parallel execution Unit, Two Branch Prediction Speculative Execution Full
Avanced RISC Design
Out of Order Excution Data Forwarding and Register Renamining cflb ;dfa]z 5g\ . To;} u/L 64 KB onchip L1
Cache, 32 Kb Instruction / Data sf nflu K6 df 8 j6f Branch Prediction, 192 Entry Branch History tabel, Branch Target
cache / Return Address Stack 5 . h;df AMD n] Combined Prediction Rate 95% eGbf /fd|f] ePsf] bflj
u/]sf] 5 . of] 8.8 Milion Transistor ldnfP/ 25 Microprocessor Technology df agfOPsf] 5 . of] 300
MHz df pknAw 5 .
AMD K 5 PRXX
sf] klxnf] CPU xf] . h'g k'/} RISC Technology df cfwfl/t 5 .
AMDK5 PRxx CPU AMD
o;n] ub{5 . h'g Dual Pentium sf] eGbf bf]Aa/ 5 . of] Pentium
Four Instruction Per Cycel Operte
Socket ;+u ldN5 . of] Pentium sf] Equevalent Performance ePsf] CPU xf] . of] 90 tyf 166 MHz
;Dd pknAw 5 .
Cyrix Media GX
xfn;Ddsf] Highly Intergrated CPU xf] . Cyrix w]/} sfd ug{] PC Adapter x?
Cyrix Media Gx
nfO{ ;fgf] ?kdf k|fo]u u/]sf] 5 . plgx/ o;nfO{ Virtual System Architecture eGb5g\ . of]
CPU b'O{j6f USB Port Support MPEG1 Decoding / MMX Support ug{] u/L agfOPsf] 5 . CPU tLg
j6f gofF cflj:sf/ klg ;dfj]z 5g\ . ltgLx? NfO{ Cyrix n] lgDg Trade Mark lbPsf] 5 .
Xpress RAM X pressGraphic / Xpress Audio , Xpress RAM df Memory Control Chip klg ;d]l6Psf] 5 eg] Direct
SDRAM Access sf] cg'dltn] External RAM sf] ;d:of ;dfwfg u/sf] 5 . Xpress Graphic n] Graphic
Adaptor nfO{ Replace u/sf] 5 . / dxuf] System RAM nfO{ Dynamically Configure u/]/ Video RAM sf
nflu k|of]u ul/Psf] 5. Xpress Audio n] Sound Card nfO{ Replace u/]sf] 5 . Media GX CPU
nfO{ cnUu} Mother Board cfjZos kb{5 . of] Note Book sf nflu ljz]if pko'Qm 5 .
Cyric M II
of] 7 Socket dual Viltage CPU xf] . h'g 2.9 V n] Core Running sf nflu / I/O Bus 3.3V n] sfd
ub{5 . of] MII X86 df cfwfl/t MMX Instruction cg';f/ sfd ub{5 . Enhanced Memory Management /
64 KB Internal Cache k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . MII 300 MHZ pentium II300 HHz sf] Equvalent ePsf] hfgsf/L
Cyrix n] lbPsf] 5 .
Cyrix 6X86 MMX

6X86 MMX CPU MMX ;+u k'/} ldNg] vfnsf] (Compatiable) 5 . h;df 64KB Internal RAM /
SCRatch Pad RAM Feature klg 5 . o;df Super Pipelined , SuperSclar Design df Multiple Instrouction Execution Per
Clock Cycle Out of order Execution, Speculative Execution / Data Dependency Reduction h:tf ljz]iftf 5g\ . of]
6X86 Socket 7 ;+u ldN5 . of] Pentium MMX sf] ljsNk xf] . of] 166 MHz / 266 Mhz df kfOG5 .
Cyrix 6X86
of] Original Pentium sf] k|lt:klw{ xf] . o;df 16 KB Dual Ported Unified Cache , 256 Entry Branch
Target buffer / Integrated CPU ;lxt pknAw 5 . of] xfn ahf/df 5}g .
System Performance
MIPS :- (Milion Instruction Persecond )
Program df
ePsf] Instroution Processor n] slt l56f] :jLsf/ ug{ ;S5 . To;s} cfwf/df
Processor sf] Speed lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . To;nfO{ Instruction Per Second df gflkG5 . t/
;a} cj:yfdf ;a} Instruction :jLsf/ ug{ Processor n] Pp6f ;dodf ;Dej 5}g . To;}n]
Processsor n] Ps Second df Enter ul/Psf slt j6f Instructin nfO{ ;ls|o kfg{ ;S5 eGg] s'/f
Instruction df e/ kb{5 . t/ s'g Instruction ;/n / s'g hl6n eg]/ 5'§fpg] sfd ;lhnf] 5}g t/

b'O{ j6f Processor nfO{ t'ngf ubf{ s'g rflxn] Simple Instrucition / s'g} n] Complex Instruction
Ps Second df slt j6f Manage ub{5 eg]/ yfx kfpg ;lsG5 .
Tof] eGbf /fd|f] Processor sf] Speed gfKg s]lx Standrard Instrucion Mix ug]{ / ltgLx?
b'a} Processor df k|of]u ug{] o;f] ubf{ Processor n] k|of]u u/]sf Instruction nfO{ Average
df lng ;lsG5 . To;nfO{ Milions Instruction Second (MIPS) elgG5 . of] tl/sf Processor sf] Speed
gfKg] tl/sf t xf] t/ o;n] Mis leading klg ug{ ;Sb5 . lsg eg] Specific Application df ToxL
Processor n] Per Second :jLsf/ ug{] Instrucion sd x'g ;S5 . h;n] ubf{ ;lx Speed sf]
d'Nofªsg gx'g ;S5 . klxn] Desk Top Computer sf] Performance 05 MIPS lyof] . t/ 386/486 Machine
sf] Perfermance 10 MIPS 5 . of] Level sf] Desk Tof] Computer x?nfO{ k/Dk/fut ?kdf Mainframe
Computer n] ug{] sfdx? h:t} :- Real Time Modelling, Animation tyf Equation Solving cflb sfdx?df
k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
Clock and Land Mark Speed
System Performance gfKg] ljlw MIPS eGbf csf{] ljlw Clock Speed xf] . x/]s Computer df
Master Clock x'G5 . h;n] Computer leq ;a} sfo{sf] ;+of]hg ub{5 . s'g} Instruction k"0f{
x'g / l56f] Run x'g Clock Rate df e/ kb{5 . Clock Rate nfO{ MHz df gflkG5 . Milion Clock
Pulse Per Second . s'g} Program ljleGg Machine df Run x'g nfUg] Clock Time kQf nufpg ;lsG5
. Processor sf] Potantial Performance gfKg Clock Speed dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . s'g} Point df Instruction
k'Ug] Rate lgwf{/0f x'g ;S5 . Machine sf] Clock Double ubf{ Program Run x'g] Time 36\g
(cfwf x'g) ;Dej 5 . Ps} k|sf/sf Processor sf] Speed gfKgnfO{ Clock Speed /fd|f] x'G5 t/
km/s km/s lsl;dsf Processor sf] Speed gfKg pko'Qm dflgb}g . cem} klg Intel Family
sf] Machine sf] Power Clock Speed sf] cfwf/df a9]sf] kfOG5 . Frist PC 4.77MHz , Frist AT 6 MHz
Fastest 286AT 10, 12, 16Mhz / 386,16,20,25,33,Mhz 486 25,, 40, 66, 100 Mhz etc 486 w]/} s'/x?df 386 eGbf
km/s 5}g t/ Instruction Persecond w]/} 5 jf Clock Cycle sd 5 . / 486DX2 sf] External Bus Clock Speed
Double 5 . h;n] ubf{ ;j} Instruction cfwf ;dodf k|fKt ub{5 .
Land Mark Speed sf] k|of]u ug{ w]/} ;'rgf Pp6f Clock Speed df k7fpg ;Dej 5 .
Land Mark Speed Machine sf] pko'Qm / jf:tljs Performance sf] gfk lng pko'Qm 5 . t/
pTkfbsn] eg]sf] Clock Speed ;lx 5 eg] o;n] klg Misleading ug{ ;Sb5 . 486 Machine df
Speed 386 Sx / DX sf] eGbf al9 jgfpg Cache Memory k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
Note :- Per Clock Instructtion Modity ul/PSf] cj:ydf Clock Speed Measure n] Mis leading ug{ ;S5 .
km/s km/s ePdf Land Mark Speed pkof]uL x'G5 .

Clock Pulse Instruction
P:t} k|sf/sf System sf] Performnce gfKg MIPS pkof]uL x'G5 .
Data Transfer Rate
Clock Speed / n] System sf] Potential Power dfq} b]vfpb5g\ . Machine df Processor
MIPS
Memory Disk tyf Video h:tf Syb System x? klg x'G5g\ . oLgLx? sf] ljrdf Cable 4f/f
;Dks{ u/fOPsf] x'G5 . h;nfO{ Data Bus elgG5 o;df lgod jf Protocals klg x'G5 .
h;n] Data nfO{ sxfF / s;/L Transfer ug{] eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ub{5 . o;nfO{ Data High
Way klg elgg5 . b'O{ Sysem Component sf] aLrdf Transfer x'g] Data n] Program slt l56f] Run
x'G5 eGg] s'/f b]vfpF5 . ljleGg Program sf] Data Transfer Rate km/s km/s x'G5 .
pbfx/0fsf] nflu DTP / Data Base Program Memory to Disk Transfer x'g nfdf] ;do lnG5 . o;df
ePsf] Program sf] Data Transfer Rate slt High x'G5 eGg] s'/f Speed sf nflu w]/} dxTjk"0f{
x'G5 . Data Transfer Rate per Second df gflkG5 . Data Transfer Rate df b'O{ s'/fn] k|efj
kf/]sf] x'G5 . a. Clock Speed :- Clock Speed eg] 1 OsfO Data Transfer x'g] Rate xf] eg] b. Band
Width :- Band Width eg]sf] Data Transfer sf] Size xf] csf{] zAbdf Data Transfer ug{ k|of]u x'g]

tf/sf] ;+Vof eGg] a'lemG5 . ;fdfGotof 1 Bit Data Transfer ug{ Pp6f tf/ rflxG5 . 8086
df 8 Bit 286 df 16 Bit 386 / 486 df 32 Bit tyf Pentium df 64 Bit Data Bus k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . o;
lgod cg';f/ Data Bus hlt rfF8f] 5 Tolt g} Data Transfer Rate High x'G5 . ;fdfGotof Bus sf]
Size / Clock Pulse n] Maximum Data Transfer Rate b]vfp+5 jf ljleGg Aofjxfl/s cj:yfdf Maximum
Rate eGbf w]/} sd Data Transfer ug{ ;Sb5 .
h:t} :-
Ps k6sdf slt Data Transfer ug{] eGg] s'/f Processor df e/ kb{5 . Data Bus df
ePsf] Data Transfer ug{] lgodnfO{ Protocal elgG5 . of] x/]s Bus df x'G5 . Bus Protocal
;dfa]z eP/ Ps eGbf al9 af6f]df Data Transfer ug{ ;S5 .
slt k|sf/sf Bus k|of]u ug{] ?

k/Dk/fut ?kdf Pp6} Bus n] Processor Disk RAM tyf Video nfO{ tyf cGo Sub System
nfO{ hf]8\g . o;f] ubf{ Ps k6sdf Pp6f Sub System af6 Data Transfer x'g ;S5 . h;n]
ubf{ ;a} System Component x? Processor ;+u Direct Connect x'g5g\ .
cfw'lgs Design df Internal Bus sf] cltl/Qm Pp6f Extrenal Bus klg k|of]u ul/Psf]
x'G5 . h;n] External Component nfO{ System ;+u hf]8\b5 . o]f jf:jtdf yk P]lR5s xf] .
of] Design pTkfbs sf nflu ;:tf] / pkef]Stf sf nflu k|efjsf/L 5 . External Bus lglZrt
Standard df x'G5 . To;}n] s'g} Advance Feature sf] Device klg hf]8\g ;lsG5 .
Chip Dx jf Sx s] xf] ?
Machine sf ;a} Clock Rate / Data Bus n] Speed lgwf{/0f ug{] s'/f ;To xf]Og . t/
Processor Chip sf nflu eGg] ;To xf] . Computer df Processor n] Internal Data Bus Internally Data Transfer
ug{ / Clock ;j} Internal Operation nfO{ Synchronize ug{ k|of]u ub{5 . w]/} h;f] cj:yfdf
External Bus / Clock n] External Data nfO{ Chip leq h:tfsf] t:t} Nofpg] x'G5 . t/ o:tf]
gx'g klg ;S5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu 386 Dx df Full 32 Bit Internal / External bus k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
t/ 386SX df 32 Bit Internal / 16 bit External bus k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . To:tf] ePdf Chip leq 32 Bit / 16
nfO{ 32 bit df Conversion ug{ yk Electronic Circuit k|of]u ug{' kb{5 .
Internal Clock nfO{ km/s kf/]/ klg Data Bus Size a9fpg ;lsG5 . 486DX2 klg Standard
486DX xf] t/ o;df Clock Double Circuit yk 5 . Doubling Circuit n] Clock nfO{ Double ub{5 . To;sf]
cy{ aflx/af6 Pp6f Data k|fKt u/of] eg] cfwf Time df Processing ub{5 . Externally Data
Transfer Rate klg p:t} x'G5 . o;sf] cy{ Power a9fpg' xf]Og t/ Speed eg] 50% n] a9\5 .
Processor sf] Set

cfw'lgs Model sf] Computer df x/]s sfdsf nflu km/s km/s Co-Processor k|of]u
ul/G5 . Numeric Co – processor klg yk Processor xf] . h;n] ;a} Arithmetic tyf Logic Instruction x?
Process ub{5 . Numeric Processor Fit gu/]sf] Processor nfO{ Arithmetic Operation ug{ w]/} ;do
nfUg] x'G5 . Numeric Processor ;fdfGotof Intrnal Bus 4f/f hf]l8Psf] x'G5 . of] ;w}
Porcessor sf] glhs} /x]/ ljlzi6 sfd ub{5 . cGo k|sf/sf Co-processor x? h:t} Graphic Co-
processsor, Disk Processor cflb Processor sf] glhs x'b}gg\ / Main Processor ;+u External Bus
dfkm{t hf]l8G5 . ;fdfGo System df Processor n] ;w} Bus df Data Transfer ug{ Charge
ul/ /xG5 . t/ olb cGo Device ;+u Power 5 eg] Bus nfO{ Control ub{}{g . Bus Control
ug{] Ifdtf ePsf] Device nfO{ Bus Master elgG5 . cfw'lgs External Bus h:t} ISA, MCA, / EISA
x?nfO{ Multiple Bus Master n] :jLsf/ ub{5 . To;}n] o;sf] k|of]u ;/n / hl6n klg
x'G5 . Share ul/Psf] Bus n] Bus Master n] h:t} Data Transfer ug{ Processor af6 cg'dlt kfpF5
. pbfx/0f sf] nflu Disk sf] Data Memory df Transfer ug{ rfx]sf] eP x/]s Data Disk af6

Processorn] kfpF5 / Processor af6 aNn Memory df hfG5 . Porcessor ;+nUg geOsg cGo
System Component nfO{ l;w} Data Transfer ug{ Multiple Bus Master kmfObf hgs 5 . Processor
nfO{ By Pass ul/ l;w} Memory df Data Transfer ug{] Pp6f ljsNk ;DjlGwt ljlw DMA xf] .
DMA Controller n] ;fwf/0ftof Ps eGbf al9 Device af6 Memory df Diret Data Transfer ug{]
Aoj:yf ldnfpg ;S5 . t/ x/]s ;+u Pp6f DMA Channel x'g cfjZos 5 . DMA Pp6f /fd|f]
l;4fGt xf] .
;fdfGo k|0ffnLdf Pp6f dfq} Device Processor n] Main Bus df Data Transfer nfO{
Control ug{ ;S5 . TofxF Bus nfO{ Minimize ug{'sf] 7'nf] kmfObf 5}g . olb Processor
n] Bus sf] k|of]u u/]g eg] ;fdfGo tof Tof] lgl:qmo g} /xG5 . Adavanced System df
Ps eGbf al9 Device n] Bus df x'g] Data Transfer nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ ;Sb5 ? Bus sf]
pkof]u df of] dxTj k"0f{ k|Zg 5 . olb Processor n] RAM af6 / RAM nfO{ Data Transfer
ug{ 100% aGb u/of] eg] cGo s'g} klg Device n] To; Bus df Data Transfer ug{ ;Sb}g .
To:tf] cj:yfnfO{ Bus 'Luck Out" jf "Bus Hogging" x'G5 . o;df Processor dfq} bf]ifL x'b}g
s'g} klg Device x'g ;S5 .
Wait States :-
Bus Transfer sf] Pp6f hl6n kIf Wait State xf] . olb s'g} Device n] Data lng] Speed
eGbf l56f] Bus n] Data Transfer ub{5 eg] Device n] Data lng Ready x'bf ;Dd klv{/xg'
kb{5 . To;}nfO{ Wait State elgG5 . cyf{t Slow Device af6 Processor n] Data k|fKt
ug{ nfUg] ;dog} Wait State xf] . Processor n] Slow Memory af6 Data Transfer ug{ Bus k|of]u
u/]sf] 5 / Data Wait State df 5 eg] Wait State nfO{ Clock sf] ;+Vofdf u0fgf ul/G5 .
pbfx/0fsf nflu 20MHz sf] Machine Pp6f Wait State ;lxt Memory af6 sfd ul//x]sf] eP Processor
n] Memory Access ug{ x/]s k6s Ps Pluse Clock sf nflu kv{g' kb{5 . To;} u/L Wait State
sf] ;+Vof sd ePdf Speed a9\g] / w]/} ePdf 36\g] x'G5 . 386/486 Machine n] Memory
Access ug{ b'O{ eGbf al9 Clock Cycle lnG5g\ . Internal Clock Double ug{'sf] pb]Zo Wait
State 36fpg' xf] . 486DX df Internal Clock Double ul/Psf] 5 . Wait State 36fpg' xf] . 386/486 df
125 S (16Mhz) sf] Memory k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . 16Mhz df b'O{ Clock aLrsf] km/s 62.5 MHz
(1/16MHz) x'G5 / Processor n] 125 S x/]s b"O Clock Pulse df Memory Access ub{5 . t/ 16Mhz sf]
Machine Wait State ljgfg} sfd ub{5 . xfnsf System df Wait State 36fO{ Speed a9fpg Cache
Memory sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
Computer Memories
sf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ c+u (h;df Data tyf Instruction Store ul/G5 ) nfO{
Computer
Memory elgG5 . o;n] Data jf Instruction nfO{ Binary Code df Store ub{5 . z'?df Pp6f Binary Bit
Store ug{ b"Oj6f Vacum Tube sf] k|of]u x'GYof] . t/ xfn Pp6f Valve n] k|of]u ug{]
7fFpdf nfvf}sf] ;+Vofdf Data Store ug{ ;lsG5 . xfn Vacum Tube sf] ;bf Chip nfO{
Memory Device sf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/G5 . o;n] Power klg sd vr{ ub{5 . Memory nfO{
Primary Memory / Secondary Memory eg]/ auL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . Primary Memory df klg Read Only /
Random Access Memory df ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 . oL b'a} Memory sf ljz]iftf x? (Address
Connection , Data Bus Connection / Control Connection) ;dfg x'G5g\ . t/ Semiconductor RAM df c:yfoL?
kdf dfq] Data Store x'G5 . Microprocessor df cfwfl/t System df Program / System Diagnostic ROM
df /flvPsf]] x'G5 . ;fdfGotof Data Semiconductor RAM df Store ul/G5 . h'g Bipolar Transistor
af6 agfOPsf] x'G5 . o;n] Data 100NS jf Tof] eGbf sd ;dodf k|fKt ub{5 . ROM klg
ljleGg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ .
I. Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM nfO{ klg ljleGg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 h:t} :- PROM, EPROM, EEPROM,
cflb ROM agfpg] k|ls|ofsf] cGtdf s'g} Program xflnG5 . Prom df k'g Program eg]

ldN5 . o:tf] Machine nfO{ PROM Burner or PROM Programmer elgG5 . of] Ps k6s dfq}
ug{ ;lsG5 . EPROM df Erase klg ug{ ;lsG5 . EPROM nfO{ High Intensity sf] Ultra Voilet Light 6
b]lv 10 Minutes ;Dd lbO{ Erase u/fOG5 . EEPROM To:tf] ;fwg xf] . h;nfO{ Read Mostly
Memory (RMM) klg elgG5 . o;nfO{ Extended Time Period df Data Store ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . ROM
nfO{ Computer df BIOS df k|of]u ul/G5 eg] cGo pks/0fdf Control Device s]f ?kdf k|
of]u ul/G5 .
II) RAM (Random Access Memory) :-
o;nfO{ Computer df Main Storage sf] ?kdf Data jf Instruction nfO{ Temporary Store ug{ k|
of]u ul/G5 . o;df ePsf] Data jf Instruction Computer sf] Power OFF ubf{ ;a} d]l6G5 .
To;}n] o;nfO{ Volatile Memory klg elgG5 . of] klg ljleGg k|sf/sf] x'G5 .
Static RAM (SRAM) :- l56f] / dxuf] 5 ;fy} w]/} 7"nf] kl/df0fdf k|fKt x'b}g .
Static RAM df 1 Bit Data Store ug{ b'O{ j6f Transistor k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . h; dWo Pp6f
On x'Fbf csf{] Off x'G5 . To;}cg';f/ Tof] Location df1 or 0 bit Store x'g] eGg] lgwf{/0f
x'G5 . o;nfO{ Cache Memory df k|of]u ul/G5 .
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) :- of] SRAM sf] t'ngfdf Slow, ;:tf] / 7"nf] kl/df0f df pknAw x'G5 .
Dynamic RAM df Pp6f Transistor nfO{ 1 / 0 Bit Store ug{] Device sf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf]
x'G5 . h'g Capacitor sf] Charge h:tf] Charge x'G5 / lj:tf/} Leak x'G5 / s]lx Mili Second df
g} Data d]l6G5 . To;nfO{ k"g n]Vg' kg{] x'G5 . o:tf] k|s[ofnfO{ Memory Refreshing
elgG5 . Memory Refreshing ug{] sfd Memory Controller n] ub{5 . of] klxnf] k6s 80 sf] bzs
lt/ k|of]u eP kl5 xfn;Dd klg DRAM g] k|of]u e}/x]sf] 5 . o;nfO{ klxn] c:jLsf/
klg ul/Psf] lyof] . xfn o;sf] ;§fdf DRAM eGbf 5 u'0ff l56f] 1 Bit Wide 64KB Dip (Dual in line
Package ) nfO{ k|of]u u/]/ agfOPsf] 72 bit Wide 64 MB DIMM (Dual in Line Memory Module ) k|of]u
ul/G5 .
SDRAM (Synchronus Dynamic RAM) :- o;n] af:tljs ?kdf Memory sf] Band Width nfO[ System
Clock ;+u Synchronise u/L a9fp+5 . o;n] Time Delay eP/ l;h{gf x'g] Wait State sf]
;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfg ub{5 . Mother Board / BIOS SDRAM Install ug{ x'g] ul/ Designn ul/Psf]
x'G5 . Mother Board df SIMM Slot sf] Voltage Jumper af6 Set ug{ ;lsG5 . h:t} 3V jf 3.3V cflb .
EDORAM (Extended data Out RAM) :- o;n] Sequential RAM af6 Read ubf{ 5f]6f] ;dodf Data Recover u/[/
Memory sf] Perfermance g} 20 % n] a9fp+5 . EDORAM cGo h:tf] Compatible 5}g cyf{t o;n]
FPMRAM dfq} Support ub{5 . t/ Mother Board / BIOS n] EDO Access ug{ ljz]if Support ug{]
cj:ydf Performance Gain df j[l4 gx'g ;S5 . of] Series df BEDO(Brust ED) Performance df csf{] tx
xf] cyjf Memory af6 Brust sf] Bytes CPU sf] Single Request df dfq} Transferred x'G5 . olb CPU
n] kl5Nnf] Fetch sf nflu bf]>f] Sequencial Memory Address cfjZos kb{5 eg] Pp6f sfd
Save x'G5 .
Parity And ECC RAM (Error Code Correction) RAM df x'g] Error yfxf kfpg b'O{ k|sf/sf
;femfljlw ckgfpg ;lsG5 . ltgLx? ;a} Computer leq ;a} k|sf/sf Data Transfer df Integrity
Monitor ug{ cyjf Modem af6 Serial Transfer Monitor ug{ klg k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . Parity, Data sf]
Extra Parity Bit yKg] k|s[of ;+u ;DjlGwt 5 . h'g x/]s Byte sf] ;+Vof cg';f/ 0 jf 1 Set
ul/G5 . cyjf Even jf Odd ;+u ;DalGwt x'G5 . Parity Check Fail ePsf] cj:ydf Memory Controller
n] s'g rfxL Bit uNtL eof] eg]/ lgwf{/0f ub{}g . To;}n] System n] pQm Data Transfer
ug{ ;f]W5 jf System nfO{ Parity Error sf] sf/0fn] Halt u/fp+5 . Pp6} Byte df b"O{ Bit
x6]sf] eP klg Parity Check n] Parity Error gePsf] Report lbG5 . hj;Dd Byte sf] Comprasion Value
Even jf Off /xG5 . w]/} PC df Parity Check Off ug{ CMOS df Option x'G5 . Error Correction Code
(ECC) n] Memory Single or Multiple Bit Error nfO{ kQf nufpg / Correction ug{ ;Sb5 . t/ o;nfO{ Per
Byte df Extra Bit tyf Memory Controller df kms{g Extra Bit tyf Memory Controller RAM agfpg / k|of]u

ug{ w]/} vlr{nf] kb{5 . of] Server jf Engineering Work Station df w]/} k|efjsf/L x'G5 .
Mother Board sf] Circuit nffO{ ;/n agfO{ gofF ljsf/ ul/Psf] Memory nfO{ EOS (ECC On Board
SIMM) elgG5 .
Prom sf] Base df Fuse lbOG5 . Program ubf{ ljufl/G5 . h;n] ubf{ Storage Change
x'G5 .
;fdfGotof Address ubf{ Row / Data lnbf Cloumn af6 Output x'G5 .
CPU n] Memory Read ug{] ;dodf lgDg qmd cg';f/ ub{5 .
 MAR nfO{ k7fp+5 .

Address
 nfO{ Read Signal k7fp+5 . Memory Control Unit n] Address Bit nfO{
Memory Control Unit
Decode ub{5 . Location kQf nufp+5 / k9g yfN5 . o;f] ubf{ MDR af6 k9\g
s]lx Time vr{ ub{5 .
 k|ofKt ;do kl5 CPU n] MDR af6 Information k|fKt ug{ yfNb5 . CPU n] Memory df
n]Vg] sfd ubf{ lgDg qmd ckgfpF5 .
 MAR nfO{ Address k7fp+5
 MDR nfO{ Data k7fp+5 .
 Memory Control Unit nfO{ Write Signal k7fp+5 . Memory Control Unit n] Address Bit nfO{
Decode ul/ Write ug{] Location kQfnufp+5 / MDR sf] Data ;DalGwt Location df n]Vg
z'? ub{5 .
Memory n] Read Signal kfP kl5 ;DalGwt 7fpFaf6 Data k7fpg nfUg] ;donfO{ Memory
Access Time elgG5 . of] Semiconductor Memory df 100NS x'G5 . CPU n] Access Time k'/f eP kl5
dfq} n] Data k|fKt ug{ yfNb5 .
Memory n] Read Access ug{' eGbf cufl8 klg s]lx sfd ul//x]sf] x'G5 . To;}n]
MDR af6 Read Information cfO{ ;s]kl5 klg Memory n] tTsfn Memory Read ug{ ;Sb}g . o;/L
Memory Read tof/ x'g' eGbf cufl8 / Memory Access Time sf] of]unfO{ Memory Cycle Time
elgG5 .
Cache Memory :-
Cache Memory yk sf] Pp6f Block xf] . o;nfO{ Processor n] Direct (ljgf Wait State )
SRAM
Data jf Information Read and Write ug{ k|of]u ub{5 . CPU df k|of]u ul/g] Intrernal Cache Data /
Instruction b'a} sf nflu Combined x'G5 . / of] 32 KB b]lv 64 KB ;Dd x'G5 . t/ of] Program /
Hard Disk sf] Size cg';f/ lgwf/{0f ul/G5 . To;} ul/ External Cache klg k|of]u ug{
;lsG5 . h;n] Internal Cache nfO{ Support ub{5 . of] 512 KB ;Dd x'G5 . o;df klg SRAM g}
k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . h'g w]/} l56f] / (DRAM egbf 5 u'0ff l56f] ) dx+uf] x'G5 .
o;nfO{ Refreshing ug{' kb{}g . CPU n] s'g} Data Access ug{ rfxG5 eg] Cache n] Tof]
CPU nfO{ pknAw u/fp+5 (o;nfO{ Cache Hit elgG5 _ . External Cache Chip DIP (Dual Inline
Package ) Type x'G5 . of] ljleGg Size, Speed / Capacity df e/ kb{5 . External Cache sf] Size
lgwf{/0f ug{ Mother Board df Jumper x? lbOPsf] x'G5 . To;} cg'';f/ 36a9 ug{
;lsG5 . h:t} 256 KB Cache PCB df eP Jumper x? af6 128 KB jf 64KB jf cGo ;+efAo dfg
lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . Cache Chip 20NS 15NS / 25 NS df kfOG5 .
Memory Bank and DMA
eGgfn] 30 Pin sf] SIM eGg] a'lemG5 . o;nfO{ Eight
SIMM (Single Inline Memory Dodule)
Bit SIMMklg elgG5 . lsgeg] o;n] 8 Bit Format df Information Store ub{5 . 286 jf 386 SX CPU 16
Bit sf] x'GYof] . To;}n] 30 Pin sf] b'O j6f 8 Bit sf] SIMM /xGYof] . h;af6 16 Bit Wide
Memory Bank ;[hgf x'GYof] . To;} u/L 386DX / 486 sf nflu Four Bank Memry cfjZos
kb{Yof] . o;df 32 Bit Wide rf/ j6f Bank jgfpg 8 Bit sf] rf/ j6f SIMM rflxGYof] . s]lx

jif{ cufl8 72 Pin sf] 32 bit Wide SIMM ahf/df NofOof] . To;sf] cy{ 486 CPU nfO{ Memory
Bank Creat ug{ 72 Pin SIMM cfjZos kb{Yof] . Pentium Processor (h'g 64 Bit sf] lyof] ) nfO{
Memory Bank sf nflu 72 Pin sf] 2 j6f SIMM cfjZos k-of] . o;df 2 j6f 32 Bit sf] SIMM k|of]u
u/]/ 64 Bit agfOGYof] . xfn gofF DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module ) cfof] h'g 72 Pin sf] 5 .
of] Pp6}n] Pentium sf] nflu Memory Bank aG5 .
olb CPU nfO{ cfjZos kg{] Information Hard Drive df ePdf / Software Routine (Special House
Keeping Program) nfO{ Disk Controller n] lrg]df / BUS Controller dfkm{t cfjzos Information :jLsf/
u/]df / Memory df Tof] k|of]usf nflu Store ePdf k'/fgf Computer x?df ;a} Memory
Management CPU n] ub{Yof] . xfnsf Designer x?n] k|of]u ul/Ps]f Adaptor nfO{ s'g} dfg
lbP/ CPU sf] Routine ljgfg} l;w} Memory Access ug{ ;Sg] agfPsf 5g\ . CPU n] csf{] sfd
ug{ Ao:t e}/x]sf] a]nfdf ljleGg Adaptor x?nfO{ Memory k|of]u ug{ DMA n] dWo:y
sf] sfd ub{5 . of] ;'4 Binary Code df sfd ug{] Chip xf] . DMA Pp6f Two Way af6f] xf] .
CPU n] klg DMA Coutroller nfO{ Adaptor sf nflu Memory Block Trransfer ug{ lgb{]zg lbg ;S5 .
h:t} Hard Disk df data Write ug{ jf Sound Card af6 Music lkmtf{ ug{ cflb .
Memory BUS
Memory Bus n] CPU nfO{ Memory Access lbG5 . of] s]lx 8 MB / Pentium Class System df 64
MB x'G5 . of] Bus sf] Speed 486 CPU cfP b]lv (1993 b]lv ) 66MHz g} 5 . lsg eg] Main Memory
df DRAM k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . h'g Tof] eGbf l56f] Run x'g ;Sb}g . To;}n] CPU
n] 66MHz Bus ;+u sfd ug{ Wait State sf] cfjZostf kb{5 . gofF 100 MHz sf] SDRAM Memory
gofF Model sf] Mother Board Socket 7 tyf Slot 1/2 System ;+u Design ul/of] .
Real Mode and Protected Mode

8088/8086 Base sf Processor
k|of]u ul/Psf PC df 1 MB Memory k|fKt ug{ ;lsGYof], h'g
IBM n] Application nfO{ tf]s]sf] 640KB afx]s afFsL 384 KB System ROM, Graphic Memory tyf cGo
k|of]hgsf nflu 7"nf] kl/df0f lyof] . ha 286 nfO{ 16MB Memory sf] k|of]u ;lxt Introduce
u/fOof] / 386 t emg c? 4GB a9L Memory ;lxt . b'ef{Uoaz MSDOS cGtu{t b'j}
Processor 8088/8086 a/fa/ dfq} sfd ug{ ;Sg] eP / Tof] Mode df 1 MB Memory dfq} Access
ug{ ;Sg] eP . 386/486 n] 8088/8086 n] a/fa/ dfq} sfd ug{ ;Sg] cj:yfnfO{ Real Mode
elgG5 . pQm Mode df sfd ug{] Software nfO{ Real Mode Software elgG5 . 386/486 sf] Neutral
Mode g} Protected Mode xf] . Protected Mode df sfd ug{] Software nfO{ Protected Mode Software
elgG5 . Protected Mode n] Multitasking sf] ;'ljwf klg lbPsf] 5 Multitasking sf] ;d:of eg]sf]
nfkaf{xL tl/sfn] Computer Operate ug'{ xf] . lsgeg] o:tf] cj:yfdf Memory df Ps eGbf
al9 Program x'G5 / Psn] csf{] nfO{ Interfer ug{ ;S5 eg] Whole System g} Crash x'g]
;Defjgf klg /xG5 . Protected Mode n] Privilage Level sf] Range Provide ub{5 / s'g} Program k|
of]u u/]/ Memory Region Check ug{ ;lsG5 . oLg} Protection Mechanism sf] sf/0fn] of] Mode
nfO{ Protected Mode elgPsf] xf] . MSDOS Real Mode Operating System xf] eg] OS/2 Protected Operating
System xf] .
Virtual 8086 Mode

tyf Protected Mode df sfd ug{ ;Sb5g\ . t/ 386 csf{] yk Mode Virtual 8086
286/386 Real
Mode df klg sfd ug{ ;S5 . of] Mode n] w]/} 8086 Processor a/fa/ u/]/ 1 MB Memory

nfO{ ljleGg Block df Extend u/]/ Virtual Machine Creat ug{ cg'dlt lbG5 . x/]s Virtual Machine
Rest af6 Memory Block cfbg k|bfg (Swapping ) u/]/ 5'§fofpg / w]/} l56f] x/]s
nfO{ lbOPsf] Block df Run u/fp+5 . Virtual 8086 Mode Real Mode df w]/} j6f Application Ps}
k6s ;'/lIft ?kdf k|of]u ug{] Pp6f ;'4 / cfbz{ Multitasking System xf] . x/]s l;4fGt
;lhnf] x'G5 . t/ k|of]u ug{ ufx|f] x'G5 . hj Virtual 86 Mode df Operate e}/xG5 . tj Real
Mode Program klg Run ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ 386 sf] Memory Management df k'/f nrstf klg k|fKt
x'G5 . vf; 7fFpdf o;n] Memory nfO{ 4 KB Page df csf{] Location df Map ug{ ;S5 . o;sf]
cy{ 386 sf nflu o;sf] Memory k"0f{ ?kn] Rearrange / Map ug{ l56f] / k|efjsf/L ?kn]
ug{ ;lsG5 . of] Extended Memory nfO{ Expanded Memory df abNg] cfbz{ tl/sf xf] .
Processor nfO{ Real Mode af6 Virtual Mode df abNg ljz]if Software sf] cfjZostf kb{5 . h'g
rflx Virtual Mode sf] Pp6f k|sf/ xf] . of] Software n] Single Virtual Machine ;[hgf ug{ Expanded
Memory Page Frame df Reconfigure u/]/ Memory Map ub{5 . afFsL Extended Momory nfO{ Virtual
Machine Address Space sf] aflx/ 5f]8L lbG5 t/ Application Program n] Expanded Momory nfO{ Request
ubf{ Pageframe nfO{ w]/} l56f] cfbfg k|bfg (Swapped) ub{5 . o;n] Extended Memory
nfO{ Expanded Memory df k|efasf/L kl/jt{g u/]sf] b]Vg ;lsG5 . 386 df MS DOS / cGo
Familier Real Mode Software run x'g ;Sb5 . 386 n] vf; u/L Protected / Virtual Mode df sfd ub{5 .
w]/} h;f] cj:yfdf oL b'O{ Mode sf] km/s Tolt dxTjk"0f{{ x'b}g slxn] sfFlx
w]/} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
Extended Memory nfO{ Expanded Memory df abNg] Software nfO{ ;fdfGo tyf Limulator jf
EMM (Extended Memory Manager ) elgG5 . 386 Max cyf QEMM 386 xfnsf Software x'g\ . Virtual 8086 Mode
n] Multiasker nfO{ cg'dlt lbG5 . cyf{t Ps eGbf al9 Real Mode df Application x? Ps} k6s
Run ug{ ;lsG5 .
Shadow RAM
Memory Page Move u/fpg] Ifdtfsf nflu Shadow RAM k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . Machine Hardware
Control ug{ cfjZos kg{] Software sf] 7"nf] dfqfdf ROM BIOS / Extension ROM sf] ?kdf Video
Card tyf cGo Adaptor df kfOG5 . ROM df x'g] kmfObfx? eg]sf] o;df Disk af6 Load
x'b}g / Over Write ubf{ lju|b}g . o;sf] a]kmfObf Slow x'g' xf] . Processor nfO{ ROM
Access ug{ System Automatically Waite State creat u/]/ lbOPsf] ;dodf Processor ;Dd k'-ofp+5 .
ROM hDdf 64KB dfq x'G5 t/ of] Slow Speed sf] sf/0fn] xf]Og . BIOS df Software Application /
Operating System n] ug{' kg{] 7"nf] / w]/} Sterndard sfdsf] Routine x'G5 . ROM BIOS sf]
Slowness n] Machine sf] performance nfO{ g} wSsf lbG5 . of] ;d:of sf] Pp6f
pko'Qm ;dfwfg Slow ROM nfO{ Fast RAM df Convert ug[{' xf] . of] ljlwdf ROM sf]
Program nfO{ Memory sf] Free Area df Temporary Copy ug{ ROM n] cf]u6]sf] Area nfO{ Extended
Memory Maping ug{ / ROM df ePsf] Program ROM df ePsf Program RAM df ;fl/G5 . o;nfO{
Shadow RAM elgG5 . Shadow RAM Machine sf] Speed a9fpg / Extended Memory sf] Loss sf] /fd|f]
d"No k|fKt ug{ o;sf] w]/} k|efjsf/L 5 . h] eP klg Shadow RAM sf] ;d:o klg x'g
;S5 . olb 1MB Memory df Machine n] sfd ul//x]sf] eP Shadow RAM n] Comventional Memory 640 KB
n] 5f]8]sf] 384 KB use ub{5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf Shadow RAM nfO{ Disable ul/ Extended Memory
nfO{ d'Nojfg Memory sf] ?kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . ;fdfGotof k"/} Machine Configuration
nfO{ pko'Qm x'g] ul/ al9 Memory yKg klg /fd|f] x'G5 . olb Shadow RAM nfO{ Disable
u/]sf] eP Tof] klg c;Dej x'g ;S5 . s]lx Machine x?df Shadow RAM Special Electronics
nfO{ k"/ssf] ?kdf k|of]u u/]/ 386 Machine sf] Memory Block Move ug{] Ifdtf
a9fpg sfof{Gjog ul/Psf] 5 . Shadow RAM k|of]usf] process nfO{ Application Software n]
Simpler / Transparent agfp+5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu olb Application Software ROM df Write u/]df s]lx
x'b}g . t/ olb ToxL Location df Shadow k|of]u u/]/ Write u/]df ROM sf] Program Change

x'G5 / System lju|G5 . of] ;d:of x6fpg Shadow RAM Area Write Disable ug{ Pp6f Electrinic
Circuit ylkPsf] 5 . ;fy} pQm Circuit n] Virtual 86 Mode ljgf g} klg Shadow RAM k|of]u
ug{ ;lsg] ;'ljwf yk u/sf] 5 . cyjf Real Mode df g} klg k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . jf:tjdf
386 n] yk Hardware jf Memory Manager ljgf g} Sadow RAM Create ug{ ;Sb5 cem Machine df
To;nfO{ Extra Hardware n] Support ub{}g . ltgLx?n] Machine df k|of]u u/]sf] Shadow RAM
x6fpg ;Sb5g\ t/ slxn] sfxL Tof] ;Dej x'b}g . To;}n] slxn] sflx Shadow RAM n]
Machine sf] I MBRAM g} Claim ul/lbG5 . h;n] ubf{ 640 KB Conventional Memory dfq} b]lvG5 .
Extended Memory b]lvb}g .
Virtual Memory
386 n] Memory Page Move ug{] Ifdtf k|of]u ul/ Expanded Memory / Shadow RAM Creat
ub{5 . t/ csf{] dxTjk"0f{ k|of]u Virtual Memory sfof{Gjog ug{ Design ul/Psf] xf] .
Virtual Memory Disk Storage nfO{ k|of]u u/]/ ;[hgf ul/Psf] yk RAM xf] . 286 Base Machine df
of] xfn;Dd lgl:rt l;df;Dd Application df of] Swap Files sf] k|of]u u/]/ k|fKt ug{
;lsG5 . olb Multitasker n] Memory sf] Tof] efu df c6fpg] eGbf al9 Program Run ug{ k|
of; ub{5 . eg] cyjf ;a} Run x'g ;Dej 5 eg] Tof] Application Disk df ePsf] Swap file df
gn]v];Dd Active x'b}g . olb Disk df Store ug{' eGbf klxn] Tof] Application nfO{ User n]
Activate u/fof] eg] Tof] RAM df k"g k9\b5 / csf{] Application Disk d Swap ub{5 . Application
Swapping ug{] sfd w]/} l9nf] x'G5 . h'g 5 Second hlt nfUg] x'G5 . 386/486 n] of]
;d:ofnfO{ ;Ifdtf ;fy Handle ub{5 . System sf] ;a} Memory nfO{ 4KB sf] Page df Devide
ub{5 . ltgLx? Memory Map e/L s'g} klg 7fFpdf Relocated x'g jf gx'g klg ;S5g\ . 4KB
Page df hj Application Run x['g yfNb5 . To;nfO{ tf]lsPsf] 4KB sf] Page cfjZos kb{5 .
ltgLx? Memory Map leq To;n] k|of]u ug{] Area df /xG5 . olb kl5sf] ;dodf csf{]
Application Start x'G5 / ToxfF pknAw 4KB eGbf csf{] Page Claim ub{5 . tj s]lx Page
klxn]sf] Disk df n]lvPsf] Application ;+u ;DjlGwt x'G5 / Tof] 7fFp k'g k|of]u x'G5
. To;}n] Page Mode sf] k|of]udf ;a} Application nfO{ Run ug{] ;dodf Actually Memory
cfjZos kb{}g olb Software n] Page Use ug{ k|of; ubf{ Tof] Memory df x'b}g . Page
Fault Automatically Generate x'G5 / Processor n] Operating system nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ lbG5 . h'g
Page Read u/]kl5 Write ug{ lbG5 . h'g Page Read u/] kl5 Write ug{ csf{] Page s]lx Free
Memory df cfjZos x'G5 . l;4fGt cg';f/ Pp6f Application n] 64TB (16381 * 4GB ) Virtual Memory Claim
ub{5 t/ w]/} cj:yfdf s]lx ljz]if Application n] yf/} Mega Byte dq} Claim ub{5 .
Tof] b]Vg ;lsG5 ls Page Mode Virtual Memory Fairly Automatic Way df sfof{Gjog x'G5
. Operating System sf] sfd t Memory sf] Allocation ;'? ug{] / Page Fault sf] Processing ug{] dfq}
xf] . Processor n] Page Memory df 5 ls 5}g eg]/ Track df /fVg] sfd dfq} ub{5 . To;}n]
Page Mode Virtual Memory t'ngfTds ?kdf l56f] / k|efjsf/L 5 . csf{] tkm{ Cache / Fast Hard
Disk k|of]u u/]/ k5fl8 uO/]sf] Machine Performance nfO{ ;'wf/ ul/Ps]f 5 . To;sf] ljkl/t
Virtual Memory k|of]u u/]/ Machine sf] Efficience 36fPsf] h:tf] b]lvG5 . h'g jf:tljstf eGbf
100 b]lv 1000 Times Slow x'G5 . Aofjxfl/s ?kdf Virtual Memory Machine sf] Memory Capacity a9fP/
Rare Combination sf Application Run ug{ jf c;fdfGo Appliction Load ug{ pkof]uL x'G5 . Virtual
Memory Machine sf] jf:tlas Memory sf] Ifdtf a9fpg jf b}lgs sfo{nfO{ l56f] kfg{ k|
of]u ul/b}g ljz]if Machine h:t} 386 df jf:tljs Memory sf] 2 or 3 Times al9 jf:jlas Virtual Memory
Fit x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu 10 MB Virtual Memory Allocation 4 MB Machine sf nflu pko'Qm x'G5 .
Conventional Memory Or Program Memory

PC df ul/Psf] dWo klxn] 460 KB Memory nfO{ g} Conventional Memory elgG5 .
Install
of] Conventional Memory nfO{ DOS n] cGo s'g} Memeory Manager Install gul/sg Manage ug{

;Sb5 . Exactly 640 KB Program Memory nfO{ pknAw u/fpg] clglZrt lg0f{o ePsf] lyof] t/
hj 80 sf] bzs lt/ DOS n] cfkm\gf] cfsf/ lnof] To;kl5 of] cfjZos eof] . Decimal sf]
Actual Value 640 Hexadecimal Addrssing df '0000' b]lv '9fff' ;Dd x'G5 . csf{] A000 b]lv dfly sf]
Address af6 Uper Memory z'? x'G5 .
Upper Memory
;j} PC df Upper Memory Area RAM ;dfj]z x'b}g tfklg DOS Tof] Location df Addressing
ug{ ;Ifd x'G5 . 386 eGbf k'/fgf PC x? 512 KB jf 640KB Memory Install eP/ cfpYof] .
k'/fgf] System sf] Mother Board df yk RAM yKg Memory Bus tyf cGo Additional Adaptor sf nflu IO
Bus sf] Joj:yf lyPg . tL Adapter n] b'O{ j6f ?k lnGYo oft Expanded Memory jf Extended
Memory, Extended Memory xfn gofF PC df klg k|rngdf 5 / Frist 1MB afx]ssf] Memory sf]
kl/df0f nfO{ Extended Memory elgG5 . Upper Memory Area 384KB (A000 b]lv FFFF ) nfO{ DOS n]
System Use sf nflu Set ub{5 . Upper Memory Map u/]/ Access ug{ Adaptor Memory sf] ;fdfGo tof
64 KB Page k|of]u ul/G5 . DOS sf] Later Version df EMM 386 Exe Memory Manager klg ylkPsf] 5 .
Tof] Run x'g 386 cyjf Tof] eGbf Higher CPU cfjZos x'G5 .
High Memory
klxnf] 1MB sf] klxn] 64 KB Page Location ;lsP kl5 t'?Gt} High Memory Refer ub{5 .
of] Address "10000 af6 10FFF" Hex df Translate x'G5 . DOS High Memory df a:b5 . Upper tyf
Conventional Memory nfO{ w]/} k|efjsf/L k|of]usf nfuL vfln /flvG5 . 1 MB Memory eGbf
w]/} Installed 5 eg] To;nfO{ k|of]u ug{ High Memory k|of]u ug[' kb{5 .
Expanded Memory
o;nfO{ LIM (Lotus, Intel, Microsoft ) Memory DOS, Specification eg]/ lrlgG5 Expanded Memory DOS
Program nfO{ yk Memory df Mapped Access ug{ lbg Page Swapping Scheme k|of]u ul/G5 .
af:tljs ?kdf Expanded Memory Adaptor I/O Bus df Install ul/G5 . Expanded Memory nfO{ cfkm\g}
Software cfjZos kb{5 . Tof] Config.Sys df ylkG5 . Expanded Memory Apaptor PC sf] nflu Slow /
dxuf] x''G5 . t/ EMM 386 n] Extended Memory af6 Expanded Memory df abNg ;S5 .
Extended Memory
1 MB eGbf w]/} Install u/]sf] ;a}nfO{ Extended Meomory elgG5 . DOS sf]
Memory
Extended Memory Manager HIMEM . SYS Device Driver xf] . Windows n] Extended Memory sf] k|of]u DOS
Program / DOS Utilities h:t} :- SMART DRV / RAM DRIVE 4f/f ub{5 . SMARTDRV Extended Memory df
Drive af6 Information Cache Mother Board df Main Memory sf] Performance df ;'wf/ ug{ k|of]u
ul/G5 . RAMDRIV Extended Memory df Super Fast Drive ;+u ;+u} Create ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .
h'g To;kl5 csf{] Drive sf] ?kdf btf{ x'g cfp+5 (D:,E:, F: ) / Physical Drive h:t} Access
x'G5 . s]lx High Level sf] Application h:t} autocad – 3Dgame cflbn] Program ;+u cfkm} Extended
Memory Manager Load ub{5g\ .
Memory Managing
DOS 5.0 Versionsf] Starting b]lv Microsoft n] Load High (LH) / Device HIGH h:tf Command Operating
System df ;dfj]z u/]sf] 5 . DEVICE HIGH Config.Sys df Device Driver nfO{ High Memory Area df
/fVg k|of]u ul/G5 . Load HIGH(LH) nfO{ Autoexec.BAT file sf] klxnf] Line df ltgLx?nfO{
High Memory Area df Load ug{ /flvG5 . HIMEM.SYS / EMM 386.EXE Command sf] ?kdf Config.Sys File
df Load ul/G5 . Config.SYS / Autoexec.Bat b''a} File sf Command qmd a4 ?kdf Execute
x'G5g\ / tLgsf] Order Memory Allacotion / cGo Resource 4f/f lgwf{/0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . h]
eP klg xfdLn] Expanded Memory k|of]u ug{ of]hgf agfPsf] eP klxn] NOEMS Switch k|
of]u ug{' kb{5 . gq eg] Loading Software Driver sf nflu k|fKt Space sf] kl/df0f 36fpg

EMM 386 n] Extended Memory ;+u Swapping Page sf nflu High Memory sf] Ps 5]pdf Page Set
ub{5 . xfldn] DOS = UMB ;+u} DOS = HIGH h:t} u/L Config.Sys File df Specify klg ug{'
kb{5 . gq DOS n] Upper Memory Area k|of]u ug{ cg'dlt lbb}g High Memory slt k|efjsf/L
k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 eg]/ MEM/C/MORE k|of]u u/]/ Check ug{ ;lsG5 MSDOS High Memory Area df
a:b5 . hj DOS "Not Enough Memory to load Program" Type sf] Error cfp+5 . Tolta]nf Free Conventional
Memory sf] kl/df0f nfO{ Maximize ug{ ;lsG5 . of] ug{ k|fKt Uper Memory sf] Total Amount
nfO{ ;Dej eP ;Dd w]/} k|of]u ug{' kb{5 . o;f] ug{ (High Memory Use ug{)
Autoexec.Bat df "LH" /fv]/ tyf Config.Sys File df "Device" = Command df "Device HIGH n] Replace u/]/
b'n{e Resources nfO{ /fd|f] ;+u k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . DOS Memory Manager n] Config.Sys /
Autoexec.Bat df Specify u/]sf] Software nfO{ qmd a4 High Memory Area df Load ub{5 .
cem};Dd klg vfln /x]sf] Memory Block csf{] Program sf nfuL Fit x'Fb]}g t/ afFsL
Drivers / TSRS(Rerminate and Stay Resident Programs) Conventional Memory df Load x'G5g\ . pbfx/0sf
nflu dflysf] Configuration df pQm System df 34000 Byte Driver ;lxt Digiter yKg cfjZos x'g ;S5
. olb Autoexec.Bat sf] clGtd Line df LHC:\Digitizer \DIGIDRV.EXE yk]df Upper Memory df 23 , 696 byte
Free x'bf ;Dd Conventional Memory df Load x'G5 . To;}n] Total Conventional Memory 572 , 128 Byte
nfO{ 36fp+5 . olb Mouse Driver Load Line eGbf cufl8 sf] Line h'g 16,848 Byte x'G5 .
ToxfF Digitizer Load ug{ k|ofKt Upper Memory x'G5 t/ Mouse Driver Conventional Memory df Load
ug{' eGbf cufl8 Conventional Memory sf] Total Memory Amount 585,376 Byte ePdf 13000 Byte gfkmf
x'G5 . k|of]unfO{ a9fP/ (Maximize ) Load High u/s]f Program sf] Juggling (r6s) 4f/f x]g{
;lsG5 . Upper Memory slt ;+ul7t x'g ;S5 eGg] s'/f k"/} kl/df0f vfnL ePsf] . Upper
Memory 7"nf] kl/df0fdf vfnL ePsf] Upper Memory eGbf 7"nf] k|z;lgotfdf e/ kb{5 .
dlysf] pbf/x0fdf Upper Memory sf] k"/} kl/efiff eGbf Free Memory Block 96 Byte sd 5 t/
of] b'n{e cj:yf xf] . Config. Sys / Autoexec. Bat File sf] Line df Change u/]/ o;df s]lx control
ug{ Exercise ug{ ;lsG5 . Expriment ubf{ of] ;Demg h?/L 5 ls s]lx Driverd x?sf] Order
gldNbf System Lock Up x'g ;S5 h:t} (Highmem, EMM 386 eGbf klxnf /fv]df ) olb System Lock
Up ePdf System Boot e}/x]sf] ;dodf "Loading MS DOS" Message cfPsf] a]nfdf "F5" Key Press cyjf
"F8" Press u/]/ Start Up File df Line By Line u/]/ Problem sxfF cfPsf] xf] x]g{ ;lsG5 . Problem
ePsf] File Re-Edit ug{ nfUbf "File Not Found " Error cfpg ;S5 . lsgeg] MSDOS Editor sf] Path
EDIT x/fPsf] x'G5 . To;fnO{ Edit ug{ PATH = C :\DOS ug{ ;lsG5 . MSDOS 6.0 sf] Starting df
Microsoft n] Memmaker Utility yk]sf] 5 . h;n] Program nfO{ jf:tljs ?kdf cg'dlt lbG5 .
Memmaker Run x'g s]lx ;do lng] x'G5 . of] Manually u/] h:t} ul/ Run x'G5 . olb Boot Time
df System Lock Up ePdf clGtd k6s Boot ubf{ Memmaker cfkm} Restore x'G5 . Mem Maker n]
Memory Configure ug{ b'O{ k|sf/sf Approcch "Aggressive / Conservative k|of]u ub{5 . hxfF
Aggressive Setting ubf{ al9 Lock Up x'G5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf DOS 6.0 Configure ug{ Manual Approch k|
of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
Peripheral Device
Introduction :-
Perihpheral Device x?;+u cGt/ls|of ug{] Agent x? x'g\ . h'g Computer df
Computer
Electronic, Mechanical jf ?kdf hf]l8Ps]f x'G5 . Peripheral Device x? vf; pb]Zo
Electro Mechanical
k'/f ug{ Computer System df ;+ul7t ePsf x'G5g\ . ltgLx? Computer ;+u External jf Internally
hf]l8Psf x'G5g\ . xfnsf lbgx?df ljleGg Peripheral Device x? ;fgf] / Power ful cj:yfdf k|
of]u ul/Psf 5g\ . s]lx Peripheral Device sf] a0f{g tn ul/Psf] 5 .
1.Key Board :-

of] Computer sf] dxTjk"0f{ I/P Device xf] / o;jf6 Porgram jf Data b'a} Input lbg
;lsG5 . To; afx]s s]lx lglZrt Software sf] nflu vf; Command klg lbg ;lsG5 . Key Board
ljgf Computer k|of]u ug{ g} c;Dej 5 .
Key Board df Ps Set Key Switch x'G5g\ . ToxfF Pp6f key df Pp6f cIf/ c+s jf cGo
s'g} Symbol /flvPsf] x'G5 . Key Board df Pp6f Electornic Circuit x'G5 . h;n] Key Board s'g
Switch lylrPsf] 5 Tof] lgwf{/0f ug{] sfd ub{5 . To;kl5 8 bit Code Generate ul/ Computer
df k7fp+5 . o;/L s'g Key lyr]sf] xf] yfxf kfpg] / Code Generate ug{] k|s[ofnfO{
Encode elgG5 . Key Board n] Data Serially k7fp+5 . kl5 Computer n] To;nfO{ Parallel Byte df
abNb5 . Key Board df Key Switch nfO{ Matrix sf] Row / Colomn df hf]l8Psf] x'G5 . x/]s Key
Switch nfO{ x/]s Column / Row sf] gDa/ ;+u Set ul/Ps]f x'G5 . Key Board Electornic Circuit n]
lgDg s|ddf sfd ub{5 .
 Key Press u/]sf] Sense ug{] .
 Encoding ug{]
 Code nfO{ Computer df k7fpg]
Electronic Circuit n] Key Scanning ubf{ Row af6 I/p / Column af6 Out put ub{5 . lgDg k|sf/sf
Key Switch ePsf Key Switch ePsf Key Bord x? x'G5g\ .
 Mechanical Switch
 Capacitive Switch
 Membrane
 Hall Effect
 Opto Electornic
PS/2 / General Key Board :- PS/2 Key Board PS/2 Computer df dfq} k|of]u x'G5 . of] ;fgf] Size
sf] df kfOG5 .
Connector General Key Board sf] Connector 7"nf] Size df kfOG5 / Convertor ePsf
PS/2 df klg sfd ub{5 .
Cord Less Key Board :-
o;n] tf/sf] ;§f IR Ray jf FM Signal 4f/f System ;+u ub{5 . To;sf nflu
Communicate Key
Board df Remote Transmitter (LED) / System df Remote Receiver (Photodiode) x'G5 .
Key board Connector

1. Key Board Clock
2. Key Board Data
3. Reset (Not use)
4. GND
5. +Ve
Mouse
of] Pp6f Input Device xf] . o;sf] Shape sf] sf/0fn] o;nfO{ Mouse elgPsf] xf] . o;df
b"O{ jf tLg j6f Button x'G5g\ . tLgsf] sfd Software n] lgwf{/0f ub{5 . Mouse df
Position ldnfpg b'O{ j6f Sensor /flvPsf] x'G5 . h;dWo Pp6fn] Cursor nfO{ Verticallly /
csf{]n] Horizontally Move u/fpb5 . Tof] cj:ydf Button Press u/]df To;sf] hfgsf/L Computer
df k7fpb5 . Mouse lgDg k|sf/sf kfOG5g\ .
 Mechanical
 Opto Electornic
 Optical
 Cordless
 Infrared Red Ray
 Radio Signal (FM)
Mouse Connector Serial /
b'O{ k|sf/sf] x'G5 eg] Serial 9 Pin / Parallel 25 Pin sf] x'G5 .
Parallel
To;}ul/ PS/2 df Key Board h:tf] Connector x'G5 .
Mouse df +ve5, -ve Scan / Signal ul/ rf/j6f Connection x'G5g\ .

Floppy Disk Drive
Megnatic Disk Drive 1956 b]lv k|of]u ePsf] xf] Megnatic Disk vf; ul/ lgDg k|of]hgsf nflu k|
of]u ul/G5 .
1. Disk df ePsf] Progam sf] Back Up /fVg h;n] ubf{ Hardware jf cGo sf/0fn] Program gf;
x'g] ;dodf dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
2. Software jf Program Transfer ug{ ;lhnf] / lj:jfl;nf] x'G5 .
Basic Principle
Magnetic Disk df Data Read jf
ug{ magnetic Head sf] k|of]u ul/G5 h;n]
Write Elector Magnetic
System df sfd ub{5 . Magnetic Disk Record ug{] b'O{ Standard ul/sf 5g\ .
1. Frequency Modulation :- of] eg]/ lrlgG5 .

Single Density Format
2. Modified Frequency Modulation ;=o]f Double density Format eg]/ lrlgG5 .
Folppy Diskette kftnf] Plastic sf] a[Qfsf/ cfs[ltdf Magnetic Meterials Coated x'G5 . of] Protective
Plate ;lxt x'G5 . h;n] Read /Write Head n] k|of]u ug{] Diskette sf] efunfO{ 9fs]/ /x]sf]
x'G5 . Flooppy Diskette w]/} Size df kfO{G5 .
 8 Inch Square Disk ;- of] xfn k|rngdf 5}g .
 5 1/4 Inch (Square) Disk :- o;nfO{ Minifloppy klg elgG5 . of] w]/} ;do;Dd k|of]udf
/lx /x\of] .
 3 1/2 Inch Disk of] xfn;Dd klg k|rngdf 5 . o;nfO{ Micro Floppy eg]/ lrlgG5 .
k'/fgf] Floppy df Ps Side df dfq} Store x'GYof] t/ xfn b'a} Side df Store ug{ ldNg]
kfOG5 . Recording ljlw cg';f/ Diskette nfO{ Single Density / Double Density eg/] jlu{s/0f
ug{ ;lsG5 . . Single Density df FM / Double density df MFM ljlw ckgfO{Psf] x'G5 . Diskette
sf] Suraface nfO{ ljleGg Track df ljefhg ul/Psf] x'G5 . of] Single Density df 77 tyf Double
Density 8 Inch df 40 / 51/4 Inch df 80 Track x'G5 . Diskette df Read / Write ug{] sfd Track df dfq}
x'G5 . Floppy Disk Drive df Head Assembley vf; 7fFpdf /flvPsf] x'G5 . of] Outermost Track / Inner
Most Track df Step By Step 3'Db5 . of] b'a} Direction df 3'Db5 . ;aeGbf aflx/L Track nfO{
'0' Track elgG5 . c? qmd} ;+u a9\b5 . Diskette sf] ljrsf] glhs} Pp6f Kjfn x'G5 .
To;nfO{ Index Hole eg]/ lrlgG5 . To;nfO{ Track sf] z'?jft (beginning Point ) Indicate ug{ k|
of]u ul/G5 . x/]s Track nfO{ Sector ljefhg ul/Psf] x'G5 . Pp6f Track df slt j6f Sector
x'G5 eGg] s'/f Record ljlw / Size df e/ kb{5 . x/]s Sector df lglZrt Byte sf] ;+Vofdf
Data Write ul/G5 . tL lgDg 5g\ . 128, 256, 512 or 1024
Write Protect Feature
Record ul/Psf]] Diskette
df km]/L Record ug{' k/]df klxn]sf] Data d]l6g] jf lju|g]
x'g ;S5 . To;}n] Write Protect sf nflu Diskette sf] Ps 5]pdf ;fgf] Notch x'G5 .
To;nfO{ tn dfly ;f/]/ Write Protect ug{ jf gug{ ;lsG5 .
Sectoring
 Hard Sectoring :- of] Diskette agfpg] Company n] agfP/ k7fPsf] x'G5 . of] xfn k|
rngdf 5}g .
 Soft Sectoring :- of] Software n] agfpb5 .
Disk Formating
ug{' eg]sf] Data Store ug{ pko'Qm agfpg' xf] . Format ug{] ljleGg
Disk Format
x'G5g\ jf ljleGg Software n] cfkm\g} lsl;dn] Format ug{ ;S5 . Format
Standard
ubf{ x/]s Track nfO{ w]/} Field Specific Bit Patterns / Gap df ljefhg ul/G5 . Bit Pattern Field
nfO{ Data Field eGbf Error Detection / Identification nfO{ Synchronization ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 .

Data Recording
Data Record ubf{ Electromagnetic Technique cg';f/ Track df Bit By Bit Write ul/G5 . Pp6f Head n]
dflyNnf] / csf{] Head n] tNnf] Surface df Data Write ub{5 . Writ Operation sf nflu Clock
Pulse / Data b'a} Data Line n] FDD df Nofpb5 . Write CKT n] Head nfO{ Data Write ug{
:jLs[tL :j?k Current k7fp+5 . Disk df Data ;+u Clock klg Write ug{' kb{5 . gq Data Bit
Record x'b}g lsgeg] Magnetic Flux Produce x'b}g
Floppy Disk Drive

z'?df PC df Onesided Flopy Disk Pp6f Head ePsf] Drive df k|of]u ul/GYof] . of] 160 K
lyof] . o;df Per Track 8 Sector x'GYof] . kl5 360 KB Floppy cfof] To;nfO{ Double Density Floppy
Disk elgGYof] eg] To; kl5 1.2 MB sf] Floppy k|of]u x'g yfNof] . o;nfO{ high Density
Floppy elgG5 . s]lx FDD tLgsf] Speed lgDg 5 .
 1.6 MB Fdd 360 RPM 8" FDD Compatible

 1Mb FD 300RPM
 1MB /1.6 MB 300/360 RPM Dual Speed
kl5sf
80386 PC df 31/2 " FDD k|of]u ul/G5 . of] Double Density tyf High Density b'a}df
kfOG5 . o;df Double Density df 720 KB / High Density df 1.4 MB Storage Capicity 5 .
Head movement
sf] x/]s Surface df Ps Ps j6f Head x'G5 . b'a} Head Pp6} Assembly df
Floppy Disk
Mount ul/Psf] x'G5 . To;}n] b'a} Head ;+u} 3'Dg] x'G5 . Head leq / aflx/ u/]/ Head
Actuator mechanism sf] ;xof]un] 3'Db5 . To;df Pp6f Stepper Motor / Metal Belt x'G5 . Stepper
Motor b[a} lbzf / Step df 3'Db5 . Motor sf]] Spindle sf] Movement cg';f/ Head 3'Db5 . 360K
FDD df ;fdfGotof 4 Phase Stepper Motor x'G5 . h'g x/]s Step df 3.6 Degree df 3'Db5 . 360K FDD
df ;fdfGotof 4 Phase Stepper Motor x'G5 . h'g x/]s Step df 3.6 Degree df 3'Db5 / Head n]
Pp6f Track df Read/Write ub{5 . Head Pp6f Track af6 csf{] Track df hfg nfUg] ;donfO{
Access Time elgG5 h'g 360 KFDD df 5MS hlt x'G5 . Head Load ug{] sfd Spering sf] k|of]un]
ul/Psf] x'G5 . h'g Solenoid hf]l8Psf] Head Load Mechanism n] ub{5 . Head Load Time 50 NS
x'G5 .
Capacity
FDD Inch
360K 5 1/4
1.2MB 5 1/2
720KB 3 1/2
1.44M 3 1/2
1.88M 31/2
Spindle motor
nfO{ 300 RPM df 3'dfpg Spindle Motor s]f k|of]u ul/G5 . Floppy Drive Assembling
Diskette
df b'O{ k|sf/sf Spindle Motor x'G5 . Pp6f Belt n] 3'dfpg] / csf{] l;w} Motor n] g}
3'dfpg] k'/fgf FDD df Belt n] 3'dfpg] vfnsf] x'GYof] FDD df Belt n] 3'dfpg] vfnsf]
x'GYof] xfnsf FDD df Direct Diskette 3'dfpg] Spindle Motor k|of]u ul/Psf]] x'G5 . of]
pko'Qm / /fd|f] klg x'G5 . o;df Speed Constant /fVg Regulator CKT klg x'G5 . o;df Speed
Constant /fVg Regulator CKt klg x'G5 . k'/fgf] FDD df Manulally Adjust ug{] vfnsf] x'GYof].
PCB

FDD df b'O{ k|sf/sf Electornic Circuit k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . Pp6f Logic Board / csf]
{ Servo Board Logic Board df Controller Interface , Read / Write Circuit , Healt Positioning Circuit tyf Sensor x?
x'G5g\ . Servo Board n] Spindle Motor nfO{ 3'dfpg] tyf To;sf] Speed 300RPM Constant /fVg]
ub{5 . xfnsf] Fdd df Pp6} PCB df ;a} Circuit x'G5 . FDD sf] Chasis Almunium af6
agfOPsf] x'G5 . Commputer df k|of]u ul/g] Inter Face SA 450 xf] . of] Shugart Association n]
agfPs]f xf]
FDD sf] t'ngf

CharacterStic of FDD Double Density 360KB high Density 1.2MB
Capacity Unformated 500KB 1.6MB
Capacity Formated 360KB 1.2MB
Head 2 2
Track/Side 40 80
Sector /Track 9 15
Track Density 48 96
Recording Density 5876 9646
Track Width .330MM .160MM
Disk Speed 300RPM 300/360 RPm
Data Transfer Rate 250Kb/s 500KB/S
Hard Disk
Hard Disk 1956 df IBM Company n] k|of]udf NofP kl5 xfn;Dd k|efjsf/L I/O Device sf]
?kdf k|of]u e}/x]sf] 5 . of] Secondary Storage sf] ?kdf 7"nf] kl/df0fdf Data jf Program
Store ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . xfn ljleGg k|sf/sf Hard Disk kfOG5 . t/ tL ;a}df s8f
Magnetic Disk df Head n] g5f]O{ sd Read / Write ub{5 . Hardisk Pp6} Spindle df Mount ul/Psf]
x'G5 . of] Aluminium Disk df Oxid Coation ul/Psf] x'G5 . Read / Write Head n] Disk df Data Read /
Write b'a} ub{5 . k"/fgf] Disk df Ferrite Head k|of]u ul/GYof] eg] xfn Thin Film Head k|
of]u ul/G5 . Harddisk df Track df Data Record ul/G5 . b'O{ ljz]if Track sf] ;d"xnfO{ Slinder
elgG5 . cyf{t b'a} tkm{sf] Surface sf] p:t} Track nfO{ Cylinder elgG5 .
Computer af6 Data MFM Encode eP/ cfp+5 . Data Serial Form df cfp+5 / To; ;+u}
Clock klg cfp+5 . o;/L cfpg] Clock / Data b'a}nfO{ Head n] Track df Record ub{5 . HDD
n] Control Signal 4f/f Location Computer af6 k|fK6 ub{5 cyjf Data s'g Location Cylinder Number
Surface Number ) df Record ug{] eGg] ;"rgf Control Signal af6 kfp+5 . Data Read ug{] ;dodf
Data / Clock b'a} Read u/]/ x/]s Data Computer df k7fp+5 .
Hard Disk Drive

cfw'lgs IDE Hard Disk Drive System Computer x?df pko'Qm Component xf] . w]/} k'/fgf]
ePkl5 Hard Disk Rum x'Fbf g/fd|f] cfjh lgsfNg] x'G5 . vf; ul/ w]/} ;d:ofx? Controller
jf Software sf] sf/0fn] x'g] ub{5 . cyjf Compression Utility sf] sf/0fn] x'g] ub{5g\ . kl5
o;df ;d:of ePdf System Performance nfO{ 36fp+5 / Data Recovery ug{ 8/nfUbf] x'G5 .
Hard Disk sf] Capacity a9fpg gofF lsGg' g} pko'Qm x'G5 . slxn]sflx Hard Disk df
/flvPsf] Information k'/} Disk el/g} 5l/P/ ;d:of x'g ;S5 . To:tf] ;d:ofnfO{ Fragmentation
elgG5 . of] ;d:of vf;ul/ Head 5'l§gfn] x'G5 . o;sf] sf/0fn] HDD LCD l56f] rDsG5 /
w]/} a]/ ;Dd rlDs/xG5 . of] ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ DEFRAG Program k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
h'g DOS sf] gofF Version jf cnUu} Utility k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . csf{] ;d:of /fd|f] HDD df
Free Space s]f x'G5 . To;sf nflu HD sf] 10% vfnL 7fFp ;w} /fVg' kb{5 . h'g Window
nfO{ Virtual Memory sf nflu cfjZos kb{5 . olb Hard Disk Full ePdf System n] Windows
nfO{ Lock Up ub{5 . jf File Corrupted klg x''g ;S5 . Windows jf cGo w]/} Software Application x?
Run x'bfF Hard Disk df Temporary File Creat ub{5g\ . tL File x? Back Up sf nflu jf Temporary Use
sf nflu cfjZos x'G5g\ . Computer rNbf rNb} Off ePdf Application Properly Close ePsf]

x'b}g . To;}n] hard Disk df Allocation Unit Loss x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf CHKDSK jf gofF
System df Scandisk Run x'G5 . IDE jf SCSI jf SCSI Driver df physical Error x'g] ;+Defjgf w]/} sd
x'G5 / pko'Qm Diagnostic Program 4f/f ;lhn} yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 , Scandisk n] Drive df k|
of]ul/Psf Location Test ub{5 eg] cGo Diagnostic (Butterfly Read ;d]t ) n] Head sf] Positioning
;lxt ;d:of ePsf] 7fFp kQf nufpb5 csf{] sfd dfq} cfpg] ;d:of MBR (Master Boot Record
Software Store ubf{ x'g ;Sb5 . To;nfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ Format jf FDISK k|of]u ug{
;lsG5 . Computer df cfpg] csf{] ;d:of Virus sf] xf] . o;sf] nflu Low Level Format jf "Rescue"
Formatter k|of]u u/]/ Disk sf nflu tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf h:tf] ;'s} Software sf
sf/0fn] lju|]sf] eP klg l7s x'G5 . k'/fgf] IDE Driver k|of]u ubf{ ;Demg' kg{] s'/f
CMOS Drive xf] . klxnf]k6s PC k|of]u ubf{ To;sf] CMOS Setup sf] Cack UP k|of]u
ubf{ To;sf] COMOS Setup sf] Back up ug{' kb{5 . lsgeg] Hard Drive sf Label tyf cGo
Parameter x? To;df x'G5 . Tof] gldn]df HDD Accept ub{}g . gofF PC df HDD Autodetect
Option 5 . h;n] HDD ;DalGw s'/fx? Automatically Detect ub{5 . t/ SCSI Drive CMOS Setup af6
xf]Og Controller BIOS af6 Operation ub{5 . w]/} dflg;x? gofF Hard Disk Install ubf{ Mega Byte
df Confuse x'G5g\ . lsgeg] Manufacturer n] 1 Miloion Byte nfO{ 1 MB eGb5g\ t/ Fdisk n] 1024
Kilo Byte nfO{ 1 MB b]vfp+5 . s'g} CMOS Bios n] 1024 / s'g} n] 1 Million = 1MB b]vfp+5 .
ToxfF 24 sf] k/s kb{5 . Fdisk n] 340 MB nfO{ 325 / 1080 nfO{ 1980 nfO{ 1000
b]vfp+5 . slxn] sfxL Drive n] Mechanically sfd ub{5 t/ MBR Corrupt 5 eg] Disk Utility Access
x'b}g . To:tf] cj:yfdf Ribbon Cable Power Off gul/sg Disconnect ug{] . o;f] ubf{ Disk
Recovery utility n] sfd ug{ ;S5 .
Hard Disk Drive sf ljz]iftf

Cylinder 300 blv 3000
;Dd
Head 2 b]lv 256 ;Dd
Sector 8 b]lv 64 ;Dd
Seck time 8 b]lv 16 MS ;Dd
Data Transfer Rate :- 700 Kb]lv5000 K/S ;Dd
Drivve Interfocetype :- ST506 ESDI, SGSI 2 SCSI 3
ID and EIDE
Storage / Sector .5K
LBA Logical Block Addressing
Optical Disk
xfn pknAw Optical Disk df 7"nf] kl/df0fdf Data Store ug{ ;lsG5 . To;afx]s
Optical Diskjf cGo kmfObfx? o;nfO{ w'nf]n] ljufb{}g Read/Write Head n] Disk df 5'b]g
. Head Weak eP/ lju|b}g . yf]/} Mechanism / Feed af6 Control x'g] vfnsf Motor k|of]u x'g]
x'bf HighSpeed (700 b]lv 1200 RPM) Constand Speed df 3'Db5 ) Hard Disk Floppy Disk df h:t} Track df
Data Record x'G5 . o;sf] Track 25 Micro Inch tyf b'O{ Track ljrsf] Gap 70 Micro Inch x'G5 . o;}
ul/ Ps Side df 4000 Track x'G5g\ . Optical Disk sf] Common Size 4.72 " 5.25 12" and 14" o;sf] Data
Transofer Rate 5MB/S x'G5 . Semiconductor Memory h:t} of] klg Read Only Write Once / Read, Read /
Write kfOG5 Read Only , Write Once/Read Type Disk df Special Metrial Loated ul/Psf] Optical Disk sf]
Surface df s8f Laser n] Focusing u/]/ Record ul/G5 . Disk df k|of]u l/Psf] Metriais sf] cfwf/df
off Laser Beam n] pQm Metrial nfO{ hnfp+5 . jf Microscopic Bubles sf] ?kdf Record ub{5 .
Optical Disk af6 Data Read ubf{ Laser Beam nfO{ Data Record u/]sf] Disk sf] Surface df
k7fOG5 . To;} cg';f/ Refletct ePsf] Laser nfO{ Photo Diode n] Sens ub{5 . Read/ WriteType
sf] Optical Disk System df Operation ug{ Special Magnetic Property sf] pkof]u ul/G5 . Read/Write Head
df Laser Diode / Pp6f Coil sf] k|of]u u/]/ Data Write ugl/G5 . Ps k6s Write ug{ Lasert sf]

/
Spot magnetic Line Createx'G5 . Laser Beam Absence x'bf horizontal Magnetic Field aGb5 . Data Read
ug{ Polirized Light k|of]u ul/G5 . Ps k6s s]lx Degree df 3'Dbf Polarization n] Pp6f Special
Optical Circuitry Detect ub{5 . Data Store ug{ Data Idenftify ug{ / Error Correction ug{ Synchronization
ugf{n] Store ug{] / k"g k|fKt ug{ Optical Disk w]/} k|efjsf/L 5 .
w]/} jif{ b]lv Visual Display unit sf] ?kdf CRT Monitor k|of]u x'b} cfO/x]sf] 5 . CRT
Monitor n] Computer af6 Video Signal k|fKt ub{5 . Video Information nfO{ Dot sf] ?kdf Screen df
Display ub{5 . Computer df Pp6f CRT Controller Circuit x'G5 . o;n] CRT Monitor ;+u Synchronization
sf] sfd ub{5 . CRT Monitor sf] d'Vo efu Picture Tube xf] . CRT xfjf /lxt Glass Tube xf] .
o;sf] cufl8 sf] leqL efudf Fluorescent Coated ul/Psf] x'G5 . To;nfO{ Screen elgG5 .
Gun n] Electorn Beam pTkfbg ub{5 / Tof] Screen df k7fpb5 . pQm Beam Phosphorus Coated
Surface df 7Ss/ vfbf ToxfF Pp6f Spot b]lvG5 . Electorn beam nfO{ Electormagnetic Deflection
u/fOG5 h;n] ubf{ Electorn Beam ljleGg Phosphorus Dot df 7Ss/ vfO{ Screen el/ pHofnf]
b]lvG5 . Deflectioon ug{ Horizontal / Vertical Coil /flvPsf] x'G5 . h; dWo Horizontal Coil n]
Horizantally / Vertical Coil n] Vertically Deflection ub{5g\ . Ps l5g kl5 Screen sf] Lignt lj:tf/} x/fP/
hfG5 . Screen df Permanent Image /fVg] xf] eg] Beam bf]xf]l/O /xg' h?/L x'G5 . To;sf
nflu CRT df Electorn Beam n] Scanning ub{5 . Scan ug{] ;femf ljlwnfO{ Raster Scanning
elgG5 of] gofF ljlwdf Beam Screen df cufl8 / k5f8L rNb5 . of] Ps k6s bfofF
efudf k'u]kl5 k'g afFofF efudf NofOG5 / km]/L csf{] Line Scan ub{5 . Beam tn
k'u] kl5 k'g Scan ug{ dfly NofOG5 . Image aGg Beam On / Off x'G5 . Computer af6
cfPsf] Video Signal af6 Image agfpg pQm Signal n] Screen df Scanning ug{] Beam
nfO{ pko'Qm 7fFp df On / Off u/fO{ Image tof/ ub{5 . Computer n] Horizontal Line df Scan
ug{ h:t} Right Corner df k'u]kl5 Left Corner df Beam Nofpg / k"g Trace ug{ Horizontal Sync
k7fp+5 . To;} u/L beam nfO{ Vertically Scan u/fpg Vertical Sync k7fp+5 . Colour Monitor df
Computer af6 Colour Image Produce ug{ tLg j6f R,G,B Signal klg cfp+5 . CRT Display df
Alphanumeric Display (Text) / Graphic Image Display ul/ b'O{ k|sf/sf] Display x'G5 . CRT Monitor Interface
ug{ b'O{ tl/sf 5g\
 TTL Interface
 Composit Video Interface
TTL Interface df V Sync, H Sync / Video Signal cnu cnu k7fOG5 eg] Composit Video Interface
df ;a} Ps} 7fFpdf k7fOG5 .
Printer
Printer Pp6f xf] . o;df Electronic Ckt / Mechanical Assembly b'a}
Electro Mechanical Device
x'G5g\ . Electronic Circuit n] Mechanism nfO{ Control ub{5 . Printer sf Electronic Circuit nfO{ Printer
Electronic jf Control Electornic klg elgG5 . Printer Interface n] Computer / Printer ljr ;DaGw :yflkt
u/fp+b5 . Computer af6 Command tyf Data o;} Interface dfkm{t k7fOG5 eg] Printer sf]
Status klg o;} Interface dfkm{t Computer df k7fOG5 . Printer Controller df Command Decode ug,{
Control Signal Generate ug{ Mechanism nfO{ Active ug{ / Computer af6 k|fKt Data nfO{ Print ug{
cfjZos Circuit x? x'G5g\ . Printer Mechanism df Head Assembly, Print Carriage Motor , Ribbon Assembly,
Paper Movement Assembly, Sensor Assembly cflb ;dfj]z x'G5g\ .
Printer sf] sfo{ k|0ffnL

n] Computer af6 Data sf] ?kdf Character k|fKt ub{5 / Paper df Character x? Print
Printer
ub{5 . To; afx]s Printer n] Computer af6 Control Character klg k|fKt ub{5 . ltgLx? Print
gx'g] Character x'g\ . ltgLx? dWo s]lxn]] Printer df Control Information cf];f/ k;f/ ub{5g\ .
w]/} k|of]u x'g] s]lx Control Character x? CR (Carriage Return) LF (Line Feed ) / FF (Form Feed ) cflb

x'g (CR n] Head nfO{ Frist Print Column af6 lkmtf{ Nofpb5 . s'g} Data nuftf/ k|fKt
ePdf Page sf] Frist Page sf] Frist Column af6 Print ug{ Start ub{5 . LF n] Printer nfO{ Paper df
Ps Line Skip ug{ ;"lrt ub{5 . FF n] bf]>f] Page sf] z'? b]lv Skip ug{ lgb{{]zg lbG5
. Printer Paper Page df Fold ul/Psf] Continuous Sheet df kfOG5 .
Printer sf ljz]iftfx?
w]/} k|sf/sf Printer x? ahf/df kfO{G5g\ ltgLx? ljleGg kIfx? h:t} Performance Price
tyf Quality cflbf df km/s km/s x'G5g\ . h] eP klg Printer sf ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .
 Speed :- CPS (Character Per second ) LPM (Lines Per Minute) cflbdf gflkG5 . o;n] Printer n] slt
l56f] sfd u5{ eGg] b]vfp+5 .
 Quality :- DRAFT, NLQ(Near letter Quality or LQP(Letter Quality Printer ) cflb o;n] Print ul/Psf] Character
slt /fd|f] 5 eGg] hgfp+5 .
 Character Set :- o;n] Printer n] hDdf slt Control Character Recogninize ub{5 eGg]
b]vfp+5 .
 Interface :- Printer n] Serial jf Parallel s;/L Data k|fKt ub{5 eGg] b]vfp+5 .
 Buffer Size :- Printer sf] Buffer Memory df Print x'g' cufl8 slt Data Store x'g ;S5 eGg]
b]vfp+5 .
 Printer Mechanism :- o;n] Mechanism sf] ljleGg k|sf/ / efu af/] hfgsf/L lbG5 .
 Print Mode :- Serial jf Parallel
 Print Size :- Number of Print Columns b]vfp+5 .
 Print Direction :- Unidirectional , Bidirectional / Reverse eGg] a'lemG5 .
Dot Matrix Printer

n] ;a} Character Ps} k6s Print ub{}g . x/]s Character Ps Ps j6f Dot ldn]/
Dot Matrix Printer
aGb5 . Pp6f Charactre aGg 7 By 5 Matrix Pattern cfjZos x'G5 . Head sf] Pin Vertical Column df
x'G5 . Head df x/]s Pin ;+u Pp6f Solenoid x'G5 . Character Matrix sf] Certain Dot df Print
x'G5 . Matrix df Head Column By Column Move ub{5 . hj Head Matrix sf] cfjZos 7fpFdf x'G5 .
tj Tof] Column df cfjZos kg{] hlt Dot Ps} k6s Pin n] agfpb5g\ . To;kl5 Head
bf]>f] Column df hfG5 / To;}u/L of] k|s[of rln /xG5 . hj Matrix sf] ;j} Columns Cover
x'G5 tj Pp6f Character Complete x'G5 . Dot Matrix Quality /fd|f] x'G5 . Dot Matrix n] print ubf{
NLQ k|fKt x'G5 . Dot Matrix Printer n] s'g} Hardware Change gul/sg Graphic klg Print
ug{ klg ;Sb5 . (Colour Ribbon k|of]u u/]df Colour Print ug{ klg ;lsG5 . Draft Mode df 300
CPS b]lv100 / NLQ df 25 b]lv 50 CPS Speed x'G5 . Dot Matrix Printer sf] pbfx/0f LQ =470 Epson 800 ,
300 cflb 5g\ .
Laser Printer

Laser Printer n] Photo Copy Machine n] h:t} sfd ub{5 . Photosensitive Drum df Image
Create ug{ Laser sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . Tof] k|of]hgsf nflu Laser slxn] Drum sf] cufl8
cfp+5 / slxn] k5f8L kbf{ Off x'G5 . Image agfpg Drum df Toner Apply ul/G5 . To;
kl5 Image Electrostatically Drum af6 Paper df Transfer x'G5 . To; kl5 t'?Gt} Paper df ag]sf]
Image sf] d;LnfO{ Ps ?k agfpg Heat lbOG5 . Hewlett Packard Laser Jet Pp6f k|Voft
Laser Printer xf] . Laser Printer n] Letter Quality / Speed b'a} /fd|f] lbG5 . Text jf Graphic b'a}
df High Speed 20,000 Line Min k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . Laser Printer cGo Printer eGbf dx+uf] 5 .
Speaker
Loud Speaker , Head Phones / Earpieces n] Electric Energy nfO{ Sound Energy df Change
ub{5g\ . ltgLx? Dff lgDg ljz]iftf 5g\ .
a. Frrequency Respons ;a} Audio Frequency Range df sfd ub{5g\
b. Impedance :- of] Matching Purpose sf nflu cfjZos x'G5 .
c. Power Rating :- (Watt) Damage gxf];\ eGgsf nflu yfxf kfpg' k5{ .
Load Speaker df Pp6f zlQmzfnL r'Das sf] ljrdf Coil /flvG5 / To;df Audio Signal
lbOG5 . Tof] ;dodf Coil df aGg] r'Das / l:y/ r'Dassf] ljrdf Interaction x'Fbf Coil ;
+u hf]8]sf] Cone Paper n] xfjfdf Pressure lbG5 / AC sf] Frequency a/fa/ Frequency ePs]f
Sound pTkGg x'G5 . Speaker sf] Coil sf] Impednace AC sf] Frequency df e/ kb{5 . t/ ;w}
1 Khz /fv]/ Calculation ul/G5 . Speaker 1 Ohm , 8 Ohm , 16 b]lv 80 Ohm ;Dd Impedance sf]
x'G5 . To:t} 3.5Khz b]lv 35 Khz ;Dd Fequency df sfd ug{] 1 K Ohm Impedance ePsf]
Speaker n] Tweeter sf] ?kdf sfd ub{5 . Head Phone n] 20 HZ b]lv 20KHz ;Dd sfd ub{5 /
o;sf] Impedance 8 Ohm x'G5 .
Scanner
of] Pp6f Input Device xf] . o;n] Text jf Drawing nfO{ Scan ul/ Computer df k7fpb5 .
of] Desk Top Publising df w]/} pkof]uL x'G5 . Scanner x? w]/} Size df kfOG5g\ . tL
dWo] xft] Scanner Micro Computer df w]/} k|rlnt 5 .
Cards and Interface

Drive Controllers and IO Cards

gofF PCB df I/O Function / Driver Control x? Mother Board df g} Integrate ull/Psf] x'G5
. Upgrade ug{] ;a} Mother Board On Board Parts / Controllers ePsf] lsGg' /fd|f] x'G5 .
ltgLx? w]/} pko'Qm 5g\ . t/ In Case ltgLx? Failure ePdf CMOS Seting jf Mother Board
Jumper af6 Disable u/]/ Adaptor Replace ug{ ;lsG5 . ;a} h;f] 386 / 486 System SIDE Adaptor ;
+u lgdf{0f ul/Psf lyP . h;df I DE Drive Inferface , Dual Floppy Controller, 2 Serial Ports / 1
Paralled Port ;dfa]z lyP . Tof] Adaptor s]f Default Configuration COM 1, IRQ 4, COM-2, RQ3 / Lpt1
IRQ7 lyof] . olb Drive Controller k'/} Failure ePsf] cj:yfdf BIOS n] HDD HFFD Failure
eg]/ ;'lrt ub{5 . Communication Port / Printer Port Boot Time df lgl:rt u/]/ Screen df
b]vfOG5 . Side df ljleGg ;d:of cfpg ;S5 t/ ;a} eGbf al9 Hard Disk ;+u ;DalGwt
x'G5 . Drive Accessing ubf{ System cfkm} Lock Up x'g] jf Mouse jf Printer Recognize gx'g]
h:tf ;d:of Common ;d:of x'g\ SIE Card df ;a} eGbf ;:tf] Component xf] . Adaptor df
Repair ug{' kg]{ s]lx klg 5}g t/ To;df hf]l8Psf] Connector l7s 5 5}g Jumper Sestting
ug{ Try ug{] olb w]/} jif{ ;Dd k|of]u u/]kl5 cs:dft Port x/fp+5 (sfd
ug{ 5f]8\5 eg] ) Side sf cGo Adaptor Bus ;+u Conflict x'g ;S5 . vf; ul/ o:tf] ;d:of
Upgrade u/]kl5 b]lvg] x'G5 . VESA Local Bus, IDE Controller, ISA, SIDE Adaptor eGbf
dx+uf] / al9 ;d:of cfpg ;Sg] ePsf]n] of] ISA ;+u Fail eof] . Hardware Cache ;lxtsf]
Local Bus jl9 ;d:of cfpg] vfnsf] x'G5 . Caching Controller Installation df Software Appliction
Compatibility Problem, Physical Memory Error tyf Bottle Necking Problem Common Problem x'g\ . EISA /
PCI Bus sf nflu ;a} SCSI Controllers IDE Adaptor pRr u'0f:t/ / e/kbf{] agfOPsf] 5 . SCSI
Controller Upgrade ug{] ;dodf On Board Floppy Disable ug{ lgl:rt ug{' kb{5 . SCSI Controller
sf] BIOS Current Version sf] xf] xf]Og lgl:rt ug{[' k5{ . ltgLx? lg/Gt/ Upgrading ug{'
kb{5 . EISA / PCI Bus Controller ;+u Software n] Select u/]/ Setting ug{] IRQ / DMA x'G5 .
ltgLx? oft CDMOS Setup jf EISA Configuration Utility af6 Setting ug{ ;lsG5 . cGo EISA Setting
df 1000MB eGbf al9 Drive Bus Transfer Rate / Standard jf Enhanced Operation Support ug{] ;dfj]z
x'G5 . Enhance Operation nfO Extra IRQ x'G5 . h'g Full Advantage lng Enable ug{} k5{ .
SCSI Controllers ;+u 25 Pin sf] Pp6f External Connector n] ;a} Cover ub{5 . ID E Disk Drive /
SCSICDROM jf Tape Drive Boot sf nflu k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ of] Slow x'G5 / Controller BIOS
n] Boot Device n] Misinterpreted u/sf] Error Massage Produce ub{5 . High End Drive Controller sf]
w]/} Heat x'g] Common Problem xf] . olb sf]7fsf] tfkqmd 90 Degree Fahrenheit 5 eg]
System Bus leq w]/} Heat ePsf] yfxf kfpg' kb{5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf System Lock Up x'g'
cgf}7f] 36gf xf]Og .
NetWork Adaptor
;a} gofF Network Adaptor df Set Diagnostic Software ;dfj]z 5 . of] Software n] Card
dfq} Check ug{] geO Jumper Setting sf] Report / Jumper Less Version df Setting Change
ug{ cg'dlt klg lbG5 . Network Card IQR af6 Drive x'G5 eg] IO tyf Memory Address klg
x'G5 . To;}n] Configure ubf{ cGo Card ;+u Conflict klg x'g ;S5 . Network Adaptor df
/fd|f] High DOA (Dead on Arival ) Rate klg x'G5 . lsgeg] Compitition / Low Price n] Quality Control
ug{ ufx|f] x'G5 . w]/} gofF Adaptor sf] k5f8L Diagnostic LED x'G5 . h;n] Card sf]
Activity b]vfp+5 w]/} Network Card df Improper Software Configuration n] ;d:of Nofp+5 .
Network Card Install ug{ / Network Boot ug{ s]lx Dirver cfjZos x'G5 . Driver /fd|f] ;+u
Install ePsf] 5 eg] dfq ;fd|f] ;+u sfd ug{ ;S5 . Istall ubf{ Interrupt Incorrect eP/ Conflict
eO{ ;d:of cfpg ;S5 Wofg lbg' kb{5 . s]lx Network Adaptor df On Board Terminator klg
cfpg ;S5 . Tof] k|of]u ug{' x'b}g . lsgeg] To;df Network Adaptor df Mode yKbf jf
Rearrange ub{ Confusion u/fpg ;S5 .
Video Adaptor

Standard Mother Board df agfOPsf] afx]s Video Adaptor Plug-in u/]/ sfd ug{] k|
sf/sf] Adaptor xf] . o;n] :jtGq ?kdf Machine sf] Graphic System nfO ;+ej t'Nofp+5 .
To; afx]s s]lx cj:yfdf Video Adaptor nfO{ yk Mode df klg k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . To;sf
nflu k"/s / Suport ug{] vfnsf Card klg kfOG5 . vf; ul/ rf/ k|sf/sf Video Adaptor k|
rngdf /x]sf] kfOG5 .
General purpose PC Standard-CGA (Colour Graphic Array) EGA (Enhanced Graphic Adaptor ) VGA (Video
Graphic array) / HGA (Hercules Graphic Adaptor )
Super PC Standurds -VGA
Advanced or intelligent General Purpose System -TIGA or B5142A
Specialised Displays –A4 Monochrome For DTP
sf] k|of]u u/]/ x]g{' eGbf Main Application s] xf] / To;sf nflu
Graphic Adaptor
sfd u5{sL ub{}g eGg] s''/f k"xTjk"0f{ xG5 . olb Simple Program sf] k|of]u
ug{] xf] eg] sd d"No / Resolution Standard Video Adaptor k|of]u ug{] / Specific Application
Program k|of]u ug{] eP / Super Standard Board ePdf High Resolution / high Speed Intellegent
System k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
S]lx Video Adaptor sf] hfgsf/L lgDg 5 .

Resolution Colour Palette Adaptor
320x200 2 16 CGA-EGA VGA
320x200 16 16 EGA-VGA
320x200 256 250K VGA
640x200 2 16 CGA-EGA-VGA
640x200 16 16/256K EGA-VGA
640x350 16 64/256K EGA-VGA
640x480 2 256 VGA
640x480 16 2 VGA
720x348 2 2 HGA-EGA-VGA
tLg Standard Modedf Higher Resolution x'G5 . 800 x 600 In 16 or 256 Colours 640x480 In 256
Colour 1024x708 in 16 or 256 Colours.
oL Resolution VESA(Video Electronic Standard Association ) af6 k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . Super VGA n]
1024 x768 ;Dddf sfd ug{ ;S5 o;df Extra RAM klg x'G5 .
Digital TTL Monochrome, Digital / TTL Colour Monitor df 9 Pin Connector / VGA Analog Monitor df 15 Pin sf] x'G5
.
Modem Card
gofF PC df 56 K Modem eGbf c? /fVg'sf] cy{ 5}g . km]/L hxfF;'s} 56K Modem
g} hf]8\g ;lsG5 eGg] Guarantee klg 5}g . t/ d'No / lgs6 eljiodf ISP x?n] Upgrde
ug{] ;+Defjgf n] ubf{ V 34 (33K) Modem lsGg' Aoy{ x'g ;S5 . xfn 3 Standard sf] 56 K
Modem 5g\ . h'g ISP / User b'a}sf nflu Software n] sfof{Gjog ug{ ;S5 . US Robotics n]
Introduce u/]sf] X2 Standard / Rock Well / Lucent n] Introduce u/]sf] K56 Flex Standard k|rngdf 5g\ .
t/ tL Ps csf{] ;+u ldNb}g gt V 90 n] g} Replace ug{ ;lsG5 . xfn;Dd klg tL V90)
modem x? Hardware cGtu{t Operate ub{5g\ . Upgrading x'g] vfnsf 5g\ . h] ePklg Original
Standard tyf V90 Standard Code Hold ug{ Modem df kof{Kt On Board Flash Moemory (EEPROM) x'G5 .
b'O{dWo] Pp6fnfO{ Switch ubf{ Pp6f x/fpg ;S5 . Modem sf] Self Long Life Store
ug{ tL dWo] ;a} cnu cnu dxTjk"0f{ 5g\ .

sfo{ k|0ffnL
56 K Modem df xfdLn] cfzfu/]sf] Speed k|fKt ug{ w]/} l;dfx? 5g\ . FCC sf]
Transmission ;DalGw Low n] 53 K eGbf al9 Transmission ug{ cg'dlt lbb}g . af:tljs ?kdf
56K Dowm Load ug[{'k/]df ISP nfO{ Call ug{' kb{5 . jf cGo >f]t df jf:tljs Digital Modem
x'g' kb{5 . Telephone Net Work ;a} Digital x'G5 . h;n] High Speed df ljleGg Point ljrdf Data
Transfer / Switch ub{5 . 56K df sfd ug{nfO{ ISP n] pQm Net Work df hf]8\b5g . Computer
df x'g] 56K Modem Analog Device xf] . To;}n] Central Office df hfg] Data nfO{ Analog/Digital
Conversion ub{5 . To;} u/L Computer df cfpg] Signal nfO{ D/A Comversion ub{5 . To;sf]
sf/0fn] Line Noice n] Modem s]f Speed nfO{ 33K df Limit ul/lbG5 . To;}n] ISP / Centeral Office
ljrsf] Down Stream Link df ;a} Digital Connection n] A/D Conversion sf] ;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfg u/]/
Modem sf] Speed 56K x'g ;Dej ePs]f xf] . olb Centeral Office b]lv 3/;Ddsf] Line df Noise sf
cGo Source ePdf slxNo} klg 56K Speed k'Ub}g .
Modem Trouble Shooting

Modem Setup df w]/} dfkb08 Hardware / Sotware df x'G5g\ . Tof] ljgf Modem n]
/fd|f] ;+u sfd ug{ ;Sb}g . External Modem sf] Hardware Setup ubf{ Pp6f Switch Block Exposed
u/]/ ul/G5 . t/ pQ Switch sf af/]df s'g} hfgsf/L lbOPsf] x'b}g / k/Dk/f cg';f/
ug{' kg]{ x'G5 . Tosfnflu Manufal turers Documentation cfj:os x'G5 . External Modem Install
ubf{ w]/}h;f] v/fj Port sf] ;d:of cfp+5 . To;sf nflu Mouse hf]8]/ Check ug{ ;lsG5 .
Internal Modem Setup ubf{ Jumper Setting ug{‘kg]+{] x'g ;S5 . To;sf nflu Manual x]g{
;lsG5 . s'g} cj:yfd Adaptor df n]v]sf] Jmper Setting ulNt x'g ;S5 . w]/} Internal Modem n]
Non Standard Communication Interrutp IRQ5 or IRQ 9 Chose ug{ cg'dlt lbg ;S5 . olb Modem sf] o:tf]
Setting ;d:of To;nfO{ Mouse n] Use gu/]sf] Communication IRQ Pair df Change u/]/ ;w} (k|fo
Com / IRQ3) COM2 / Port Disable ug]{ .
Modem sf] Troubleshooting sf] klxnf] Step df Telephone Line hf]8]/ Check ug{] . o;f]
ubf{ w]/] Business Phone Line nfO{ Support gu/]/ Switch k|of]u ug{‘kg]+]{x'g ;S5 . jf
Special Wire cfjZos x'g ;S5 . Modem Connection Voice Connection eGbf al9 Sensitive x'G5 . olb
Modem k|of]u ubf{ ub{} Disconnect x'G5 eg] jf Connect g} x'b}g eg] jf Low Baud Rate df
Connect x'G5 eg] csf{] Phone Jack n] Try ug{] . olb Cross Talk cfp+5 eg] 3/sf] Ground
gePsf] x'g ;S5 . Software Trouble Procedure Internal / External Modem b'a}sf nflu b'O{ Step
x'G5 . klxnf] Software n] 5fg]sf] Component Address or Number / IRQ l7s 5 5}g Check ug{] .
Dial ubf{ Dial x'G5 sL x'b}g x]g{] . bf]>f] olb Modem af6 Dialing x'G5 t/ Connection
x'b}g eg] Dialing ug{] Parameters l7s 5 5}g Check ug{] (h:t} Number Baud Rate Number Data Bits
Stopbits, Parity Etc) Baud Rate Modem sf] Ifdtf a/fa/ x'g' kb{5 . Modem Pulse jf Tone x'g System
df x]g{] . olb ePg eg] Modem COM3 or 4 df Install u/s]f eP COM 1/ 2 df Try ug{] lsgeg]
s'g} Software n] vf; Port df dfq} sfd ug{] x'G5 . External sf] t'ngfdf Internal Modem df
al9 ;d:of cfp+5 . slxn]sflx Modem sf] Setting Change ug{' k/]df Modem nfO{ g} Machine
af6 x6fpg' kg{] x'G5 . s'g} sd u'0f:t/sf] Modem n] cGo Device af6 RF Signal Pick Up
u/]/ Noise cfpg] x'G5 . To:tf] cj:yfdf Cassing nfO{ Earthing ug{] jf Modem sf] Slot g}
Change g} ug{‘kg]+{] klg x'G5 . Internal / External b'a} Modem Fax ;'ljwfsf] sld x'g
;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf Manual cg';f/ ug{ ;lsG5 .
Computer
Monitor, Keyboard , Mouse, Printer , Modem , Scanner
Interface IC
8155 :- 2KB RAM With Programnable I/O Port and Timer
8255 :- programmable Peripherals Interfce

8253 :- Programmavle Internal Timer o;n] Time Provide ub{5 .
8259 :- Programmable Interrupt Controller
8357/8237 :- DMA Controller
8279 :- Programmable Keyboard Display Interfce
8251 :- Programmable Communiction Intercace
8284 :- Clock Generator
8288 :- Bus Controller
827/ :- Floppy Disk Drive controller
8275 :- CRt Countroller
8295 : Dot Matrix Printer Controller
8041A /8641A/8741A (Universal Peripheral Intercfce I/O and Memory
8355 : ROM
8156 :- RAM
I/O Bus
PC df I/O Busdf Adaptor yk]/ w]/} sfd ug{ ;Sg] agfpg ;lsG5 . of] Bus sf] Clock
Memory jf Address Bus sf] eGbf Slow x'G5 . k'/fgf] PC df 8Mhz dfq} x'G5 . To;}n] Traffic
Jam Create ug{ ;S5 . cGo Device n] High Speed df sfd ug{ ;S5 t/ I/O Bus n] Lower Speed df
sfd ugf{n] PC sf] Performance g} 36\g ;S5 . of] ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ Bus nfO{ Wide
agfOPsf] 5 / To; kl5sf] Generation df 16 Bit Bus agfOof] . To;nfO{ ISA (Industry Standard
Architecture ) elgG5 . h;n] Same Clock df Double Data Transfer ub{5 . kl5 IBM n] Business Policy
Change u/]/ PS/2 Computer agfof] . h;df MCA (Micro Channel Architecure ) I/O Bus lyof] . kl5 Clone
Industry n] EISA Bus 386 PC sf nflu agfof] . EISA Bus df Clock Rate 10mhz lyof] . pQm Bus 32 Bit
Wide lyof] . EISA Bus n] Bus Mastering Support ub{Yof] . To;}n] l56f] Data Transfor x'g
;SbYof] . o;sf] csf{] ljz]iftf ISA Card klg k|of]u ug{ ;Sg' xf] . EISA Bus b'O{ s'/fdf
kl5 kof] . Pp6f dx+uf] lyof] / csf{] Install ug{ cnUu} Software cffjZos kb{Yof] .
olb VESA Local Bus sf] Introduction gePsf] eP EISA Slot nfO{ cfkmg]f k|e'Tj sfod /fVg
ufx|f] kb{Yof] VESA Bus sf] l;4fGt ;/n 5 / o; cGtu{t CPU sf] glhs} b'O{j6f Slot
ylkG5 / CPU n] ltgLx?df Memory sf] Speed df Drirect Read jf Write ug{ ;Sb5 . o;sf]
sfof{Gjog w]/} rnfvLk"0f{{ lyof] . lsgeg] Power Limitation tyf Noise CPU n] slt Handle
ug{ ;S5 eGg] s'/fdf e/ kb{Yof] . h'g Slot sf] ;+Vofdf l;ldt x'GYof] . h] eP klg
Bus n] 32 Bit CPU Speed df Transfer ub{Yof] . hj CPU Speed 33Mhz jf Tof] eGbf sd x'GYof]
VESA Adaptor Power sf nflu ISA Slot Section kl5 t'?Gt} hf]l8G5 . t/ CPU glhs VESA Slot df Card
. /fVg Pp6f Extended Contact Area rflxG5 .
Pentium System df PCI Bus Introduce ul/Psf] 5 / PCI BUS csf{] 32 bit Bus xf] . o;n] 33Mhz
Rate df Data Transfer ub{5 . o;n] Bus Mastering Support ub{5 . PCI Bus n] of] Clock Rate Memory df
Direct Data Transfer ub{5 . PCI sf nflu cfkmg} Slot x'G5 . h;df ISA Family sf] Card ldNb]}g
. PCI BUS n] VESA Local Bus n] eGbf w]/} Traditional ?kdf Full Buffiring (Insulation of the I/O Bus From
the Busses on the Mother Board ) / hl6n Control Bus nfO{ sfof{Gjg ub{5 . ISA / EISA Bus CPU Memory
Bus af6 Bus Controller 4f/f cnUu} x'GYof] . VESA Local BUS n] Memory Bus nfO{ CPU /
b'O{ j6f Adaptor ;+u Share ub{Yof] . t/ Rest t cem} klg Bus Controller 4f/f 5'6\ofOPsf]
x'GYof] . PCI BUS nfO{ boo test] Controller hen] CPU Isolate ub{5 . csf{] ISA or EISA o;n]
PCI Bus nfO{ EISA jf PSA BUS af6 Buffer ub{5 .
CMOS Battery
Computer df Power off u/sf] ;dodf Date , Time / System Configuration CMOS BIOS df Store
ul//fVg Batterysf] k|of]u ul/G5 . w]/} h;f] cj:yfdf CMOS Battery Fail ePsf Boot Time df
"CMOS Battery State Low" Massage Display x'G5 . of] Massage CMOS Memory sf] Setting lju|] kl5 dfq}
b]vfp+5 . t/ Date / Time n] cem} sfd ul//x]sf] x'g ;S5 . k"/fgf Mother Board df

df g} Solder ul/Psf] x'G5 . gofF Mother Board df Capsul Type s]f
Rechargable Battery Mother Board
Battery Socket df /flvPsf] x'G5 . slxn] sfFxL o;nfO{ km]g{ jf Disable u/]/ External Battery
xfNg klg ;lsG5 . of] 3 b]lv 6 V ;Ddsf] x'G5 . Mother Board df Fix ePs]f Battery Disable
ug{ jf External Battery hf]8\g Battery sf] glhs} tLg jf rf/ Pin sf] Jumper lbOOsf] x'G5 .
To;}af6 Set ug{' kb{5 . slxn] sfxL Battery km]/]sf] s]lx lbg kl5 g} o:t} ;d:of
cfpg ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf w]/} Voltage sf] Battery xfn]]/ klg x]g{' kg{] x'G5 . t} klg
;d:of ;dfwfg ePg eg] Set Up leq uP/ Original Configuration ldnfpg] . To;f] ubf{ klg Boot
ug{] ;dodf cfkm} BIOS Setup df hfG5 eg] Mother Board g} Upgrade ug[' kg{] x'g ;S5 .
Mother Board
1994/95 lt/ ePsf] b'O{ Generation ljrsf] Hardware sf] lj:tf/n] Highly Integrated Mother Board
PCI Upgrade / Repair sf] Standard Equipment eof] . Integrated Mother Board To; eGbf cl3g} cl:tTjdf
lyof] . t/ Standard Mother Board / Highly Integrated Mother Board df Adaptor Card Replaced ubf{ u/]sf]
d'No jl9 x'GYof] . jf:tjdf k'/fgf Integrated Mother Board df Wrong Adaptor x? h:t} l;ldt
Ifdtfsf] SVGA Port / Out Dated SCSI Connector ;dfj]z lyP . cGtdf pTkfbsn] dxTjk"0f{
Adaptor x? h:t} : SIDE Card, Floppy Controller ;lxt Two Device IDE Controller, Two Serial Port, One Parall Port /
One Game Port Controller Configure u/]/ Mother Board lgdf{0f u/] . Secondary IDE Channel n] yk 2 j6f
IDE Drives Support ub{5 . ;fy} Software Upgrde able BIOS klg gofF BIOS n] Plug N Play Device Hard
Drive Parameters Auto Detection tyf Large Hard Drive Support ub{5 . csf{] Pp6f cem} gofF s'/f 16
Bit On Board Sound Blaster Support ub{5 . Latest Mother Board df Modem, SVGA, Ethernet Adaptor, Fast SCSI /
RAID (Redundant Array Of Inexpensive Drives ) klg Integrate ul/Psf] kfO{G5 . t/ Adaptor Plug ug{] Mother
Board k|of]u ubf{ ;:tf] / Upgradiing ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5 .
s]lx Model sf Mother Board lgDg 5g\

Super 7
;fdfGotof Socket 7 elgg] Mother Board n] 100 Mhz Bus / AGP Support ub{5 . Super 7
Super 7
df kfOG5 . To;}n] k"/fgf] Case df /fVg ldNb}g . Super 7 Mother
Mother Board ATX Model
Board df L3 Cache 2MB k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 h'g AMD CPU n] 100 Mhz df Access ug{ ;S5 . AMD
sf] tL gofF CPU s]f Clock Rate 450 Mhz ;Dd 5 .
Socket 370
gofF xf] . Intel n] o;df Celeron Cpu /fv]/ PGA Socket World df Compitition
Socket 370 Mother board
u/fpb} Slot 1 Device sf] pTkfbg ;Dd lg/Gt/tf lbg] lg0f{o u/]/ pTkfbg u/]sf]
lyof] . of] Socket 7 h:t} b]lvG5 t/ Socket 7 ;+u Compatible 5}g .
Socket 7 , Socket 8 , Slot1 / Slot 2

Pentium PC af6 lj:tf/} CPU Socket sf] Family alu{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . Pentium Mother Board
Socket 7 Standard CPU Socket k|of]u ul/Psf] Mejority Mother Board xf] . t/ s]lx Pemtium / cGo
Upgrade ul/Psf] Processor n] k|of]u u/]sf Mother Board Socket 3 (486/ Over Drive CPU) Socket 4 (60 / 66Mhz
Pentium ) cyjf Socket 5 (cGo dWod :t/sf Pentium CPU ) x'g\ . To;sf] Aofjxfl/s sf/0f CPU
Voltage Clock Multiplier / BIOS Support x'g\ . Socket 7 Mother Board df gofF BIOS 5 . To;}n] gofF
Mother Board lsGg' eGbf CPU Upgrade ug{' /fd|f] x'G5 . o;sf] Foot Print gldNbf ;Dd cGo
s'g} Mother Board df ulNtn] klg /fVg' x'b}g . Pentium II b]lv Socket Base nfO{ 5f]8]/ Slot
1 jf Slot 2 System df Design ul/Psf] 5 . Intel n] Socket Base df x'g] Limitation nfO{ ;dfwfg u/]/
Advance Design df k|:t't u/]sf] 5 . To;df ADM ;xdt 5}g . Cyrix n] klg Non Socket 7 CPU Offer

u/]sf] 5 . Cyrix Media GX Series sf] Mother Board df Sound / Video Controllers ;dfa]z 5 Media GX /
o;sf cGo Support Chip ljz]if Design ul/Psf] Mother Board df cfp+5g\ . Socket 7 CPU sf] Primary
Manufactures Intel AMD / Cyrix xf] . ;j}n] b'O{ k|sf/sf CPU Offer u/] tL Basic Pentium ;+u
Compatiable Version lyP . Cyrix / AMD b'a}n] ltgLx?s]f CPU sf] Performance Rating Baic Pentium sf]
Clock Rate ;+u a/fa/ ul/ ;dfj]z u/] . tnsf] Table df Cyrix sf] CPU sf]] Speed Actually Rating
Performance Mhz df b]vfOPsf] 5 .
Intel Pentium 60 Mhz to 200 Mhz Intel Pentium MMX 166 – 233
AMDK 5 PR 90 to 166 Mhz AMDK 6 MMX 166 – 266
Cyrix 6 * 86 133 Mhz to 200 Mhz Cyrix 6 * 86 MMX 166-266
;a} Socket 7 CPU Win 95, DOS/Win / Vast Majority Software h'g;'s} PC df n]v]sf] eP klg Run
x'g ;Sg] ul/ Design ul/Psf] 5 . s]lx gofF Software Package h;nfO{ MMX Support rflxG5 .
Intel Pentium AMDK5 PR / Cyrix 6 * 86 df Run x'b}g To;}n] p;}n] klg gofF CPU lsGbf MMX
Support ug{] lsGg' kb{5 . lbOPsf] Speed df ;a} CPU sf] Performance p:t} xf] . t/ Banch
Mark Test n] Instruction Mix / Application df 7"nf] km/s b]lvG5 . of] km/s 3D Gane df k|i6
b]lvG5 eg] Office Package df gb]lvg ;S5 .
ATX Mother Boards
ljt]sf] bz jif{ 1985 b]lv 1997 ;Dd AT Standard Original PC IBM n] 90% Industry Standard df
pknAw u/fPs]f lyof] . cGtdf kl/at{g cfof] / gofF System ATX Mother Board ATX Case /
ATX Power Supply ;fy pko'Qm Adaptor tyf AT Power Supply klg ldNg] ul/ pknAw eof] . of]
Intel n] pTkfbg u/]sf] xf] . ATX Mother Board Original AT df w]/} ;do b]lv /x]sf]
;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ Design ul/Psf] xf] . w]/} h;f] AT Mother Board df CPU Adaptor Slot
sf] k5f8L / Case sf] cufl8 kl§ efudf /xGYof] . tL dWo] w]/}df tLgj6f Slot df k"/f
nDjfO{ ePsf Card k|of]u ul/GYof] . Colling Air flow klg Power Supply sf] Fan af6 x'GYof] .
Tof] klg Adaptor Card , Drive Case / Ribbon Cable n] Block x'GYof] . AXT Mother Board df Fan CPU
sf] s]lx Inch leq /flvG5 . ATX sf] Specification sf] klxnf] k"/s Micro ATX Version xf] . h'g
Lower Cost df pknAw u/fOG5 . h] eP klg ahf/df dx+uf] PC nfO{ nfu' ug{ s]lx
l;dfx? X'G5g\ . AXT Mother Board n] Board b]lv Case ;Dd Port sf nflu Nofpg] Cable sf]
;d:ofnfO{ Mother Board df g} /fv]/ ;dfwfg u/]sf] 5 . Standard ATX Mother Board df PS/2 Style
Mouse and Key Board Connector, two Serial Ports One Parallel port, One Gane port tyf USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Port ;dfa]z 5g\ . Highly Integrated Mother Board df Sound Jack, Modem Ports (Phone Line ), RJ – 45 Ports (10
Base Twisted Pair Networking), VGA Connector / Composit Video (S-Video) Jack klg ;dfa]z x'G5g\ . ATX
Mother Board k"/fgf] Socket 7 CPU ( Original Pentium MMX Generation ) / Aofaxfl/s ?kdf gofF pentium
II / Celeron CPU sf nflu klg pko'Qm 5gf}6 x'g ;S5 .

POST (Power On Seelf Test )
PC df Pp6f Built in test Program x'G5 . h;n] Power On ug{] ljlQs} Test
ug{ yfNb5 . of] Program Mother Board sf] ROM df x'G5 . ROM n] Microprocessor n]
Processing ug{ z"? ug]{ b]lvPsf] Address lnPsf] x'G5 . hj Power on ul/G5 . jf Manual
Reset ul/G5 . tj ROM sf] Instruction cg';f/ Test ug{ z'? ub{5 . POST PC df ePsf] Hardware
Component / Circuit Test ug{ / Fault yfxfkfpg agfOPsf] ;fdfGo Program sf] >]0fL xf] .
o;n] Microprocessor Programmable LSI h:t} : Timer, Intrrupt , Controller , Programmable Peripheral Interface ,
DMA Controller, ROM, RAM Peripheral Controllers cflb Check ub{5 . olb Test ;kmn ePdf Post n]
Disk af6 Operation System Load ul/lbG5 . olb s'g} Fault e]l6Pdf ljleGg rf/ tl/sfaf6
Massage lbG5 . (h:t} :- Check Point, Beeps, Errors Code Display jf Detail Error Massage PPI Port af6
Beep Methode df Speaker af6 Error Code Mathode df Speaker af6 Error Code Mathode df CRT Display
df / Detail Massage Methode df ;DjlGwt 7fFpsf] k"0f{ ljj/0f Display df lbG5 .
Post Sequence A
Test Processor Is Support Chip Ok No Display Error Code
Halt No Is Processor Ok? Yes Yes

Check Point Test Remaining RAM and ROM
Test ROM Is There any Error Yes Display Error Code
Halt No Is ROM OK ? No
Yes
Check Point 2 Test Peripherals Controllers
Test Timer 1
Halt No Is Timer 1 Ok ? Is There any Error Yes Display Error Massage

Yes No
Check Point 3
Test DMA Channel 0 Pass Control to Boot Strap Loader
Halt No Is DMA Channel 0 Ok?

Yes
Test Frist 16 K DRAM
O/P Falling Bit Pattern Is DRAM Ok ?

Yes
Test Support Chip
O/P CHK Point 4
DOS (Disk Operating System)
Drive A: or C:
BIOS ROM Check the Hardware Component No Display Massage
Yes
A: is there any Operating System Yes Load the Fount O/S In to RAM

No
C: Is there any Operating System Yes Load the o/s In to RAM
No
Display Error Massage
FAT and Directory
b'a} File sf] Location atfpg] Team x'g\ .

FAT / Directory FAT n] File sxfF 5 eg]/
atfp+5 eg] Directory n] Filde sf] gfd s] xf] eg]/ atfp+5 .
DBR :- DOS sf] Startion Point Frist Sector xf] o;nfO{ DOS 'O' Sector elgG5 . o;df Program sf]
dxTjk"0f{ efu /xG5 To;nfO{ DBR (DOS BOOT Record elgG5 .
Clusters :- DOS Sector x? Cluster df ;+ul7t x'G5g\ . DOS n] File nfO{ Space lbg k|of]u
ug{] Go"gtd Space Cluster xf] . pbfx/0fsf nflu 1 Byte sf] File Create ul/of] eg]
Disk df 1 Byte g} kfOb}g . ToxfF "Minimum allocation " Pp6f Cluster kfOG5 .
Operating System
1981 df Operationg System DOS ;lxt IBM PC Release ePsf] lyof] . To; eGbf cufl8sf ;a}
CPU / DOS Uncompatiable lyP . af:tadf DOS One Sided Single density Floppy k|of]u ul/Psf] PC sf
nflu Design ul/Psf] lyof] h;df Hard Disk lyPg . Hard Disk k|of]u u/]/ dOS Run ubf{ Disk df
Fkiles Fragnentation x'g DOS sf] ljif]ztf lyof] . (Fragmentation eg]sf] File x? Disk el/ 5l/P/ /xg'
xf] ) Fragmentation n] ubf{ Disk el/ 5l/P/ /xg' xf] . Fragmentation n] ubf{ File df Access
ug{ l9nf] x'G5 . / w]/} Fragmentation ePdf System g} Slow x'G5 . DOS 8086 b]lv cfw'lgs
PC 486 jf Pentium ;Dd klg Rn x'g ;S5 . t/ 8086 sf] Performance df 486 n] 4000 MB ;Dd Memory Handle
ug{ ;S5 . t/ DOS n] 640 KB dfq} sfd ub{5 . To;}n] xfn ljsNksf] ?kdf cGo
Operation System x? h:t} Win95 Win98 WinNT, Linux cflb k|of]u ul/G5 .
DOS :- o;n] Multitasking Support ub}{g / 640 KB Memory df dfq} sfd ub{5 .
Windows :- o;n] DOS n] eGbf w]/} Memory k|of]u ug{'sf] ;fy} Multi Tasking Support ub{5 .
Windows 95 :- o;n] win 3.1 df ePsf w]/} ;d:of ;dfwfg u/]sf] 5 . of] DOS df cfwfl/t 5 .
of] 32 Bit Code df agfOPs]f 5 . of] 386 CPU b]lv rNb5 . win 3.1 16 Bit Operation System xf] (DOS
h:t} ) . of] Starting b]lv g} Screen df Picture cfp+5 .
Plug and Play
ISA BUS ;lxt agfOPsf] PC df cltl/Qm Adaptor Install ub{f ldNbf] Configutation sf]
x'g' kb{Yof] . x/]s Card sf nflu cnUu} IRQ DMA Channel , Upper Memory Block jf I/O Port address
cfjZos kb{Yfo] . ISA 16 IRQ / 8 DMA Channel df l;ldt lyof] / x/]s Line df Pp6f Device sf]
e"ldsf x'Gyof] . Install ubf{ b'O{ j6f Device Conflict ePdf (IRQ, DMA, I/O and Memory Address) /fd|
f] ;+u sfd ub{}g . o:tf] ;d:of x'G5 . Plug and Play System n] of] ;d:of ;dfwfg u/sf]
5 . Plug and Play System n] /fd|f] ;+u sfd ug{ lgDg tLg s'/f cfjZos x'G5 .
 Operation System :- Win95, Win98, Win NT etc.

 2. ROM BIOS
 Cards or Adaptors
Directory :- ;fdfGotof Hard Disk sf] storage nfO{ ljlegg ljefhg ul/G5 . To;nfO{ Directory
elGG5 . To; cGtu{t klg Sub Directories / Sub Directorary leq File x? u/]/ Store ug{ ;lsG5 .
pbfx/0fsf] nflu Pp6f b/fh To; leq Drawers / Sub Directories / File x'G5g\ .

Root Directory :- ;a} Disk df Root Directory x'G5 . tof] Format ubf{ g} aGb5 . h''g Floppy Disk
df A: jf B: / Hard Disk sf] Frist Partition C:\Root Directory 5g\ .
Directory Structure
Root Directory C: or A:
Dir1 Dir2 Dir3 F1
Sub Dir1 Sub Dir2 F2
F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
Types of File
Hard Disk df w]/} k|sf/sf File x? x'G5g\ . t/ tL ;a}nfO{ Executable / Non Executable
ul/ b'O{ efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 . h;dWo Executable cfkm} ;s|Lo x'G5 . eg]
Nonexecutable File cfkm} ;lqmo x'b}g .
Dta File or Nonexecutable File :- of] kl5 agfOPsf] Data x? ePsf] File xf] . h'g cGo Program
sf] ;xof]un] pTkfbg ul/G5 . h:t} Word Processor Spread Sheet or Data Base cflb Program Non
Executable File nfO{ High Light ul/ Enterpress ubf{ Run x'b}g .
Executable File :- oL File x? Program File x'g\ oLgLx?sf] File Name Extension df .COM , >EXE , .SYS,
x'G5g\ . oLgLx?nfO{
>DLL cflb High light u/]/ Enter Key Press ubf{ cfkm} Run
x'G5g\ .
w]/} jif{ cufl8 cfz
ASCII Files ( American Standard Code For Information Inerchange ) :- ASCII Text
Standard df compoded ul/Psf] lyof] o;n] x/]s Character nfO{ Computer df vf; Standard df
Representing ub{5 . af:tlas ?kdf ToxfF 128 ASCII Code x'G5 . ltgLx? Letters Symbolss / cGo
Key sf nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . o;df Key board df gb]lvg] cGo Symbol klg ;dfj]z ug{
;lsG5 . tL Extra Code (h;nfO{ Extended Character Set klg elgG5 ) x? Special European Character
x? Represent ug{ k|of]u ul/G5 . Key Board sf] x/]s Characterr ASCII Code ;+u ;+ul7t x'g' .
pbfx/0fsf nflu Alt + 65 Press u/]df 'A' / Alt 50 Press u/]df z'' Display x'G5 .
Batch File :- Batch File sf] gfd DOS df BAT Extension ;lxt x'G5 . of] Excutable File xf] . Batch File df
Pp6f Text x'G5 . h;df instruction Set x'G5 . h;nfO{ Computer n] l:jsf/ ub{5 Auto
Exe.Bat Batch File sf] /fd|f] pbfx/0f xf] . of] Automatically Executable Batch File xf]
o;nfO{ Exit ug{' x'b}g . olb Edit ug{' k/]df Copy u/]/ dfq} ug{' kb{5 .
Device Driverw File :- Device Driver File sf] Extension w]/} h;f] .Sys / Exe klg x'g ;D5 . DOS sf]
Capacity nfO{ Extend ul/ DPS nfO{ Comfiguration Process ;+u Interact ug{ j'em\g / Data
Transfer ug{ cg'dlt lbG5 . DOS n] Device Driver File klg Supply ub{5 . h:t} IO.SYS
System File x? Hideden x'G5g\ .
Compressed Files :- Diskette df File x? Copy ubf{ Compressed ?kdf Copy ul/Psf] x'g ;S5 .
cyf{t w]/} 7"nf] Fiele nfO{ 36fP/ Software xf] . o:tf] Software Install ug{] ;dodf
Install ug[' eGbf klxnf Expand x'G5 . obl o;f] gePdf DOS Expand Command k|of]u
u/]/ Manually Expand ug{‘kg]+{] x'G5 . slxn] sfFxL Compress ug{] File Incompatible
x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf Expand ug{] Software To;} ;u} k7fOG5 .
File Running Order :- Hard Disk sf] Pp6} Space df pp6} gfd ePsf] t/ Extension . BAT , .EXE /
>COM ;a} eGbf klxnf To; kl5 .EXE / cGtdf .BAT Extension ePsf File qmd} ;+u
Run x'G5g\ .
DOS Comamand
Internal Command External Command

of] Command .Com leq n]lvPsf] x'G5 . of] x/]s Command sf nflu cnUu} . EXE File

cfjZos kb{5 . External Command
MSDOS . SYS / df
Command .Com Disk C:\Windows\Command df x'G5g\ . CHK DSK Format .
ePdf Internal Command n] sfd ub{5 . Com , Edit Copy . cflb External Command xg\
Dir, CLS, RD, MD, CD, Del, Move cflb
Internal Command sf pbfx/0f xg\ .

DIR/AD Directorydfq} Display ug{
DIR/AS System File dfq} Display ug{
DIR/AH Hiddem File dfq} Display ug{
DIR/AR Read Only File dfq} Display ug{
DIR/DD Date Wise Display ug{
DIR/OE Extension Order Wise (A to Z)
DIR/OS Order According to File Size (Smallest Frist)
DIR/ON According to Name Orderwise (A to Z)
DIR/ON/OS/OE/OD
DIR /O-D Display Datewise (Datest First)
DIR/O-E Extension Wise (Z to A)
DIR/O-N By Name (Z to A)
DIR O-S By File Size (Biggest Frist)
DIR/A-D Display Only all Files
DIR/Y/D Display the Year In four Digits
DIR/S To Display the Files from the Sub Directories Change to Directory Nane
Ren
Ren Old File Name) New File name
Del To Delete
Del File Nane
To Change the status of the file
Attrib (File Name) + H To Hide File
Attrib (File Name) +R To Make Read Only
To Remove attrib Status
Attrib (File Name) -H
Attrib (File Name) -R
s'g Operating System 4f/f k|of]u ug{] xf] eg]/ 5'§fofpg] k|s[of Partition xf] h:t}
Un Partitioned Disk C: D: E: F:
Umx Novell NT DOS Unix Novell NT
1. h'g System File af6 Boot ug{] xf] To;} cg';f/ Partition ul/G5 .
Win 95 Bootable Disk
A:/ Drive df System Transfer ug{ C:/> Format A:/S
2. PQm Disk af6 Boot ug{]
A:\>
Case 1 Seagate sf] Harddisk ePdf
k|of]u ug{] . of] Ontrack Company n] Seagate sf] Hard Disk Partition, Format
Disk Manager Utility
tyf Repair ug{ agfPsf] Utility Software xf] . of] Floppy Disk df jf gofF Seagate sf] Hard Disk
lsGbf To;d} cfp+5 To;af6 Copy u/]/ lng ;lsG5 . To;sf nflu Sea Move.exe Command k|
of]u ug{] . o;n] 15 j6f hlt File Copy ub{5 . To;df DM klg x'G5 .
Case 2 cGo Company sf] Hard Disk ePdf FDISK (Fix Disk ) Utility software k|of]u ug{]
Gff]6 :- Seagate jf cGo Company sf] Hard Disk yfxf kfpg BIOS df uP/ Hard Disk Detect ug{] .
A:\> Fdisk

1. Creat Partition :- gofF Partition Create ug{
2. Set Active Partition :- s'g Programme af6 Boot ug{] xf] . Active ug{] .
3. Delete Partition :- Partition Delete ug{ .
4. Display Partition Information :- Partition ;DalGw ;"rgf Display x'G5 .
h:t} Drive Operation sys Type Size

C:\> DOS FAT 1.2GB
5. Optional :- of] b'O{j6f Hard Disk hf]8]df dfq] cfp+5 .
Option 1 to Crate New Partition
press <1> Key Primary Extended
DOS Logical
1. Primary DOS DOS sf] Root Directory C:\> Creat ub{5 .

1. Extended DOS
2. Extended DOS
3. Logical DOS
gf]6 :- Format Command n] Psk6sdf Pp6f Drive nfO{ Do You Wandt to be the Maximum Size
of disk dfq} Format ub{5 . FAT af6 Format ug{ Command k|of]u ug{] for Primary Dos ? Y\N n]
2047 MB ;Dd nfO{ dfq} C:Parittion ub{5 .
Case I Press 'Y' Key

o:tf] cj:yfdf 1.2 GB H.D ePdf k'/} Primary DOS / 2.1 GB HD ePdf 2047 MB Primary DOS
ub{5 .
Partition
H.D. Maxcimum Use u/]df A:\> df j;]/ Format C:\ S ug{] To;n] C:\> df System Transfer ub{5 . Restart
u/] kl5 C:\> af6 Boot x'G5 . )
FAT 32 k|of]u u/]df 2047 eGbf al9 Primary DOS Create ug{ ;lsG5 .
Seagate sf] Hard Disk ePdf DM n] FAT n] eGbf al9 Space nfO{ C:\> Partition ub{5 .
Case II Press 'N' Key
Enter Size (….)
Extended Space df s'g} Partition gu/]df Non Dos eg]/ Defined ub{5 . Extended nfO{ Partition
u/]df s|dz D: E: \>aGb} hfG5 .
Press 2
Set Actve
Select the Partition <1>
Gff]6 '1' Enter u/]df C:\> '2' Enter u/]df D: cflb Active x'G5 . h'g Partition Active ul/Psf] xf]
To;s} Operating System af6 Boot x'G5 . Win 95 af6 Partition u/sf] eP Active ug[' kb{}g
Partition ul/;s] kl5 C:\> df System Transfer ug{ A:\> Formaat C:\> ug{] . C: df System Transfer x'G5 .
To; kl5 cGo Start up File tyf Utility x? C:\> df Copy ug{] .
Disk Manager af6 Hard Disk Install ug{ Floppy Disk af6 Boot ug{]
A:\> DM
Deagate On Track sf] Information Disk Checking ST 032112 MB
1. Easy Installation :- o;n] Pp6} dfq} Partition u/fO{ lbG5 . o;df Damage int cfPdf Tof]
H.D. aGb}g BIOS df uP/ Low Level Format ug{] o;f] ubf{ Time al9 nfU5 .
 Costom Installation
 2 Partition
 6 Partition
 1, 2, 3 Partition
Costom Partition
To;kl5 C:\> cfp+5 cfjZos File x? Copy u/]/ Operating System Install ug{]

Gf]f6 :- DM n] cfkm} System Transfer ub{5 .
CD Drive Installation
CD Drive Access ug{ Sscdrom . sys / Mscdex . exe u/L b'O{ j6f File cfjZos kb{5 . tL
File nfO{ C:\> df Copy ul/ df Device = Sscdrom/D:( Device Name ) tyf Autoexec . Bat df
Config . Sys
Mscdex/D: ( Device Name ) Configure ug{] . To; kl5 Computer Restart ubf{ Win 95 Start x'g]
;dodf 'ESC' Press u/]df Back ground df Device = /D : (Device Name ) Number of Device = 1 Massage Display
x'G5 . o;f] ePdf CD Drive n] sfd ub{5 .
Networking
b'O{ jf b'O{ eGbf al9 Computer nfO{ Ps cfk;df hf]8\g] k|s'ofnfO{
Networking elgG5 . Computer nfO{ Net Work df hf]8\bf lgDg kmfObf x'G5 .
 Computer df ePsf] Information Share u/]/ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
 Pp6} ;dodf Pp6} Disk / Software Share u/]/ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
 l56f] Processing ug{ ;lsG5 .
 Networking Printer k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
 Data ;'/lIft /fVg ;lsG5 .
 Sharing sf] ;'ljwfn] cfly{s nfe k'Ub5 . cflb
NetWorknfO{ ltg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .

 Local Area Network :- of] Pp6} Bulding leq jf l;ldt If]qdf k|of]u ul/G5 . o;df
Computer nfO{ Ps cfk;df hf]8\g Cable sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . x/]s Computer df
Networking sf nflu Pp6f Adaptor (LAN Adaptor ) k|of]u ul/G5 . Networking sf nflu vf;
Software k|of]u ul/G5 . h;n] ljleGg Computer sf] lardf ;dks{ sfod /fVg'sf]
;fy} ljleGg k|sf/sf ;/Iff tyf ;'ljwf x? pknAw u/fp+5 .
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :- o;df w]/} If]qkmn ;dfa]z ul/Psf] x'G5 . MAN df
Computer ljrsf] ;Dks{sf nflu Micro Wave jf Radio Signal k|of]u ul/G5 . of] vf; u/]/
w]/} zfvf ePsf ;+:yf x?sf nflu pko'Qm x'G5 .
 Wide area Network (WAN) :- w]/} 7"nf] If]qkmn nfO{ ;d]6]/ Networking ug{' k/]df
WAN sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . of] w]/} kl/df0fdf w]/} Speed df / 6f9f ;Dd
;Dks{ sfod ug{] dfWod xf] . o;df Satelite sf] tyf Fiber Optical Cable sf] tyf Fiber
Optical Cable sf] k|of]u ul/G5 eg] Pocket Switching Method df Transmission ul/G5 . Internet
tyf E - mail o;sf pbfx/0f x'g\ .
Server :- Networking ;DaGwL Service Provide ub{5 .

Hub :- Networking Signal Distribution ub{5 . of] 8, 12, 16, 24 / 32 Port sf] x'G5 .
UTP Cat 5 :- Unshiled Twisted Pair Catagori 5 ( 4 Pair) Data Transfer Rate 100 BPS Max o;df RJ 45 Connector k|of]u
ul/G5 .
Co – Axial Wire :- o;df 502 a/fa/sf] Resistance x'G5 . BNC Connector k|of]u ul/G5 . 0 M bes Max
Data Transfer Rate x'G5 . 100 Metre Maximum Distance ;Dd sfd ub{5 .
Fiber Optics Cable :- Band Width 2 Gbps, 100 Km Max Distance
Satelite ;- 2 Mbes Max Band Width
Router :- ljgftf/ Signal Transmit ug{ o;sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
Power g} gcfpg] ( Set Dead)

 AC 220 V r]s ug[] .

 On/Off Switch r]s ug{] .
 Power Supply r]s ug{] .
 Short Circuit r]s ug{] .
 Power On x'G5 (Led aN5 ) t/ Display x'b}g .
 Monitor sf] Data Cable x]g{]
 Display Card r]s ug{] .
 Hard Disk jf CD sf] Data Cable pN6f x'g ;S5 .
 Memory gePdf jf lju|]df Display cfpb}g .
 Mother Board df BIOS IC jf CPU r]s ug{] .
 Key Board Support gu/]df klg Display cfpb}g .
 Reset Switch lylrPsf] eP
Post Audio Massage

 No Beep Nothing Happens Power Faulty
 Continuous Beep – Power Faulty
 Reapting Short Beep – Power Faulty
 One Long beep one short beep - System board
 One long 2 short beep - Display adaptor
 One short beep no boot floppy dreve - Boot drive failure .
Boot disk failure Massage cfp+5 eg] .

 Hard Disk 5 5}g x]g{] .
 Hard disk auto detect u/fP/ x]g{] .
 Hard disk detect u5{ t/ boot x'b}g eg] floopy af6 boot ug{] / Hard disk df system file copy
u/]/ x]g{] .
Hard disk g} detect ub{}{g eg]

 386 jf 486 ePdf I/O Card / Cable tyf Pentium kl5 sf] Machine ePdf Cable check ug{] , Power
Cable /fd|f] ;+u hf]8\g]
 olb detection ub{}g eg] csf{] Hard disk /fv]/ x]g{] o;f] ubf{ Hard disk jf IDE Port
lju|]sf] yfxf x'G5 .
 Jumper Setting gldn]sf] eP Hard Disk detect ub{}g
 km/s km/s file system n] format u/]sf] eP jf j]Unf j]Un} Operating system ePsf] Hard
disk x? Ps eGbf jl9 hf]8]df Pp6f dfq} b]vfpg] jf s'g} klg gb]vfpg] x'g
;S5 .
Floppy Drive n] sfd ub{}g eg] .

 Cable r]s ug{] .
 BIOS df uP/ Setting x]g{] .
 F.D.D. sf] Led ;w} aln/xG5 eg] Cable pN6f] k/sf] x'G5 .
 Floppy Disk lju|]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 km/s Operating System af6 Format u/sf] x'g ;S5 .
Computer Hang e} /xG5 eg] .

 Memory df ;d:of x'g ;S5 . Change u/]/ x]g{] .
 Software /fd|f] ;+u Install gePsf] x'g ;S5 . Reinstall u/]/ x]g{] .

 ePsf] x'g ;S5 r]s ug{] .
Hardware Device Conflict
 Hard Disk /fd|f] ;+u Set gePsf] x'g ;S5 .
 Screen Saver df ;d:of x'g ;S5 .
 Hard Disk df 5 Space yf/} x'g ;S5 .
 CPU Fan lju|]sf] CPU w]/} Heat ePsf] x'g ;S5 .
 w]/} j6f File Ps} k6s vf]n]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 Hang ePsf] jf gePsf] x]g{ Num Lock Key press ug{] Computer Hang geP/ Slow klg
ePsf] x'g ;S5 . ;f] s'/f yfxf kfpg Alt+Ctrl+Del Press ug{] . "End task" u/]/ Slow ePsf]
Program nfO{ Close ug{ ;lsG5 .
CD Drive n] sfd ub{}g eg]

 BIOS n] Detect u/sf] 5 sL 5}g x]g{] .
 Detect gu/]sf] eP Cable tyf Jumper Setting x]g{]
 BIOS n] Detect u/sf] eP Device Drive File (SSCDrom . SYS / MSCDex . EXE ) 5 5}g jf Startup File
Autoexec.Bat / Config.Sys df Configure u/sf] 5 5}g x]g{] .
 Driver File l7s 5 eg] Cleaner Disk n] Drive Clean ug{] .
 Data Cd k9\b5 t/ Audio / Video CD k9\b}g eg] Soft Ware df ;d:of x'g ;S5 .
 DOS df k9\b}g t/ Windows dfq} k9\b5 eg] Start up File df Configuration gldn]sf]
x'g ;S5 .
 CD k9\bf Mechanism af6 cfjfh cfp+5 eg] Greasing ug{]
 ;a} l7s 5 t/ klg Read ub{}{g eg] CD Drive g} Change ug{] .
Key Board n] sfd ub{}g eg] .

 System n] Support ug{] vfnsf] Key Board xf] xf]Og x]g{] .
 Key Board sf] Cable jf Connector lju|]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 Key Board hf]8]sf] Ps l5g kl5 g} Hang x'G5 eg] . Key Board BIOS n] sfd gu/sf]
x'g ;S5 .
 s'g} s'g} Key n] dfq} sfd ub{}g eg] . Key Board vf]n]/ ;kmf ug{] .
 Pp6f Key Press ubf{ w]/} k6s bf]xf]l/g] Beep cfpg] cflb ePdf Control Panel af6
Setting ldnfpg] .
Mouse rNb}g eg] .

 Pointer g} cfpb}g eg] Mouse g} Connect gx'g ;S5 . jf Driver Load gePsf] x'g ;S5 .
 Mouse / Driver (PS/2 / Serial ) gldn]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 Pointer cfp+5 t/ sfd ub{}g eg] Mouse sf] Circuit jf Cable g} lju|]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 cGo Device ;+u Conflict ePsf] x'g ;S5 . To:tf] cj:yfdf Conflict ePdf] Device Remove
u/]/ x]g{ ;lsG5 .
 Modem hf]8\g] ljlQs} Mouse rNb}g eg] BIOS af6 Mouse hf]8]sf] Port (COM1 or 2 )
sf] Address Change u/]/ x]g{] .
Printer n] sfd ub{}g

 Priner sf] Power Supply x]g{] .
 Printer nfO{ Self Test Mode df x]g{] l7s 5 5}g . 5}g eg] Printer sf] / l7s 5 eg]
Computer sf] ;d:of x'G5 .
 Printer LPT or LPT2 df x'g' k5{ Port l7s 5 5}g jf Conflict s] 5 x]g{] .

 Printer sf] Model s] xf] ? To;} cg';f/ Install ePsf] 5 5}g x]g{] .
CD Play x'G5 t/ Sound cfpb}g

 Speraker l7s 5 5}g Power l7s 5 5}g Volume OFF 5 ls x]g{] .
 CD Drive af6 Audio Cable Sound Card df hf]8]]sf] 5 5}g x]g{]
 CD Drive df Head Phone hf]8]/ x]g{] l7s 5 eg] cGo / l7s geP D Drive df ;d:of
x'G5 .
 Sound Card /d|f] ;+u Install gePsf] x'g ;S5 .
 Amplifier gePsf] Speaker ePdf Sound Card af6 Out Put x'g] Signal sf] Level sd eP/
gjh]sf] x'g ;S5 . jf ;fgf] aHg] Volume Conrtol gx'g] clb x'g ;S5 .
 Sound Record x'b}g eg] Microphone l7s 5 5}g Check ug{] . Audio Recording Device Install
gePsf] x'g ;s5 . jf Setting gldn]sf] x'g ;S5 .
Net Working Neghibour Hood cfp+5 t/ sfd ub{}g eg]

 Networking Cardsf] Driver gldn]sf] x'g ;S5 .
 Networking Card sf] k5f8L sf] Led an]sf] 5 5}g x]g{] h;n] ubf{ Card n] sfd
u/]sf] / gu/]sf] yfxf x'G5 .
 Cable jgfpbf /fd|f] ;+u jgfPsf] 5 5}g x]g{] BNC df 50 Ohm Resistance / UTP df
Pair ldn]sf] x'g' kb{5 .
Computer On ugf{ ;fy BIOS df cfkm} hfG5 eg] .

 CMOS Batterylju|]sf] jf /fd|f] ;+u ghf]l8Psf] x'g ;S5 .
 dxTj k"0f{ System Setting gldn]sf] x'g ;S5 h:t} CPU Speed .
 CMOS Set UP df Setting Change u/]kl5 Save ug{ e'Ng' x'b}g .
Computer Restart e} /xG5 eg] .

 Power Gard l7s 5 5}g r]s ug{] .
 Power Supply af6 Power gk'u]df o:tf] x'G5 .
 UPS af6 Computer rnfPsf] ePdf Battery Down x'g ;S5 .
 AC Line df pQ/r9fk (Flactuation) e} /x]df klg o:tf] x'G5 .
 System Configuration gldn]sf] v08df klg o:tf] x'G5 .
 Processor , BIOS jf Mother sf cGo Support Chip lju|]df klg o:tf] ;d:of cfpg ;S5 .
Hard Disk Partition ubf{ cfpg] ;d:of
 Hard Disk sf] k'/} Capacity b]vfpb}g eg] To; eGbf cufl8 cGo Operating System n]
Partiting u/]sf] x'g ;S5 . jf BIOS sf] / Operating System sf] Unit (BIOS df 1048 MB = 1GB / O/S
df 1025 MB = 1 GB) km/s ePdf jf BIOS n] Support ug{] eGbf w]/} Capacity sf] Hard
Disk ePdf o:tf] x'G5 .
 Partition Delete x'b}g eg] To; eGbf cufl8 h'g O/S n] Partition u/]sf] xf] . To;}n]
Delete ug{] . h:t} FAT 32 n] jf NTFS nfO{ FAT n] Delet gug{ ;S5 .
 Hard Disk lju|]sf] eP Partition ubf{ s]lx klg Massage b]vfpb{}g t/ Format
ubf{ b]vfpb5 .
 Format ubf{ Hard Disk Damage ePsf] Massage lbO{ k'/} Format gu/]df Partition
ubf{ Tolt dfq} partition u/]/ Format ug{] / afFsL Damage efu vfnL 5f8\g] .

 z'?s} efudf jf yf]/} Percentage df Damage ePdf / Damage vfnL 5f]8\bf w]/}
5f]l8g] ePdf BIOS sf] Hard Disk Utility Option k|of]u u/]/ Low Level Format u/]/ Fdisk
ug{] . o;f] ug{ w]/} ;do nfUg] x'G5 eg] ;a} BIOS df of] Option x'b}g .
 Virus nfu]/ b'v lbPdf Format / Foramt df klg ;kmn gePdf Low Level Format ug{] .
 Fdisk Format System Transfer ug{ h'g Operating System Install ug{] xf] . To;}sf] System Disk
k|of]u ug{] .
 Operating System (System File) sf] Version Conflict ePdf Fommat g} ug{' kb{5 . Delete u/]/
x'b}g .
 9. Hard Disk sf] s]lx (l;ldt ;+Vofdf) File Corrupt ePdf CHKDSK ,.Scan Disk h:tf
Utility k|of]u u/]/ dd{t ug{ ;lsG5 . w]/} lju|]sf] eP Format ug{' /fd|f] x'G5
.
Hardware Install ubf{ Wofg lbg'kg{] s'/fx?

 ;DalGwt Hardware cfkm\gf] System Configurainon ;+u ldN5 ldNb}g x]g{] .
 Hardware ;+u} Hardware Installation Disk cfp+5 pQm Disk g5'6fpg] jf r]s u/]/ dfq}
lng] .
 slxn] sflx gofF Hardware Device klg Damage cfpg ;S5 / Driver klg ljrf/ k'-ofpg]
 System df k|of]u ul/Psf Device x?sf] Driver 5 eGg] kSsf eP kl5 dfq} device
Remove ug{] cflb .
 Device Install ug{' eGbf cufl8 To;sf] Document x]g{] .
 Hardware Install ubf{ vf;u/L IRQ tyf Memory / I/O Address Conflict x'g] ;d:of al9 cfpg
;S5 . Memory Address Manually Set ug{ ;lsG5 eg] IRQ BIOS af6 Set ul/ ;d:of ;dfwfg
ug{ ;lsG5 .
 Device Install ul/;s] kl5 Computer Restart ug{' kb{5 .
Software Install ubf{ Wofg lbg'kg{] s'/f

 ;a} eGbf klxn] System Configuration cg';f/sf] Software 5fGg] .
 Software Install ubf{ x/]s Software sf] CD Key x'G5 Tof] yfxf kfpg' kb{5 .
 Software Install ubf{ File Corrupt x'g] . Version Conflict x'g] CD Drive n] /fd|f] ;+u
gk9\g] Virus sf] ;d:of cfpg] x'g ;S5 . To;sf nflu CD Cleaner n] CD Drive Clean
ug{] . Virus Scan ug{] . k'/fgf] Version sf] Software Remove ug{] jf To;nfO{ Upgrade
ug{] cflb ;fjwfgL ckgfpg' kb{5 .
 Software Install u/] kl5 System Restart ug{ e'Ng' x'b}g . Restart u/] kl5 rN5 rNb}g
Test u/]/ x]g{] . slxn] sfxL Install x'G5 . t/ Start Menu df cfpb}g . To:tf]
cj:yfdf Short Creat u/]/ Start Menu df cfkm}n] yKg' kb{5 .
Start-Up /Bootable /System Files

Start –up file x?sf] sfd ljleGg Hardware Component x?nfO Setting u/]/ sfd ug{] cj:yf ;Dd k' -
ofpg xf] .
o;df lgDg File x? x'G5 .

 MSDOS.SYS
 I/O. SYS
 Command . Com DOS df dfq} Win 95/98
 Drvspace . Bin

 MSDOS.SYS df Command x? x'G5 Instruction set
 I/O . Sys (Input / Output Deviceljr Interface u5{)
 Command . Com Language Inter Preter
 Drvspace . Bin – Driver Interface
lo ;a} File x? Command. Com leq Hide x'G5g\
WinNT (Bootable File xf] )

BootIni
NTIdr
NT Delect
Format ul/ System Transferred ubf{
C:/> Format A: /S or Sys
Floppy Format dfq} C:/> Format A: (Enter)
5. Autoexec. Bat
6. Config . Sys
System Disk agfpg]
1. Disk Formated x'g' kb{5 .
2. ;DalGwt O/S af6 Format u/]sf] x'g' kb{5 .
DOS COMMAND
Internal External
Dir, MD Exit
CLS, CD x Copy
Copy, RD Format
Copy , REN CHKDSK
Type, MOVE C:\Windows\Command
Del Separate File x? x'g .
Command .Com leq x'G5 .
C:\> Doskey (klxnf n]lvPsf] cfpg] )
Autoexec – Startup File
Command
ug{sf nflu
Fdisk – Hard Disk Partition
Format – Disk Format ug{sf nflu
MSCdex
Cdtech.Sys(Sony CD Rom eP Drive file) (gq o;sf] ;§fdf SSCDROM . Sys eP h'g;'s} CD klg
sfd ub{5 .)
Sonfig.Sys – Start up File
Drvspace . Bin
Himem . Sys – Memory Manggement sf nflu
I/O . Sys
Msdos.Sys
Hidden Files
.DLL(Application Extension)
.Sys (System File)
. VXD (Virtual Device Driver)
.386 ( Virtual Device Driver)
.DRV (Device Driver)
Hiddeen Files x]bf{
View (Enter) Option (Enter) View (Enter) Hide Files of these types(Enter)
Closs – Alt F4

Wf]/} File Ps} k6s Close ug{' k/]df Shift Close (X) Click
View(Enter)
Toolbar = Go to a Different Folder
Statusbar = Space / Hidden File ePs]f gePsf] b]vfFp+5
Large Icons = Icons 7'nf]
Small Icons = . Icons ;fgf]
List = . File name + Icons nfOgdf cfpF5 .
Details = . Tlile sf] af/]df Detalils df lbG5 .
Arrange Icons – By Name
By Type
By Size
By Date
Auto Arrange
Line Up Icons =
Refresh=
Options =
Copy ug{] ltg tl/sf
 Dos Command
 Dragg u/]/
 sf] Copy Command k|of]u u/]/ (Short Cut df Right Click af6 ug{ ;lsG5 .
Edit Menu )
;DalGwt File df Copy ug{] / /fVg' kg{] 7fFpdf Paste ug{] .
New Folder (File) agfpg' k/]df

Desk top df Right Click u/]/ New df hfg] / Folder (Enter)
Short cut Create ubf{
Start (Enter) Setting (Enter)Taskbar (Enter)Start Menu Program (Enter)
Add (Enter)Browse (Enter)rfxLg] File Next (Enter)rflxg]
7fpFdf (Enter)Finish (Enter)Ok(Enter)
s'g} File Short Cut Crate ul/;s]kl5 , kl5 grfx]df Start (Enter) Setting(Enter)Taskbar(Enter)Start Menu
Program(Enter) Remove(Enter)Wanted File , Remove(Enter) Close(Enter)OK(Enter)
CMOS Setup utility
1. AMIBIOS
2. AWARD BIOS (Award Software)
Restart Period df Del lyr]/ BIOS Setup df s'g} s'g} BIOS df Starting (Booting time ) df
F1 jf F2 Press u/]/ klg hfg ;lsG5 . (o:tf] vf; ul/ Branded Computer df x'G5 .)
(s'g} s'g} df F jf J lyr]/ klg hfg ;lsG5 )
 Standard CMOS Setup
 BIOS Features setup
 Chipset Features setup
 Powerr Management setup
 Load BIOS defaults
 Load setup Defaults
 Password setting
 IDE HDD Auto Detection
 SAVE and Exit setup
 Exit Without saving
1. STNDARD CMOS Setup :

HDD :- Hard Disk Parametre Standard CMOS Set df Save x'g h?/L 5 . ID Auto Detection ePsf] BIOS df Hard Disk
cfkm}n] Detect u5{ gq x/]s Parametre cfkm}n] Detect u5{ gq x/]s Parametre cfkm}n ]
Entry ug{'kg{] x'G5 . klxnf] Channel df Hard Disk hf]8]sf] eP Primary / bf];|f] df hf]8]sf]
eP Secondary eg] Define ub{5 . 486 df Max 3 GB jf 2.1 GB ;Dd Support ub{5

FDD : xfn 1.44 MB , 3.5 Inch sf] FDD k|of]u
ul/G5 .
of] Computer df b'O{j6f ;Dd hf]8\g ;lsG5 . h;nfO{ A Drive / B Drive eg]/ lrGg ;lsG5 .
2. BIOS Features Setup
Disabled :- sfd gug{]
Enabled :- sfd ug{]
Boot ug{ ;lsg] :- Floppy , CD , Hard Disk, Networking Card af6
Security Option :- Setup (Password sf] nflu )
System
Always
1. Password Setting:
Enter Password
 Password Settingug{sf] nflu Password Setting df High Light ul/ Enter ubf{ Enter Password
cfpF5 . To;kl5 cfjZos Password /fv]/ Enter ug{] / Confirm Password cfpF5 . clg k"g
Password /fv]/ Enter ug{] / BIOS af6 aflx/ cfP/ (F10) k'g BIOS df hfFbf Password dfU5 .
 Password Disabled :
 Password set eO /x]sf] cj:yfdf Password Setting df High Light ePsf] a]nf Enter ubf{ Enter
Password cfpF5 . To;df s]xL g/fvL (Password g/fvL) k"g Enter ubf{ k'/fgf] Password
Disabled x'G5 .
 s'g} s'g} BIOS df Password Setting sf] ;§fdf Security Option x'G5 . To;df Highlight u/]/ Enter
ubf{ Setup / System eGg] 2 j6f Option cfpF5 . To; dWo] System set u/]df Operating System
sf nflu / Setup Set u/]df BIOS Set up sf nflu Password set x'G5 .
 s'g} BIOS df User Password / Supervisor Password cnu cnu x'G5 . olb o:tf] ePdf Supervisor
Password set u/]sf] 5 eg] User Password n] sfd ub{}{g .
2. IDE HDD AUTO DETECTION
Hard Disk Auto Detection ubf{
of] Option k|of]u ul/G5 . o;df High Light u/]/ Enter ubf{ Hard
Disks Parametre x? Display ub{5 . To;} cg';f/ Standard CMOS Setup df Set x'G5 / Pp6f Hard Disk detect
ul/ ;s]kl5 ESC u/]df csf{] s|dz ;a} Hard Disk Detection ub{5 .
AMI BIOS SETUP
 Stamdard COMS Setup
 Advanced CMOS setup
 Boot Sequence, Password Option, PS/2 Mouse Support
 Advanced
 Power Management setup
 PCI/Plug Ind Play setup
 IRQ / DMA Channel Setup x'G5 .
 Peripheral setup
 Serial Port / Parallel port setting ug{ ;lsG5 . serial port disabled ubf{ Mouse / Modem rNb}g .
Parallel port desabled ubf{ Printer rNb}g
 CPU configuration setup
 CPU speed setting ug{ ;lsG5 .
 Change user password
 Change supervisor password
 Auto Configuration with optipmal settings
 CPU sf] Speed Highest set u5{ .
 Windwos 95 sf nflu Hard ware Requirenent 386 CPU Minimum 8 MB RAM, 120MB hard disk BGA Display card
Command Prompt
 Hard Disk df g} Back up ePdf
 C:\> CD Win95(Enter)

 C:\> Win95 > Setup(Enter)
 CD af6 Set up ug{] ePdf
 D:\> CD Win95(Enter)
 D:\> Win95>setup(Enter)
 CD af6 Hard Disk df Back up /fVg] ePdf
 D:\> Copy win95 C:\Win95(Enter)
Back up /fVbf
C:\> Md win95
Directory create x'G5 .
Directory Remove ug{
( RD k|of]u ug{] )
To;kl5 ,
D:\> Copy win95 C:\ win95 (Enter)
(D Drive sf] win95 C Drive sf] Win 95 Directory df Copy x'G5 .)
Overwrite (Yes/No/All) ?
Yes (Enter) ;a} Overwrite x'G5 .
No (Enter) Overwrite x'b}g .
All (Enter) Overwrite x'b}g t/ To;df gePsf] File x? dfffq} Copy x'G5 .
For Add New Hardware
Sound Card Install
Start (Enter) Control Panel (Enter) Add New Hardware (Enter)
Next (Enter)
Yes (Recommended) (System n] Detect u5{ )
No (Enter) (cfkm}n] Detect ug{'k5{ )
Next (Enter)
Select the type of hardware you want to install
Sound, (Enter)Video and game controllers (Enter)
Next (Enter)
Have Disk (Enter) (CD /fVg] )
Browse (Enter)
Drives C: , A: , D:
D: (Enter)
CX 4235 (Enter) (Enter)
Win 95 (Enter) (Enter)
English (Enter) (Enter)
D: CX 4235/win95/English
Ok (Enter)
Ok (Enter) Finish (Enter)
Coping File 100 %
Restart ug{]
.
Modem Install
Start (Enter) Control Panel (Enter) Add New Hardware (Enter)
Next (Enter) No (Enter) Next (Enter)
Modem (Enter) Next (Enter) Have Disk (Enter) Browse (Enter)
D:\ DRIVER \ Win 9x (Enter) Ok (Enter)
COM2 (Enter)
Install eP ls ePg eg]/ Check ug{]
Control Panel (Enter) (Enter) Modem (Enter) (Enter)
Diagnostics (Enter)

Modem nfO Highlight ug{]
More info (Enter)
Display Information about modem
Modem Install / setup ubf{ BIOS df ldnfpg' kg{]
Peripheral Setup df
Serial port 2 = 3 E8h
PCI/ PLUG AND Play Set up df
PCI Slot 3 IRQ Priority = 3 (IRQ 3 g} lng] )
IRQ 3 = PCI / Pnp ( Modem Card cg';f/ )
IRQ 10 = ISA /EISA (Disabled ug{)
(Modem open df lng ;Sg] ePsf] Open (IRQ 9, 10 11, 12 )
Disabled u/]df IRQ 3 lnG5 )
VGA Install
VGA Install ePs]f 5 ls 5}g eg]/ yfxf kfpg
Desk top df Right Click u/]/ 256 Colour ePsf] 5 5}g eg]/ cyjf control panel sf] display df double click u/]/
256 colorur 5 5}g eg]/ yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 .
Desk top df right click (Enter) Properties (Enter)
Jff
(Control Panel sf] Display df Double Click)
Display properties sf] settings (Enter) Change Display type (Enter) Adapter type (Change ) (Enter) have Disk (Enter)
Browse (Enter)
D:\Sis 6215c \ win 95
Ok (Enter) Ok (Enter)
100% Close
256 Colours ePdf Install eof] .
Printer Install
My computer (Enter) (Enter) Printer (Enter) (Enter) Add Printer (Enter) (Enter)
Next (Enter) Local Printer (Enter) Next (Enter)
Select the required Printer
s'g Printer xf] of] Select ug{]
Epson LX (Enter) 300 (Lx (Enter) 300 = Lx – 800 )
Next (Enter)
Select the required port
LPT 1 printer Port (Enter)
Next (Enter) Printer name cfpF5 .
C:\Win95 Ok (Enter) Ok (Enter)
Copying 100%
Would you like to print a test page ? Y/N
Finish (Enter)
Operating System df Driver file ePsf] n] .
Network Install
Network Cards / Ethernet adaptor / Nic Card / LAN card
Control panel (Enter) (Enter) Addnew Hardware (Enter) Next (Enter)
No (Enter) (cfkm}n] Detect ug{'k5{ )
Next (Enter)
Network card (Enter) Next (Enter)
Have Disk (Enter) (Floppy /fVg] )
Browse (Enter)
Drive = A:\Win95
Ok(Enter) Ok (Enter)
Copying File 100%

Restart ug{] .
Install eof] ls ePg / Sharing ug{] :-
Network Neighborhood Right click (Enter)
Properties (Enter)
Configuration Identification Access Control
Configuration
1. Client for microsoft Networks
2. TCP/IP
3. Network Adoptor
4. Logon
5. Fileand Printer sharing for microsoft Networks
Identification (Enter)
Computer Name :
Work Grou :
Computer Description :
Access Control (Enter)
Workgroup (Do main)
File and print sharing (Enter)
I want to be able to give others access to my file
I want to be ableto allow others to print to my printers
Apply (Enter) Ok (Enter)
Sharing
My computer (Enter) (Enter) A:\. C:\, D:\ (s'g] Pp6f df High Light u/]/ ) Right Click Sharing (Enter) shared as (Enter)
apply (Enter) Ok (Enter)
Network Neighborhood (Enter) V Binod (Enter) (Enter) A:, C: , D: ,
Hardware Install ubf{ sfd gug{] cj:yf
Hardware damage (Card Not ready)
Configuration Mismatch , Device drive fill Corrupt or Mismatch , Resource conflict 9I) I/O and Memory address ii IRQ
Software Install ubf{ Problem cfpg]
Configuration Mismatch (Problem )
Disk space Problem
Relating software
Local Netwoking
Server – Networking ;DaGwL Service Provided ub{5 .
HUB – Networking signal distribution ub{5 . of] 8, 12, 16, 24, / 32 Port sf]x'G5 .
UTP cats – Unshiled twisted pair catagoris (4 Pair) Data Transfer rate 100 MBs max o;df RJ 45 Connector k|of]u ul/G5
.
Co – Axial wire – o;df 50 Ohm a/fa/sf] Resistance X'G5 . BNC Connector k|of]u ul/G5 . 10 MBPS Max
Data Transfer Rate x'G5 . 200 Meter Maximum Distance
Fiber Optics cable – Band width 2 GBPS , 100 KM Max , Distance
Satelite – 2 MBPS Max Band Width
Router – lagftf/ Signal Transmit ug{ o;sf] k|of] ul/G5 .
Wide Are Network
SAT = Satelatte
ISP = Internet Service provider
Password
Control Panel (Enter) (Enter) Password (Enter) (Enter) Change Password (Enter)
Old Password : klxnfsf] 555
New Password : kl5 /fVg] 666
Confirm new Password : 666
Control Panel (Enter) (Enter) Users (Enter) (Enter) Set Password (Enter)
Old Password :

New password :
Confirm New Password :
Control Panel (Enter) (Enter) Users (Enter) (Enter) add new user (Enter)
New user name :
Password :
Confirm Password :
Ok (Enter)
Config .Sys / Autoexec . Bat lob'a} Auto executable file x'g (cfmkm} Run x'g] ) . Dos High Memory area df
a:b5 . To;}ul/ cGo Device x?nfO{ klg High Memory area df /fVg'sf] nflu Autoexec. Bat /
Config.Sys df Device = , Device High =, Load High = h:tf Syntax df Configure ul/G5 . h;n] ubf{ pSt device
Suyomsyivslly High Memory Device df a;]/ sfd ub{5 .
Autoexec . Bat gofF Create u/]
Set blaster = A220 I 5 D1 T4
Path = C: \ Windows; C:\Windows \Command
Rem – By Windows setup – LH C:\Windows \ Command \NSCDEX
Config .Sys gofF Create u/]df
Files = 70
Device High = C:\CDROM \GSCDROM . Sys \D:MSCDOOO
Config . Sys / Autoexec . Bat Create ubf{
C:\> Co[y Con Config .Sys (Enter)
Over wirte Config . Sys (Yes/No/All) ? Y (Enter)
Files + 70 (Enter)
Device = SSCDrom. Sys /D: Mscdooo (F6)
1 Files Copied
C:\> Copy Con Autoexec . Bat (Enter)
Path = C:\windows; C: Windows \Command (Enter)
MSCDEX/D:MSCDOOO (F6)
1 files copied
Press F8
1. Normal
2. Logged (\Bootlog.txt)
3. Sage Mode
4. Safe mode with network support
5. Step by step confirmation
6. Common prompt only
7. Safe ode command prompt only
8. Previous version of Ms – Dos
1. Normal :- ;fdfGo cj:yfdf start ug{ .

2. Logged :- Bootlog . txt file df start up ug{ (system file af6
xf]Og )
3. Safe Mode :- Computer df s'g} ;dd:of 5 eg] of] cfkm} safe Mode df start x'G5 . o:tf]
cj:yfdf ;a} System resources x? use ug{ ;lsb}g . ;fwf/0f Problem eP/ safe Mode df uPdf
restart u/]kl5 cfkm} set eP/ Normal af6 Start x'G5 .
4. Safe Mode with Network support :- Safe mode n] Network support ub{}g . Network Support ul/ hfg'k/]df
Safe mode with network support af6 hfg] .
5. Step – by - Step Confirmation
Start – up Files df s'g} Problem 5 eg] Computer Run x'B}g . s'g} start up files df Problem 5
eg]/ yfxf kfpg of] option k|of]u ul/G5 .
* Note :- start up files ljgf g} computer Run ug{ ;lsG5 . To;sf nflu window start x'bf F5 Press ug{]
.

Computer Hardware - 2

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Computer Hardware - 2

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Sarlahi Computer Institute

 5f]6f] / z'4 ?kdf sfd ug{] ;fwg .

Basic Functions of Computer

Raushan Raj Singh 1

dflg; / Computer aLr t'ngf

Computer Hardware and Software

Computer cWoogsf b'O kIfx? 5g\ . tL x'g\

Raushan Raj Singh 2

Tailored Software / Packaged Software

 ;d:of ;dfwfg ug]{ pkef]Qmfsf] ;do / k};f art x'G5 .

Raushan Raj Singh 3

Package Software sf s]xL j]kmfObfx?

1. DOS OS/2 ATX Main Frame Computer

Raushan Raj Singh 4

2. Low Level Language :-

Low Level sf ;Ldfx?M

df ePsf ;d:of x6fpg High Level Language sf] ljsf;

High Lecel Language sf ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .

Raushan Raj Singh 5

Assembler sf ljz]iftfx? lgDg 5g\ .

C. Utility Software nfO{ lgDg sfddf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5

High Level Language Low Level Language(Assembling Language )

Raushan Raj Singh 6

;fwf/0ftof Computer System tLg cfwf/e"t efux? ldn]/ ag]sf] x'G5 . tL

Computer sf] cfwf/e"t l;4fGtM

Monitor sf k|sf/x? lgDg 5g\ .

Primary Storage :- o;nfO{ Main Memory klg elgG5 .

o;nfO{ lgDg pb]Zosf nflu k|of]u ul/G5

Raushan Raj Singh 7

Arithmetic and Logic Unit :-

Raushan Raj Singh 8

1. Main Key 2. Numeric Key 3. Function Key and Operating Key

Generation Duration Memory Device

Raushan Raj Singh 9

Fifth generation of Computer :-

Raushan Raj Singh 10

a. Analog Computer b. Digital Computer / c. Hybrid Computer

On the Basis of Size:-

 Main Frame Computer:-

Raushan Raj Singh 11

 XT (Extra Technology) Computer:-

Raushan Raj Singh 12

Adder :- b'O{j6f Number nfO{ hf]8]/ Result lgsfNb5 .

Control Unit sf Parts

Raushan Raj Singh 13

1. Operand 2. Aperand Address 3. Register Address 4. Constant .

Hardware Control unit df , Opcode ljZn]if0f Decoder n] ub{5 . Opcode n] x/]s

1. Memory Read 2. Memory Write 3. I/o Read 4. I/o Write ,

Bus sf k|sf/ lgDg 5g\ .

Raushan Raj Singh 14

Raushan Raj Singh 15

Data bus :- Microprocessor 8085 sf] ;+u x'G5 .

Interrupt jf Peripherals Signal

Raushan Raj Singh 16

80286 sf] s]lx k|d'v ljz]iftf

Raushan Raj Singh 17

Global Driscripter Tabler (GDT) / Local Discripter Table (LDT)

IV. Execution Unit :- o;n] ;a} Instruction nfO{ sfof{Gjog ub{5 .

Raushan Raj Singh 18

Intel 80286 sf] Pin sf] sfd

80386 sf k|d'v laz]iftfx?

80386 nfO{ lgDg efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .

Pin N3, F1, A5 (DP0-DP3) :-