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ECNG 1007

Electrical Engineering Technology

Transformers

Mr. Andrew Balgobin


Content
• What is a Transformer?
• Principle of Operation
• Ideal and Actual Transformer
• Equivalent Circuit
• Efficiency and Voltage Regulation

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 2


Transformers

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 3


What is a Transformer?
• A transformer “steps up” or “steps down” electrical
voltages
– To provide different voltage levels based on requirements
– To reduce copper losses for efficient transmission of electricity
– To provide electrical isolation between circuits
• Transforms electrical to magnetic to electrical
energy
• No moving parts
• 1 or 3
• 3 - Different winding configurations (Y-∆),(Y-Y),(∆-
∆),(∆-Y)

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 4


Electrical & Magnetic Terms
Electric Magnetic
Unit Unit
Circuit Circuit

Driving
emf (V) V mmf (F) At
Force

Response current (I) A flux (Ф) Wb

Field
Intensity ∫ E . dl = V V ∫ H . dl = I A
Relationship

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 5


Principle of Operation
An emf maybe induced in one circuit (same core) by
a changing current in another – mutual induction.

This change occurs because of the interaction


between the magnetic fields
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 6
What is a Transformer?

Ferromagnetic Material

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 7


Principle of Operation
Faraday’s Law – the
induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of
change of linking magnetic
flux. d
E
dt
Hence a transformer MUST
operate on ac system

d d
Vp  N p Vs  Ns
dt dt
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 8
Principle of Operation

Lenz’s Law – the induced


emf is in such a direction
that if the circuit is closed
the induced current
opposes the change of flux
producing it.

Conservation of Energy

d d
E E
dt dt 9
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers
Principle of Operation
• The primary winding is connected to an alternating
voltage source, which results in an alternating flux
whose magnitude depends on
- the input voltage magnitude and
- the number of turns of the primary
winding

• This alternating flux links the secondary winding


and induces a voltage in it with a value that depends
on the number of turns of the secondary winding.

Watch video posted on MyElearning

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 10


Definition
• A transformer is a static device
consisting of a winding, or two or more
coupled windings, with or without a
magnetic core, for inducing mutual
coupling between circuits.

Will continue next class


Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 11
Why A Ferromagnetic Core?
• Ferromagnetic materials have a high
permeability, µ, i.e. the ability of a material to
support the formation of a magnetic field within
itself.
• Increases the inductance of the magnetic circuit
or path between the windings L = µN2A/l
• Increases the magnetic flux density, B = µH
• The core guides or concentrates field lines
produced by one winding to the other, thus
minimizing leakage flux.

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 12


Ideal Transformers
• Flux produced by the primary and secondary
currents are confined to the ferromagnetic
core i.e. there is no leakage flux
• Core has infinite permeability and constant
inductance
• The windings have
no resistance
• Loss-less magnetic
core (no hysteresis
or eddy currents)

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 13


Transformer Analysis
Voltage relationship
d
Vp  N p Vp d Vs
dt  
d Np dt Ns
Vs  Ns
dt
Turns Ratio

Vp Np Vp Vs
 
Vs Ns Np Ns
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 14
Transformer Analysis
Current relationship
To find the relationship between the currents we apply
Ampere’s Law, which states that the mmf around a
closed path is given by

 H .dl   Ni
For the ideal transformer the net mmf around the
magnetic circuit is ‘0’; hence IP and IS are the primary
and secondary currents, respectively, then :
Np Is
NpI p  NsIs  0 
Ns I p
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 15
Transformer Analysis

Conservation of Energy

VpI p  VsIs

Np Is Vp Is
 
Ns I p Vs I p
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 16
Transformer Analysis
Ideal Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 17


Example
An ideal transformer having 90 turns on the
primary and 2250 turns on the secondary is
connected to 200 V source. The load across
the secondary draws a current of 2A.
Calculate:

(a) The effective value of the primary current.


(b) The secondary voltage.

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 18


Example - solution
Np=90 Ns=2250
Ip Is=2A Is N p  Np 
 Is  I p  
200V Is N p

I p Ns Vs
I p Ns  Ns 

 2250 
Ip  2    50 A
 90 

Vp Np Ns
 Vs  Vp
Vs Ns Np
 2250 
Vs  200    5000 V
 90 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 19
Actual Transformers
• Resistance of the windings
• Not all of the flux produced by one winding
links with the other i.e. there is flux leakage
• Energy used by core (hysteresis) and Eddy
Currents induced
• The core saturates
• Permeability is finite

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 20


Losses
Losses in the core
• Core, Iron or No load Losses
- Hysteresis
Real power losses - modelled by Ro
- Eddy currents
• Magnetization reactance of transformer core
Mutual flux - modelled by Xm
Losses in the windings
• Copper losses - joule heating from resistive losses in
- Primary windings
- Secondary windings Real power losses - modelled by R1, R2
• Flux leakage in primary and secondary windings
- Primary windings
- Secondary windings
Stray flux modelled by X1, X2
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 21
Losses
• Hysteresis Loop
– Area enclosed by the loop gives the hysteresis losses

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 22


Losses
• Softer iron cores have less retentivity and
coercivety and hence, dissipate less hysteresis
losses.

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 23


Losses
• Eddy Currents are currents induced in the core
material when subjected to the changing magnetic
field (Faraday’s Law)
• How can we reduce Eddy Currents?
- Instead of having a solid iron core, the magnetic
path is split up into many thin, insulated, pressed
steel sheets called laminations

Will continue next class


Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 24
Practical Transformers

Dry type transformer


1, 1 - 500 kVA, 115/230V

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 25


Practical Transformers

Pole mounted transformer Pad mounted transformer


1, 5 - 1000 kVA, 36 kV 3, <10 MVA, <200 kV

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 26


Practical Transformers

Power transformer
On site at substation
3, 5-500 kVA (small),
500 kVA - 7500 kVA (medium),
7500 kVA - 100 MVA (large),
> 100 MVA (extra large)
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 27
Practical Transformers

Generator transformer
3, 15kV - 230kV, 700 MVA

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 28


Practical Transformers
On site at generation plant

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 29


Equivalent Circuit

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 30


Equivalent Circuit
Joule heating and Joule heating and
leakage in primary leakage in secondary
winding winding

R1 jX1 jX2 R2
IIN I1 N1:N2 I2
INL

Im
Io
V1 Primary Secondary V2
Ro jXm

Hysteresis & Eddy Turns Ratio


Current Losses as
well as magnetizing
losses in core
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 31
Equivalent Circuit
R1 jX1 jX2’ R2'
IIN I1
INL

Im
Io
V1
Ro jXm

2
It would be easier for calculations to refer  N1 
all losses on one side of the transformer.
R2  R2  
 N2 
2
How did we get this???  N1 
X 2  X 2  
 N2 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 32
Equivalent Circuit jX1 jX2
IIN I1 R1 I2 R2
N1:N2
INL

Im
Io Primary Secondary
V1 V2
Ro jXm

Recall, For example,

Z  R  jX
Slosses  I 2Z
S  P  jQ
2
Ssec_ losses  I2 2Z2 -Represented on the secondary side

S I Z
Ssec_ losses  I12Z2' -Represented on the primary side

Therefore the impedance value


must be adjusted to give the same
power value.
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 33
Equivalent Circuit jX1 jX2
IIN I1 R1 I2 R2
N1:N2
INL

Im
Io Primary Secondary
V1 V2
Ro jXm

How does the impedance change when referred? 2


 N1 
Recall, the current
Transferring the I2 Z2  
2
I1  Z2
relationship,
impedance, Z2, from  N2 
secondary to primary,
for example:  N  2 
I2 N1
 I2 2Z2  I12  1  Z2 
I1 N2  N2  
So, the impedance that
N1 2
I2  I1 would give us the same  N1 
N2 power when on the Z '
2  Z2
primary side would be:  N2 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 34
Equivalent Circuit

2
All secondary impedances  N1 
Req  R1  R2  
referred to the primary side
 2
N
2
 N1 
What about referring to the X eq  X1  X 2  
secondary side?  N2 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 35
Referring Impedances
2
 N2 
 
 N1 
N1:N2

Primary Secondary

Numerator is the side


being referred to
2
 N1 
 
Andrew Balgobin  N2  ECNG 1007 - Transformers 36
Referring Impedances
• When referring to the HV side, impedances
increase.

• When referring to the LV side, impedances


decrease.

• Any side can be treated as the primary but


the turns ratio must be adjusted accordingly.

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 37


Voltage Regulation (%)
• The transformer’s voltage regulation is described as
its ability to maintain the same level of voltage with
very minimum variations throughout a given range of
load capacity.

VNL  Vout
100
Vout
Output voltage magnitude Output voltage magnitude
without load with load

Theoretically, the rated


secondary voltage Why would a consumer need to know this?

Can employ the primary or secondary side for analysis


Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 38
Efficiency,  100
Output Power

Input Power
• The
InputEfficiency of the transformer is a measure of its
Power - Losses
  100
ability to produce
Input Power output power with respect to its
required input power (dependant on system losses).
Output Power
  Output Power
Output Power
Power  100
  Output Power +100
Losses
100
100 Considers real powers only!
Input Power
Input Power
Power
Output Power
  Input Power
Power  100
Power --- Losses
Losses
Losses
  Input Power 100
100
100
Input Power
Input Power
Power
InputOutput
Power Power
- Losses

 Output Power  100
Power

 A transformer only has two real losses:
Input Power  100 core losses and copper losses
100
100
Output Power + Losses
Power + Losses
Output Power + Losses
Output
Output V2 I2 cos load
Power
Power
Power

  Input Power 100 100
100  100 copper losses can be found on
 load  Io Ro  I2 Req
2 2 either side of the transformer
VInput Power
2 I 2 cos
Power 𝐼12 𝑅𝑒𝑞_𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑞_𝑠𝑒𝑐
Input Power
Power --- Losses
Losses

Andrew  Input
 Balgobin
Power Losses100
100
ECNG 100- Transformers
1007 39
Output Power + Losses
Output Power
  100
Maximum Efficiency
Input Power
Input Power - Losses
  100
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as
Input Power
V2 I2 cos load
  100
V2 I2 cos load  Io Ro  I2 Req
2 2

Dividing by I2
𝑉2 cos 𝜃
𝜂= 2 × 100
𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑜
𝑉2 cos 𝜃 + + 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼2

Assuming V2 to be constant and for a given power factor of the


load, the efficiency depends on the load current I2

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 40


Maximum Efficiency
Output Power
  100
Input Power
If the numerator is constant, the transformer efficiency will be
maximum Input
if the Power
denominator- Losseswith  respect
 100 to the variable I2 is
equated to zero Input Power
𝑉2 cos 𝜃 Max, when dη/dI = 0
2
𝜂= Output × 100
𝑃𝑁𝐿 Power
  𝑉2 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒𝑞  100
Output Power + Losses
𝑑 𝑃𝑁𝐿
(𝑉2 cos 𝜃 +
Output + 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ) = 0
𝐼2 Power
𝑑𝐼2
  100
𝑃𝑁𝐿 Input Power
0 − 2 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 0 𝑃𝑁𝐿 = 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼2
Input Power - Losses
Thus,the  transformer will give themaximum 100 efficiency when their
copper loss is equalInput to Power
the iron loss.
V2 I2 cos  load
 100 As 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝑃𝑁𝐿
V2 I2 cos  load  2PNL
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 41
Example
A pole mounted single phase 100 kVA,
6600/230 V, 60Hz distribution transformer
has the following characteristics:
R1 = 1.56 , R2 = 0.005 
X1 = 4.66 , X2 = 0.016 
(a) If the no load current is given by (0.251 - j0.968)A
when rated voltage is supplied to the transformer,
find RO and XM .
(b) If the input voltage is maintained at its rated value
and the transformer supplies a full load current at
0.8 p.f. lag, find
i. The output voltage
ii. The voltage regulation at this loading condition
iii. The efficiency at this loading condition
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 42
Example – Solution
Draw magnetizing branch j
IIN I1 V1 V1
INL R0  Xm 
Io Im
Im
Io
V1
jXm 6600
R0   26.3 k
Ro

0.251

6600
INL  Io  jIm Xm 
0.968
 6.82 k

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 43


Load Calculations (1)

Finding V2 working on the primary side


Srated
I1_ FL  ,
Vrated _ pri
Full load conditions
  cos1( p.f .) only
Voltage drop

E1  V10  I1  Req  jX eq 


primary

N2
E2  E1  V2
Andrew Balgobin N1 ECNG 1007 - Transformers 44
Example – Solution
b) (i) To perform calculations on primary side
R1 jX1 jX2 R2
IIN I1 N1:N2 I2
INL

Im
Io
V1 Primary Secondary V2
Ro jXm

2
 N1 
Refer impedances to primary Zeq  Z1  Z2  
2  N2 
 6600 
Req  1.56  0.005    5.68 
 230  𝑁
Since 𝑁1 =
𝑉p_rated
2 𝑉s_rated
 6600 
2

X eq  4.66  0.016    17.84 


 230 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 45
Example – Solution
Calculate full load current magnitude
on primary side
Srated
Srated  Vrated  Irated I1_ FL 
Vrated _ pri
100000
I1_ FL   15.15 A
6600
Calculate load current angle
cos   0.8 lagging pf

  cos1 0.8
I1  15.15  36.87A
  36.87
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 46
Example – Solution

Voltage drop

E1  V10  I1  Req  jX eq 


Working on
Primary Side

VR2eq6600
jX eq 15.15
5.68 j17.84
 36.87 
18.72
18.78 72.34
71.76
VE21  6600
2
6600015.15
284.52
  15.15  36.87
34.89
36.87   18.72
 18.78 72.34
71.76
E211 
V 6600
 6600
6600 283.61
284.52
233.38 35.47
34.89    230.98  j164.57 
  6600
j162.75
E1 
V  6600
6600 233.38
6369 164.57j162.75
j233.38 j6371.13
162.75    1.48 V
2
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 47
Example – Solution
Refer primary voltage to secondary side

E1  6371.13  1.48 V
 N2  𝑁 𝑉
E2  E1    V2 Since 𝑁2 = 𝑉2
1 1
 N1 
 230 
V2  6371.13  1.48 V    222  1.48 V
 6600 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 48
Load Calculations (2)

Finding V2 working on the secondary side


Srated
I2 _ FL  ,  cos1( p.f .)
Vrated _ sec
V1  E1 Full load conditions
only
N2
E2  E1
N1 Voltage drop

V2  E20  I2  Req  jX eq 


sec ondary
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 49
Example – Solution
b) (i) To perform calculations on secondary
side
R1 jX1 jX2 R2
IIN I1 N1:N2 I2
INL

Im
Io
V1 Primary Secondary V2
Ro jXm

2
 N2 
Refer impedances to secondary Zeq  Z2  Z1  
 230 
2
 N1 
Req  0.005  1.56    0.0069 
 6600  𝑁 𝑉
Since 𝑁2 = 𝑉 s_rated
2 1
 230 
p_rated

X eq  0.016  4.66    0.0217 


 6600 
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 50
Example – Solution
Calculate full load current magnitude on
secondary side
Srated
Srated  Vrated  Irated I2 _ FL 
Vrated _ sec
100000
I2 _ FL   434.78 A
230

Calculate load current angle (same)


cos   0.8 lagging pf

  cos1 0.8
I2  434.78  36.87A
  36.87
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 51
Example – Solution
Refer primary voltage to secondary side

V1  E1  66000 V
 N2  𝑁 𝑉
E2  E1  
Since 𝑁2 = 𝑉2
1 1

 1
N
 230 
E2  66000 V    2300 V
 6600  52
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers
Example – Solution

V2  E20  I2  Req  jX eq 


Working on
Secondary Side

 6600
R2eq
V jX eq 0.0069
15.15 j 0.0217
36.87 18.78
0.0228  72.36 
71.76
V2  230
6600 0 15.15 34.89
 434.78
284.52  18.78
  36.87
36.87 71.76
  0.0228 72.36
E21  230
V 284.52
66009.91 35.49  230   8.07  j 5.75 
j162.75
34.89
233.38
E21  6600
V  233.38
221.93 j 5.75  222  V
  1.48
j162.75 Same answer

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 53


Example – Solution
Calculate voltage regulation VNL  VFL
100
VFL
What is the No load voltage, VNL? No Load Current

No Load

VNL  VFL 230  222


100   100  3.6%
VFL 222
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 54
Output Power
  100
Example – Solution
Input Power
Input Power - Losses
  100
Determine efficiency
Input Power
V2 I2 cos load
  100
V2 I2 cos load  Io Ro  I2 Req
2 2

V2 I2 cos  load   222  434.78  0.8   77216.9 W

2 2
Losses  Io Ro  I1 Req
  0.251  26300   15.15   5.68 
2 2

 1656.9  1303.7 77216.9


  100
 2960.6 W 77216.9  2960.6
  96.3%
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 55
Example
A pole mounted single phase 100 kVA,
6600/230 V, 60Hz distribution transformer
has the following characteristics:
R1 = 1.56 , R2 = 0.005 
X1 = 4.66 , X2 = 0.016 
c) If the input voltage is maintained at its rated value
and the load is maintained at 0.8 p.f. lag, find
maximum efficiency and hence the loading
condition at which it occurs.

Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 56


Example –Output
Solution
Power
  100
Input
c) Determine load Power at max. efficiency,
current
PCU  PNL Input Power - Losses
  100
2
Input
PNL  I2 Req _ sec  1656.9 W Power
Output Power
PNL   1656.9  100
I2   Output Power
 490 A+ Losses
Req _ sec 0.0069
Output Power
Find new output  voltage V2 for 100 new loading
Input Power
condition,
V2 Input   I2 - R
E20Power eq  jX eq 
Losses
  100
Find max. efficiency, Input Power
V2 I2 cos  load
max   100
V2 I2 cos  load  2PNL
Andrew Balgobin ECNG 1007 - Transformers 57

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