Thailand’s

SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Sourcebook
 Thailand’s
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Sourcebook

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 Editorial Advisory Board

Kasem Watanachai
Chairman, Thailand Sustainable
Development Foundation

Kitti Wasinondh
Advisor to The Crown Property Bureau
and former Ambassador to the
United Kingdom

Priyanut Dharmapiya
Director of Sufficiency School Centre,
Foundation of Virtuous Youth

Editor-in-Chief
Nicholas Grossman

Project Director
Yvan Van Outrive

Editors
Jim Algie
Apiradee Treerutkuarkul
Nina Wegner
For a list of all writers and contributors,
Contributing Editors see pages 410–411.
Alex Mavro
Ingo Puhl First published in 2015 by
Editions Didier Millet (EDM)
Assistant Editor
Purnama Pawa Email: edm@edmbooks.com.sg
www.edmbooks.com
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 This project was inspired by the launch of the

and it was made possible thanks to the financial support of the following organizations:

02

We would also like to thank our project partners:

Page 2: The Grand Palace and Temple of Emerald Buddha in Bangkok. Page 5: Drying fish in the countryside north of Bangkok. Page 7: Farmers working
in the rice fields between Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai provinces in northern Thailand. Page 12: Suburban houses in Chiang Mai province. Page 22: Family
stranded in Nonthaburi province during the 2011 floods. All photos courtesy of Yann Arthus-Bertrand. © Yann Arthus-Bertrand
 TABLE OF
CONTENTS
10 Foreword by 114 SMEs 286 Wildlife
Dr. Kasem Watanachai 120 Tourism On the Coasts
Chairman of the Editorial Advisory Board 126 Finance 292 Saving Marine Habitats
and Chairman of Thailand Sustainable 132 Trade 298 Coastal Resource Management
Development Foundation 136 Transportation In the City
142 Labor 302 Historic Preservation
148 Competitiveness 306 Urban Development
11 Foreword by 154 Corruption 310 Green Spaces
Dr. Shamshad Akhtar
Under-Secretary-General of the
United Nations and Executive Secretary of ESCAP 158 THE THAI SOCIETY 316 PRIVATE SECTOR
160 Education ENTERPRISE
166 Health 318 Sustainable Business
13 Editor’s Note 172 Family 324 Green Buildings
176 Poverty and Income Inequality 330 Alternative Energy
180 Public Participation 336 Green Manufacturing
14 Maps of Thailand 186 Gender Equality 340 Ethical Sourcing
192 Conflict 344 Waste Management
350 Sustainable Tourism
16 Key Performance Indicators 356 Social Enterprise
198 THE THAI CULTURE 362 Restaurants
200 Monarchy 368 Green Finance and Banking
20 PART 1 206 Religion 374 Indices
An Introduction to Sustainable Development 212 Heritage 378 Countering Corruption

42 PART 2 218 PART 3 382 THE ROLE OF

Issues and Information Ideas and Inspiration GOVERNMENT
384 Education for Sustainable Development
390 Energy Savings
44 THE THAI ENVIRONMENT 22o THE POWER OF 394 Sustainable Transport
46 Energy THE INDIVIDUAL 400 Sustainable Cities
54 Soil 222 Green Homes 404 International Partnerships
58 Water 228 Consumer Choices
62 Forests 234 Commuting
A NOTE ON SOURCES 68 Oceans and Seas 240 Personal Participation & Awareness Appendices
74 Biodiversity 410 Contributors
The sources for the statistics and information in 78 Urbanization 412 Index
this book range from international organizations 82 Pollution and Waste 246 COMMUNITY SPIRIT 416 Picture Credits
such as the World Bank to Thai government 88 Disasters On the Farm
ministries. The editorial team attempted to 248 Area-based Rural Development
identify the most reliable source and check 254 Organic Revolution
against other sources whenever necessary. In 94 THE THAI ECONOMY 262 Integrated Farming/New Theory
many cases, the source is cited. But to cite the 96 Agriculture By the Forests
source of every statistic within the text would 102 Manufacturing 270 Reforestation
encumber the prose and make for very dry reading. 108 State-owned Enterprises 278 Forest Conservation

8 9
 FOREWORDS
I t has been nearly 70 years since the Kingdom of
Thailand was admitted to the United Nations in 1946.
During this period the country has followed a develop-
ment path that mirrors that of many other nations. A
once agrarian-based economy and community-based
society founded on Buddhist principles, Thailand is now
an industrialized country, dotted with densely populat-
ed urban areas and Westernized in many respects.
The rewards of this growth, on the one hand, have
been clear enough. Millions of Thais have been lifted
out of poverty and enjoy a higher standard of living
today, including basic security and rights, healthcare
and education, than they did previously. However,
as experienced by many countries around the world,
there have also been costs: environmental degrada-
tion, increased income inequality and a questionable
and contentious distribution of wealth, opportunities
and justice. This growth has also impacted our culture,
values and mindset in ways that may be harder to
quantify but are impossible to deny. In our hearts, we
may feel that this growth is irrevocably changing our
very identity.
As a result, here in Thailand as elsewhere, the model of
development that emphasizes GDP as the key measure
of progress has come under question and inspired calls
for a change in direction toward a more balanced and
socially inclusive approach, namely growth that mea-
sures our success as a society in terms that encompass
more than just money. So the international movement
distilled into the concept of “sustainable development”
resonates well within Thailand.
Because sustainable development requires a people-
centered, collaborative and far-reaching strategy on
10
numerous issues, some of the challenges we must over-
come to achieve it are substantial. Efforts to strengthen
governance and the rule of law and to provide higher
quality education have been part of the national agenda
for many years. Other challenges are unique to our
climate and geography, or to our social and political
conditions.
Across Thailand, as this book showcases, there are
already thousands of grassroots efforts, entrepreneurs,
community and government leaders as well as private
sector pioneers, who are sincerely applying the key
values and ideas of sustainable development. They are
providing us with hope. Many of these actions have
been inspired by the decades of leadership, in words
and deeds, of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej.
His Majesty’s royally initiated projects and Sufficiency
Economy Philosophy have given Thailand a wonderful
foundation for its pursuit of sustainable development
moving forward.
I hope Thailand’s Sustainable Development Sourcebook
will call attention to His Majesty’s ideas, to the solutions
we must create, to the opportunities we share and to
the sincere efforts we are undertaking. I also hope it will
help create further awareness and excitement about the
promising 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
that has been launched by the UN. In 2016, Thailand
will act as Chairman of the G77. The largest inter-gov-
ernmental organization within the UN, it helps create a
unified voice among 134 developing countries on issues
of economic development. In the spirit of such interna-
tional cooperation, Thailand is proud to contribute this
book to the dialogue on sustainable development in the
hope of creating true progress for everyone who shares
this planet.
Dr Kasem Watanachai
Chairman of the Editorial Advisory Board
and Chairman of Thailand Sustainable
Development Foundation
T he publication of this book is timely now that the
United Nations has adopted the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. The implementation of the
new global development agenda can definitely benefit
from the rich experiences offered by Thailand, docu-
mented so well in this sourcebook.
The United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) offers a wide range of
platforms to facilitate the sharing of experiences by
Member States and other development stakeholders.
Several countries in the region have adopted unique
approaches and have valuable experience in establish-
ing diverse philosophical principles, anchored strongly
in Asian culture and values, as the foundation of their
development strategies. These nations are leaders in
finding ways to implement normative approaches to
development that meet the needs of their people.
Thailand provides a good example of this leadership.
The Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, articulated and
championed by His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej,
is one of the most interesting and relevant of these
homegrown Asian development approaches, especially
now that sustainable development has been adopted
as the core of the global agenda. The Thai experience
illustrates the power of value-based approaches, with
the ability to influence choices and decisions at all
levels – from the individual to the family to the national
sphere. It is this power to influence that differentiates
the philosophy from more top-down approaches,
especially since it is so strongly rooted in genuine
respect for people and for nature. This power to influ-
ence is strengthened by the inclusive way in which the
Sufficiency Economy Philosophy is operationalized - it
applies equally to the very poor and to the affluent,
contributing to livelihoods across Thailand.
Based on these principles, Thailand has been able to
establish model development interventions that are
influencing the way opportunities are created not only
in the country, but also around the world. The focus
on schools, through the Sufficiency Economy School
Project, could for example be a model for accelerating
progress on the Sustainable Development Goals on
education and youth. The support provided in expanding
the diversity of livelihood opportunities for indigenous
peoples – often among the most marginalized groups in
many societies – is also impressive.
The development trajectory in Thailand has not been
without challenges, but the Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy, along with other approaches that seek
to integrate the social, economic, and environmental
dimensions of development, has achieved significant
results. The introduction of the Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy as part of community and rural devel-
opment activities in thousands of locations all over
Thailand shows the importance of strong governance.
The extent to which its programs are administered by
various ministries working together is an important
demonstration of collaboration based on development
consensus.
The Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, as well as the
many inspiring examples featured in this book, demon-
strates a balanced integration of the three dimensions
of sustainable development which ESCAP, and the United
Nations in general, has been strongly promoting.
Integrated approaches to development that support
inclusion and economic progress while strengthening
environmental protection, such as those embodied
by the Royal Project, are worth emulating. The Royal
Project has been internationally recognized and has
also provided occupational training, giving people more
secure lives. This model, as well as the other models
discussed in the sourcebook, hold strong potential for
application in other countries and regions as well.
Dr Shamshad Akhtar
Under-Secretary-General
of the United Nations and
Executive Secretary of ESCAP
11
 EDITOR’S NOTE

This sourcebook was inspired, in part, by the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, adopted recently by the
United Nations. Around the world and within Thailand,
there is a compelling and growing movement in support
of the ideas and actions this agenda promotes.
In Part 1, we offer a broad overview of sustainable
development and explain how it has evolved over the
decades to become a defining concept of our times.
We explain how, in Thailand, sustainable development
is often seen through the lens of King Bhumibol
Adulyadej’s Sufficiency Economy Philosophy with which
it shares many principles.
Part II of the book defines the key issues the kingdom is
grappling with in its quest for sustainable development.
Categorized according to four key areas – the environment,
the economy, society and culture – 30 articles, written
and reviewed by experts in the various subjects, present
key background information, trends, statistics and
challenges. There is much more that could be said
about these topics. These articles are merely starting
places for any reader wishing to understand Thailand’s
unique situation.
development in Thailand. The articles are organized
according to the key audiences and actors, beginning
with you, the individual, and followed by the community,
private sector and government. There are many people
and projects that have not been featured. The field of
sustainable development is vast – it can appear at times
to cover every activity on Earth as well as Earth itself –
and space is limited. Easily this book could be twice as
long. Our goal was to capture an impressive variety of
ideas and programs from many different regions and
on many different subjects. What this book is not is
a technical treatise about how sustainability can be
achieved here nor a speculative account about how it will
play out. As a sourcebook, it is intended as an introduction,
and as inspiration for further research and action.
Finally, we hope that this will be an ongoing effort
on our part. This sourcebook provides a snapshot of
Thailand and sustainable development as of 2015. As
Thailand pursues the UN’s new agenda, we will continue
to highlight the best practices, groundbreaking ideas, as
well as fresh obstacles and efforts through our project
website: www.thailandsustainabledevelopment.com

Part III of the book showcases many of the programs Nicholas Grossman
and pioneers who are working to create sustainable Editor-in-Chief

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The publishing team is grateful to the following individuals for their assistance and advice: Dr. Chirayu Isarangkun Na Ayuthaya whose belief in this project and generous
help was essential to its realization. A special thank you to Dr. Priyanut Dharmapiya for her warm and thoughtful guidance, and to Kanchana Patarachoke and Dr. Sooksan
Kantabutra for their helpful comments on the text. In addition, we thank Adit Laixuthai, Aj Wisuthithawornwong, Anak Pattanavibool, Anand Panyarachun, Aprurudee Reepol,
Ar-tara Satraroj, Ashvin Dayal, Aswin Kongsiri, Atikom Terbsiri, Banthoon Lamsam, Benjamin Schulte, Chaiwat Satyaem, Chanchaya Hadden, Chanin Donavanik, Chartsiri
Sophonpanich, Danny Marks, Edward Rubesch, Graham Watts, Grissarin Chungsiriwat, Hasan Basar, Jeff Hodson, Jeff Rutherford, Jittima Srisuknam, Jonathan Grossman,
Kampanad Bhaktikul, Kanlayaporn Chonghaisal, Kateprapa Buranakanonda, Kraiwut Rijaravanich, Krip Rojanastien, Krisana Kraisintu, Lek Sirinya Chaidee, M.L. Radeethep
Devakula, Melisa Teo, Nauvarat Suksamran, Nuntakarn Chinprahut, Ongorn Abhakorn Na Ayuthaya , Orawan Yafa, Oraya Sutabutr, Parames Krairiksh, Piti Sithi-Amnuai,
Piyaporn Wongruang, Plew Trivisvavet, Ploenpote Atthakor, Prasert Salinla-umpai, Pravit Sukhum , Pruitti Kerdchoochuen, Rapeepat Ingkasit, Richard Mann, Salina Boonkua,
Sarah McLean, Sarinee Achavanuntakul, Sawalee Tankulrat, Sek Wannamethee, Sirikul Bunnag, Sirirwat Thiptaradol, Sonchai Nokeplub, Sumneang Raburee, Sunisa Soodruk,
Supakorn Vejjajiva, Tanaphol Bangyikhan, Tawatchai La-ongjun, Tevin Vonvanich, Thaninnart Chiewchanpanich, Thapana Sirivadhanabhakdi, Tom Beloe, Varisra Kertsang,
Vichit Suraphongchai, Vitool Viraponsavan, Wannapa Bucha, Wayuphong Jitvijak, Werapong Prapha, Will Baxter and Yos Euarchukiati.

We also appreciate support offered by the personnel at the following organisations: Anti-Corruption Organization of Thailand, Community Organization Development
Institute, Conservation Foundation, Daoreuk Communications Co., Ltd., Earth Net Foundation, Electricity Generation Authority of Thailand, Farmers’ Friends Rice, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forest Restoration Research Unit (FORRU), Foundation for Consumers, Green Peace Southeast Asia, Huai Hong Khrai Royal
Development Study Centre, Integrated Tribal Development Program, Khao Khwan Foundation, Mab Ueang Agrinature, Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT),
Rambhai Barni Rajabhat University and Marine Science Activity, Rice Department, Roong Aroon School, Royal Discovery Initiative Foundation, Sal Forest, Thai Institute of Director
Association, Thailand Environment Institute (TEI), The Association of Siamese Architects Under Royal Patronage, The Thai Silk Company and Wildlife Conservation Society.

12 13
 PROVINCES
OF THAILAND
NORTH 39 Nong Bua Lamphu
1 Mae Hong Son 40 Udon Thani
3
2 Chiang Mai 41 Sakon Nakhon
1 3 Chiang Rai 42 Nakhon Phanom
4
4 Phayao 43 Khon Kaen
5 Lampang 44 Kalasin
8
2

6 Lamphun 45 Mukdahan
5
6
7
56 7 Phrae 46 Chaiyaphum
9 38 8 Nan 47 Maha Sarakham
15
37
40
41
42 9 Uttaradit 48 Roi Et
10 16
39
49 Yasothon
44 WEST 50 Amnat Charoen
51 Nakhon Ratchasima
45
18 19
17
43 10 Tak
46 47 48 49 50
11 Kanchanaburi (Korat)
20 12 Ratchaburi 52 Buriram
21
22
13 Phetchaburi 53 Surin
24
14 Prachuap Khiri Khan 54 Si Saket
55
23 51 53
54
11 25 26 27
52
55 Ubon Ratchathani
28
29 CENTRAL 56 Bueng Kan
57
30 32
31
35 59 15 Sukhothai
12 34 36 58 16 Phitsanulok EAST
33
60 17 Phetchabun 57 Prachinburi
13 61 62 18 Kamphaeng Phet 58 Chachoengsao
63
19 Phichit 59 Sa Kaeo
14
20 Nakhon Sawan 60 Chonburi
21 Uthai Thani 61 Rayong
22 Chainat 62 Chanthaburi
23 Singburi 63 Trat
24 Lopburi
SOUTH
64
25 Suphanburi
26 Ang Thong 64 Chumphon
65
27 Saraburi 65 Ranong
28 Ayudhya 66 Surat Thani
66
29 Nakhon Nayok 67 Phangnga
30 Nakhon Pathom 68 Krabi
67
70
31 Pathum Thani 69 Phuket
69
68
32 Nonthaburi 70 Nakhon Si Thammarat
33 Samut Songkhram 71 Trang
71
72 34 Samut Sakhon 72 Phatthalung
35 Bangkok 73 Satun
73 74
75 36 Samut Prakan 74 Songkhla
75 Pattani
76
77
NORTHEAST (Isan) 76 Yala
37 Loei 77 Narathiwat
38 Nong Khai

14 15
 Key performANce INDIcATors

OVERVIEW ENVIRONMENT & ENERGY

PEOPLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE AMOUNT OF CO2 IN COMPARISON
TO OTHER ASEAN
RANKING BY COUNTRY RANKING (Out of 198 countries) EMISSIONS FROM FUEL NATIONS
POPuLATION 67,222,972 (Out of 187 countries) COMBUSTION IN Brunei = 102

uRBAN (% Of POPuLATION) 35 Thailand is listed among those countries 78 Switzerland

1 MT CO2 257 Cambodia
Indonesia
= 123
= 14
with high levels of human development. Thailand (MT CO2 is metric tons
Lao PDR = NA
of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent)
Other Asian nations in this category are: Brunei = 37 Malaysia = 27
MEDIAN AgE (yEARS) 38 Thailand has improved Myanmar = 93
Cambodia = 145
Malaysia = 62 China = 91 its track record in RANKING IN CO2 23 Philippines = 40
LIfE ExPECTANCy (yEARS) 74 Indonesia = 112 areas like Health Im- EMISSIONS Singapore = 54
Sri Lanka = 73 Philippines = 117 Lao PDR = 127 pacts (55) and Water (Out of 138 countries) Vietnam = 32
Vietnam = 122 Malaysia = 51 Resources (69), but
ECONOMY Myanmar = 164 still lags behind many TOP 5 CONTRIBUTORS TO MT CO2 EMISSIONS WORLDWIDE
Philippines = 114 nations in terms of BY PERCENT OF TOTAL
gROSS DOMESTIC PRODuCT (gDP, uS$) Air Quality (145) and
$374 bILLIoN
THAILAND = 89 Singapore = 4
Vietnam = 136
Agriculture (106).
China 26%
Russian federation
uSA 16%
5%
India
Japan
6%
4%
Source: United Nations Development Programme Human Development
gROSS NATIONAL INCOME (uS$ PER CAPITA) Report 2014 Source: The Environmental Performance Index, Yale University Source: International Energy Agency Energy Atlas of 2012

$5,410 AMOUNT OF FOSSIL FUELS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY SHARE OF RENEWABLES IN

INCOME LEVEL POVERTY ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION PRODUCTION (MTOE)
(MTOE:Million Tons of Oil Equivalent)
TOTAL ENERGY PRODUCTION
Upper-mIDDLe INcome
Source: World Bank
0.4% POPuLATION
LIVINg BELOW
92% RANK: 34th
24.2 RANK: 11th
32% RANK: 71st
Out of 138 countries Out of 138 countries Out of 138 countries
EDUCATION $1.25 A DAy 1= Country with the highest 1= Country with the highest share of renew-
1= Most fossil fuel–dependent
production levels of renewable energy able energy in total energy production

7
Mean years of
in
comparison
to
13
Expected years
This is the international poverty line
as determined by the World Bank.
country
Source: International Energy Agency Energy Atlas Source: International Energy Agency Energy Atlas Source: International Energy Agency Energy Atlas

Schooling of Schooling CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS TOTAL ELECTRICITY

Source: United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2014 1.0% POPuLATION IN
MuLTIDIMENSIONAL
CO2 emissions per capita (tons) in ASEAN countries PRODUCTION
(In billion kilowatts-hour)

ACCESS TO THE INTERNET POVERTy THAILAND 4.45 1990 = 44

Multidimensional poverty identifies

27% 29 Brunei = 23 Lao PDR = 0.3 Philippines = 0.9

2011 = 156
Source: Internet Live Stats

multiple deprivations in the same house-

hold in terms of education, health and Cambodia = 0.3 Malaysia = 7.6 Singapore = 2.7
Internet users Internet usage ranking standard of living. Indonesia = 1.8 Myanmar = 0.2 Vietnam = 1.7
(% of population) (out of 198 countries) RANK: 23rd out of 217 countries
Source: United Nations Development Programme Human Development Source: United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2014 for Thailand,
Source: United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2014 Report 2014 Asian Development Bank Indicators 2014 for other ASEAN countries Source: CIA World Factbook

16 17
 ECONOMY SOCIETY
GDP GROWTH forecast years 2015–2017 THAILAND’S ECONOMIC SOCIAL STATISTICS fertility rate
PEACE RANKING (Out of 133 countries)
STRUCTURE BY SECTOR
126
Elderly Ranking is based on three broad themes: the
Unit % 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 level of safety and security in society; the
dependency
china 7.7 7.4 7.1 7.0 6.9 ratio
14%
1.5
children
extent of domestic and international conflict;
and the degree of militarization.
Indonesia 5.6 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.5 born per Source: Global Peace Index 2015
woman
malaysia 4.7 6.0 4.7 5.0 5.1
SOCIAL CORRUPTION
philippines
Thailand
7.2
2.9
6.1
0.7
6.0
3.5
6.5
4.0
6.3
4.0 46%
10
deaths per 1,000
Infant
mortality PROGRESS Corruption remains a
problem in much of Asia,
Services live births
rate RANKING including Thailand.
Vietnam 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.2 6.5 (Out of 133 countries)
Source: World Bank
Lao pDr 8.5 7.5 6.4 7.0 7.0
myanmar
AseAN
8.3
5.0
8.5
4.4
8.5
4.9
8.2
5.1
8.0
5.2
42%
Industry
12%
Agriculture
THAILAND IS AN AGING SOCIETY
The year when approx-
57 OVER 40%
2025
World 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.2 imate number of young Social progress includes
Source: OECD Thailand Development nutritional and basic of the continent’s
Source: World Bank Indicators from World Bank people and seniors will medical care, access to developing economies
be the same. basic knowledge, health and ranked in the bottom
wellness, as well as access third of Transparency
ASIA-PACIFIC TOP 10 GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS EASE OF DOING Source: Thailand Development Research Institute to information, communica-
tions and personal safety.
International’s Corruption
Perception Index.
COUNTRIES IN GLOBAL RANKING BY SECTOR BUSINESS
COMPETITIVENESS The quality of government, financial, Ease of doing business HAPPINESS Thailand 34 Source: Social Progress Index 2015 Source: Corruption Perceptions Index 2014

global rankings out of 144 countries legal and administrative institutions. ranks economies
from 1 to 189, with first East Asian and South-
east Asian countries Switzerland 1 TOTAL LAND AREA
Singapore
Japan
2
6
Infrastructure
Macroeconomic environment 19
48 indicating the best and
easiest.

2013 18th
in Top 50 ranking of
happiest nations on
earth from 2012 to 2014
out of 158 countries.
Singapore
Japan
24
46
(World Ranking:
51 out of 257
countries)
513,120 SqKm
Hong Kong SAR 7 Institutional environment 84 South Korea 47
2014 18th LAND

Malaysia 20 Trust in politicians 129 Source: World Happiness Report 2015 LAND USE 510,890
2015 26 th
Agriculture 46%
sq km
BORDERS
China 28
Source: The Global Competitiveness Index 2014-2015 Source: World Bank EXPENDITURE RANKINGS Myanmar 2,416 Km
Thailand 31 Int’l carriers Departures
Int’l
(Percentage of gDP) forest 31%
WATer
(West)

Indonesia 34
year
Number of Takeoffs
Air freight Departures
Million Tons/Km HEALTH 4.3% 163rd Other 23%
2,230
Cambodia 817 Km
(Southeast)
1990 69,500 661
Philippines 52 AIR EDuCATION 7.6% 47th sq km Lao PDR 1,845 Km
(Northeast)
2000 101, 591 1,712.9
Vietnam 68 TRANSPORT 2012 252,369 2,758.4 MILITARy 1.5% 63 rd
Malaysia 595 Km
(South)
Source: The Global Competitiveness Index 2014-2015 Source: Asian Development Bank Indicators Source: UN Development Programme Human Development Report 2014 Source: Office of Agricultural Economics, Thailand

18 19
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
TO SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Why has the concept of sustainable
development become so popular?
What does it mean in the first place?
Where does it originate from and how
does Thailand fit into this new global
development model? From its roots
in the environmental activism of the
1960s, sustainable development has
grown into a significant international
movement, one that is inspiring big
businesses, national governments,
local communities and individuals to
work together and rethink how they
approach the pursuit of success.
In Thailand, the urgent need for more
balanced development and better
resource management holds many
commonalities with other recently
industrialized countries. Yet the South-
east Asian kingdom also holds certain
unique advantages and opportunities.
What are they and how can Thailand
capitalize on the era of sustainable
development?

“Sustainable development” is the frequent subject of
international conferences everywhere. Corporations
and governments alike host them, and the United
Nations has adopted the strategy as the guiding
principle of its new 15-year development program.
“Sustainability” is also a contemporary catchphrase
for groups across many sectors. The term comes up in
everything from tourism to manufacturing to architec-
ture, from governmental economic plans to banking
seminars to product marketing. It serves as a modus
operandi for NGOs and social enterprises. It appears
on pamphlets, business cards and restaurant menus. It
is taught in classrooms.
But what does it mean, really?
One of the most enduring definitions comes from Our
Common Future, or the Brundtland Report, published
in 1987 by the United Nations World Commission on
Environment and Development. It arrived at a time
when increasing awareness about the limits of natural
resources and the impacts of human actions on the
environment had begun to inspire calls for a new, more
integrated model of development. The report stated,
quite neatly, that:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.”
Easier said than done. Flash forward three decades and
it seems entirely possible that we are leaving our future
descendants a negative legacy. Alarm about climate
change, health pandemics, economic crises and income
inequality is increasing apace with global temperatures
– 2014 was the hottest on record – fueling more fervent
calls for sustainable development.
Big businesses are worried. They are beginning to
recognize that they must have dependable human
and natural capital to succeed in the future. The fallacy
that business is separate from both society and the
environment is exposed every time a natural disaster
disrupts supply chains, wiping out profits. Governments
have taken notice. They see sustainable development
as a way to organize long-term, multifaceted national
22
INTRODUCTION
development agendas for ever-expanding populations.
The international community, led by the UN, has been
leading the charge for a while. It encourages “sustainable
development” as an encompassing ideology to create
more consensus and action on difficult issues such
as greenhouse emissions, human rights and poverty.
Even in the realm of art, sustainable development has
proven to be an inspiration. The world-famous French
photographer Yann Arthus-Bertrand flies over the earth
to capture how unsustainable practices are scarring the
planet and leading its steward, humanity, into extreme
vulnerability.
Today, the popularity of sustainable development
suggests a paradigm shift may finally be under way.
As one of the world’s foremost thought leaders on the
subject, Jeffrey Sachs, argues in his latest book, The
Age of Sustainable Development, this philosophy and
mindset “is a central concept for our age. It is both a way
of understanding the world and a method for solving
global problems.” Underlying all of this is an increasing
sense of urgency. Is it an age of sustainable development
or an age of anxiety? Are we indeed leaving a negative
legacy for future generations? Is the path we are on
unsustainable, set only to lead us toward hardship or
even calamity? Is it too late to change course? How
can we create the change we imagine? We might first
ask, though, how did we arrive at these questions in
the first place?
SD 1.0: AN EMERGING CONCEPT
When many people hear about sustainable development,
environmental matters are what spring to mind first. It’s a
fair assumption to make. The Industrial Revolution of the
late-18th and 19th centuries, which was heavily reliant
on burning coal as many countries still are, brought
about a vast transformation of Western economies, as
they shifted from farming to industry. The exploitation
of natural resources that fueled the Industrial Revolution
and the tremendous economic growth of the West
demanded further global exploration for resources.
These forays connected peoples, markets and countries
like never before, and began an unprecedented wave
of global development.
23
INTRODUCTION
This transition also marked a drastic change in human
thought. Over the centuries to come, great ships sailed
the seas to open up new trade routes, airplanes criss-
crossed the skies to connect nations and an American
astronaut walked on the moon. All these achievements
seemed to prove that human technology and ingenuity
were unstoppable.
At first, that message appeared to be confirmed once
again by the “Green Revolution” of the 1950s and 1960s,
as the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides boosted
farm yields to feed rapidly growing populations. But
this revolution, which was not “green” in spirit at all,
eventually catalyzed a backlash in the form of the
ecological movement of the 1960s, with telltale texts like
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring documenting the silencing
of songbirds by pesticides, the founding of Greenpeace
by a group of counterculture rebels in Vancouver in
1969, and the formation of the world’s first green parties.
By the 1970s, existing notions of progress,
growth and development were being
challenged from all directions.
Another focal point for this nascent movement arrived
in the early 1970s when a group of eminent politicians,
economists and scientists who were part of the Club of
Rome think tank, published The Limits to Growth, which
warned that the Earth had a limited supply of physical
resources and that exceeding those limits could end in
disaster. As these limits were considered, events such
as the oil crisis of 1973 – when the Organization of Arab
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) declared an oil
embargo that quadrupled the price of a barrel – exposed
how governments, businesses and consumers had
become dependent on cheap oil. (Such crises often spur
a rethink, and after 1973, the US increased investment in
alternative energy sources, and Japan became famous
for producing smaller, more fuel-efficient cars.)
By the 1970s, existing notions of progress, growth and
development were being challenged from all directions.
Activist groups like Greenpeace and the green parties
24
were convinced that economic growth was not a
panacea for all of a country’s ills, just as technological
progress was not necessarily the solution for envi-
ronmental problems. Their methods, however, were
“anti-cooperation,” focused on disrupting mainstream
corporate or government agendas. The disasters at the
nuclear power plant of Three Mile Island in the US in
1979 and the release of radioactive contamination at
Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986, however, put the risks
of our search for energy in further relief.
Events like these led to a shift toward a new concept of
development. In the past, development and conserva-
tion had been regarded as conflicting ideas: conserva-
tion was understood to be the protection of resources
whereas development was the exploitation of them. Out
of this conflict, the concept of sustainable development
emerged as a compromise between these two notions,
which came to be seen as interdependent issues.
This idea is reflected in one of the first and most
frequently referenced definitions of sustainable
development, cited earlier: “Sustainable development
is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.” This definition, coined by the
UN’s Brundtland Commission, was published in March
1987. The report sought to investigate the numerous
concerns raised in previous decades that human activity
was having severely negative impacts on the planet, and
if these patterns of growth and development continued
unchecked they would be unsustainable in the future.
In total, the report took 900 days to compile. It collated
contributions both written and oral from experts
around the world: scientists, businessmen, activists and
bureaucrats. At public hearings the general public also
had the chance to make contributions to this dialogue.
Named after the chairperson of the Brundtland
Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland of Norway,
the report focused on redefining the relationship
between the environment and development: “...the
‘environment’ is where we live; and ‘development’ is
what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within
that abode. The two are inseparable.” The report was
also concerned with securing global equity for future
Greenpeace member with a seal pup in 1976. A school bus passes in front of Three Mile Island in the US after an accident shut it down.
generations by redistributing resources towards poorer
nations to encourage their economic growth in a
spirit of solidarity that would bring different peoples
and cultures together. Among its major insights, Our
Common Future noted that it’s possible to achieve social
equity, economic growth and environmental health
at the same time. By doing so, it highlighted the three
fundamental components of sustainable development
– the environment, the economy and society – which
later became known as the “three pillars of SD” or the
“triple bottom line.”
SD 2.0: CRUCIAL COLLABORATIONS
The Brundtland Commission played a pivotal part
in institutionalizing the key concepts of sustainable
development and exposing them to a larger audience.
This became clear at the 1992 Earth Summit (also
known as the UN Conference on Environment and
Development) held in Rio de Janeiro. From that historic
summit came the action plan dubbed Agenda 21. Finally,
individual governments and multilateral organizations
had a blueprint to follow that was non-binding in legal
terms but comprehensive in its far-reaching sweep.
What’s more, Agenda 21 was intended to be applicable
at local, national and global levels. In total, 178 nations
pledged their support for the plan.
That conference also resulted in the Rio Declaration
INTRODUCTION
on Environment and Development, which set down 27
principles that would serve as guidelines for sustainable
development. Right from the start, Principle 1 denotes
the importance of humanitarianism and establishing
a harmonious existence between humankind and
nature: “Human beings are at the center of concern
for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.” It
is also easy to glimpse the influence of the Brundtland
Commission’s report in Principle 3, “The right to
development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet
developmental and environmental needs of present
and future generations.”
World leaders reaffirmed their allegiance to Agenda 21
at the follow up conferences, Rio+10 in 2002 and Rio+20
in 2012. But here’s the catch-22 of Agenda 21: top-down
development models do not necessarily work from
the ground up. While the 1990s saw a lot of discussion
about sustainable development, the formation of
ambitious agendas and the emergence of ministries of
the environment to manage national resources, these
plans were largely free-standing, and not integrated in
a way that would meaningfully impact the non-sustain-
able activities entrenched in both the private and public
sectors. In other words, making pledges was one thing,
implementing them proved to be another.
At the grassroots level, where the big development
agencies, hobbled by high overheads and bureaucratic
25
INTRODUCTION
Blueprints for a Greener World
In response to industrialization’s impacts on
the environment, a new breed of writer laid the
groundwork for the ecological movement to come.
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) chronicled the
disappearance of songbirds in the US due to the
toxic effects of different kinds of pesticides like DDT,
which was subsequently banned there for use in
agriculture, but is still widely used in developing
countries like Thailand. Carson’s book is also credited
with inspiring the founding of the US Environmental
Protection Agency. Another influential text was
The Population Bomb by Paul R. Ehrlich. The
doom-monger predicted famines that would cause
millions of deaths over the next few decades after
the book’s 1968 publication. While he was wrong,
he did get people talking about overpopulation.
The Limits of Growth, a 1972 book by Donella
H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jorgen Randers
and William W. Behrens III, was one of the first
books to consider the fact that the Earth’s resources
are finite. Still updated every few years, it uses
a computer simulation to model five different
variables (world population, industrialization,
pollution, food production and resource depletion)
according to best and worst case scenarios.
Controversial for its time, The Limits of Growth
provided the first warning of what ecologists would
later call “planetary boundaries.” E.F. Schumacher’s
Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If
People Mattered (1973) informed King Bhumibol
Adulyadej’s Sufficiency Economy Philosophy,
while more recently, The Ecology of Commerce:
A Declaration of Sustainability by Paul Hawken
(1993) emphasized the importance of businesses
becoming responsible environmental stewards by
slashing their consumption of energy and resources
by 80 percent over the next 50 years. Naomi Klein’s
compelling This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs.
the Climate (2014) declares “our economic system
and our planetary system are now at war.”
26
procedures, find it difficult to work swiftly or effectively,
smaller NGOs stepped in to fill the void and do some of
the hands-on work. These were groups often devoted
to a single cause, whether reforestation or wildlife con-
servation, promoting forms of alternative agriculture
or helping the poor. Through them the principles
underlying sustainable development agendas took root
in many different countries.
In turn, they spread the word about sustainability to
people who had never heard of the Earth Summit or
the Brundtland Commission. That’s how public partic-
ipation became another integral aspect of sustainable
development. Local communities wanted to arrive
at their own outcomes to decide their own fates. To
achieve those ends they had to work within the context
of their own cultures and communities, while actively
participating in the projects.
But where could they find the funding? Who could they
turn to for help in such complexities as technology or
marketing? As the communities reached out to NGOs
and government agencies, or think tanks and other
community groups, teamwork came to be an integral
part of sustainable development as projects spread
to more rural areas, or urban slums, where they were
most needed. These kinds of collaborations turned into
a defining feature of SD 2.0. UN agencies, NGOs and
other public-private partnerships began to own certain
topics and causes.
A 2014 report from the World Resources Institute
illustrated a powerful example of such collaborative
efforts. The report said that deforestation has decreased
considerably in places where local peoples’ community
forestry rights had been given strong legal recognition
as compared to those areas where they had not been
granted such rights by the state. In the Bolivian part of
the Amazon, deforestation rates were found to be six
times lower and in the Brazilian Amazon they were 11
times lower, the report said. Considering that this is the
largest forest on the planet, which stores between 80
and 140 billion tons of carbon, and is home to some 30
million people, cutting deforestation rates like this is a
significant achievement that showed the potential of
such stakeholder engagement.
SD 3.0: INTEGRATION
If SD 2.0 was mostly a period in which sustainable
development gained traction within institutions but
made little headway into mainstream practice, SD 3.0
is when a truly integrative approach, which embraces
the interdependence of economic, social and environ-
mental factors, has begun to take root. This integration
is taking place through collaborations between the
public, private and community sectors, and features
the “greening” of entire supply chains. Economic actors
are accounting for their environmental, social and
economic footprints in their reporting activities – and
the results are part of their key performance indicators.
This private sector participation can be traced back to
the pledges companies began to make at the start of
the new millennium, when world leaders came together
at UN Headquarters in New York to adopt the UN
Millennium Declaration. One of the most comprehen-
sive development agendas ever seen, it aimed to reduce
extreme poverty and child mortality, to promote envi-
ronmental sustainability and more equality between the
sexes, under the title of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). The main eight MDGs also paved the way
for a shift in the perception of sustainable development
as a movement where social and humanitarian issues
are also given their due.
During the Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000 all
189 member states of the UN, along with more than 20
international agencies, pledged to realize these goals
by 2015. Some countries like Thailand achieved all of
the objectives, while other nations realized only a few
or none at all. The MDGs laid the groundwork for the
much more comprehensive and precisely calibrated
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and its
“SDGs”. This program consists of 17 goals and 169
targets. Many of them, such as, “make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable,” as
well as “ensure sustainable consumption and production
patterns” address urgent problems, while other goals,
like eliminating poverty and hunger, carry on from
the previous targets agreed on in 2000. As with the
MDGs before them, the big question asked by many
is who will foot the bill to achieve such ends? Given
INTRODUCTION
Implicit in the green growth model are
many of the lessons of the past decades,
that consumption has become wasteful
and extravagant and that future growth
depends on better resource management.
that government budgets are already strained, that’s
a good question, which remains a quandary. (By some
estimates, half of the money donated by high-income
countries to their poorer cousins to help them reach
their MDGs went instead to relieving their debts and
military spending.) At the same time, transparency and
accountability are issues.
Sustainable development ’s proponents see the
agenda as paying for itself. They argue that, if it is
not implemented, the costs of the current path of
development and its impacts, such as climate change,
will only grow steeper. Moreover, they argue that those
countries which commit to innovation will be rewarded,
as the global market is increasingly eager to receive
products and services that improve efficiency in the
transport, housing, food and energy sectors.
The Republic of Korea has seized this opportunity
by adopting the concept of “green growth,” in which
an economy shifts from typical industrial methods
of production toward a more sustainable use of its
natural capital. Its National Strategy for Green Growth
(2009–2050) aims to “promote eco-friendly new growth
engines, enhance peoples’ quality of life and contribute
to international efforts to fight climate change.” Implicit
in the green growth model are the many lessons of
the past decades: that natural capital is limited, that
consumption has become wasteful and extravagant,
and that future growth depends on better, more
sensitive management of resources.
In the private sector, large firms have embraced the
benefits of integrating sustainability into their business
models, budgets, practices and value chains through the
concept of Creating Shared Value (CSV). This approach is
based on increased stakeholder recognition and collab-
oration between producers, suppliers and consumers.
27
INTRODUCTION
The 17 goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The ambitious development agenda was adopted by the UN in September, 2015.
Starbucks’ Global Responsibility Report Goals & Progress
2014 illustrates its penchant for ethical sourcing. The
report quotes M. Sanjayan, the executive vice president
and a senior scientist with Conservation International,
who said, “When we started working with Starbucks in
1998, they certified 30 or 40 million pounds of coffee.
Today, almost 400 million pounds – or approximately
96% of Starbucks purchases – are grown sustainably,
in a way that protects nature and improves farmers’
livelihoods. That’s extraordinary, and it is fundamentally
changing the industry.”
Across all business sectors, accountability is on the
increase as firms realize the benefits of promoting
sustainable development. Integrating sustainability
directly into their operations through sustainable
management is also seen as an opportunity for resource
efficiency and therefore cost reductions, not to mention
a means to create consumer goodwill. Marketing is
certainly a motivator. Through products and practices
that are seen as environmentally friendly, companies
can build their brands, and woo consumers interested
in supporting ethical firms. Indeed, entire organizations
are founded to certify the sustainability initiatives of the
private sector. Organizations like EarthCheck recognize
“green hotels,” the US Green Building Council developed
the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
28
(LEED) certification process for “green buildings,” and
the Dow Jones Sustainability Indices began in 1999 as
a way of measuring the sustainability performances of
the 2,500 companies listed in the Dow Jones Global Total
Stock Market Index. New capital is flowing toward the
green economy, and private investors and companies
see these indicators as key benchmarks for investing in
sustainable enterprises. Some, who see themselves as
responsible investors, are rejecting investment in fossil
fuels altogether.
There is no question that sustainability has become big
business, that it is spurring not only multi-million dollar
clean energy projects, but also driving innovations like
eco-cars, in addition to encouraging the greening of
government procurement processes and the building
of mass-transit lines to reduce CO2 emissions. With
so much money on the line, it ’s no wonder that
many young people are specializing in sustainable
development at universities and colleges, and see it as
a good career choice.
In the midst of this merger between the profit motive
and the ethical mindset lies the next frontier of the
movement as individuals and responsible consumers,
powered by information technology, rise to the fore to
influence the public and private sectors, and show how
INTRODUCTION
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
Without specific targets and goals sustainable development is wishful thinking out of step with reality. The
Sustainable Development Goals, or SDGs, adopted by the UN in 2015 are intended to be signposts to show the
links between economic, social and environmental issues to better inform international development policies
through 2030. They are the follow up to the Millennium Development Goals, or MDGs, introduced in 2001. Thailand
achieved all eight MDGs and is confident of achieving all the upcoming goals too.
The SDGs are more comprehensive and inclusive than the MDGs, even though some critics have questioned
where the money will come from to achieve them and suggested that the 17 goals with 169 targets are too unwieldy.
The Sustainable Development Goals are as follows:
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere. 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. resilient and sustainable.
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production
all ages. patterns.
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. impacts.
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
and girls. marine resources for sustainable development.
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
water and sanitation for all. terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
modern energy for all.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sus-
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable tainable development, provide access to justice for
economic growth, full and productive employment all and build effective, accountable and inclusive
and decent work for all. institutions at all levels.
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and
sustainable industrialization and foster revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
innovation. development.
The 169 targets expand on the goals and define them in clearer terms. For instance, under the first goal of ending
poverty there are seven targets, including: “1.4 by 2030 ensure that all men and women, particularly the poor and the
vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership, and control over
land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology, and financial services
including microfinance.” Besides these targets, the SDGs come with indicators that focus on measurable outcomes.
In determining whether or not these goals have been met, this is up to each government in “setting its own national
targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances,” the UN said.
29
INTRODUCTION
their voices and purchasing power can help to remake
the world into a fairer and greener place.
THE DAWN OF SD IN THAILAND
How does Thailand fit within this global context
of sustainable development? In most ways it is no
different than any Newly Industrialized Country, with
an ever-growing population, and facing the limits of its
natural resources, increasing energy demand, climate
change, rising income inequality and various environ-
mental, social and cultural challenges.
Like any country though, its situation also has its
unique background and attributes, and for Thailand
the wake-up call undoubtedly arrived in 1997, when a
massive financial crisis saw fiscal institutions go bust,
businesses go broke and many people go bankrupt
as a bubble economy burst. From its epicenter in the
kingdom, the ripples spread across the money markets
of Southeast Asia, causing extensive damage.
Over the decade prior to 1997, Thailand had enjoyed
spectacular economic growth, frequently in double
digits. Inflation was low and foreign investment
poured in for infrastructure projects, automobile and
electronics manufacturing, textiles and other light
industries, as well as property development and the
service industries. Tourism arrivals soared. It was a boom
time like never seen before in the kingdom’s history. All
over the country, the signs of this newfound prosperity
abounded in the form of shopping malls, golf courses,
international schools and hospitals. As Thailand enjoyed
some of the best credit ratings in its history, the country
looked set to join the ranks of the Asian tiger economies.
By 1997, however, the baht was overvalued and made
an easy target for currency speculators, yields on
investments were disappointing, exports were down
and foreign debt was sky high. Adding to that volatile
mix, the stock market was rife with insider trading and
likened to a casino. A panicked withdrawal of credit
burst an economic bubble that had been fueled by
hot money. When the full-brown crisis hit, 58 local
finance companies had their operations suspended by
30
INTRODUCTION
the financial authorities over a two-month period and,
after the Bank of Thailand used up 90 percent of the
kingdom’s foreign reserves defending the currency, the
government had no choice but to float the baht. At its
lowest point it plummeted from 25 to the US dollar to
57. Save for a few areas like tourism, much of Thailand’s
economy had been overwhelmed by the crisis. In August
of 1997 the International Monetary Fund stepped in
with a US$17-billion bailout and mandatory economic
remedies that were both unpopular and fiercely
debated. As the extent of the damage became apparent
– millions were forced out of work by 1998 – there was
a national consensus that similar catastrophes had to
be averted in the future.
In the midst of this watershed moment, in his annual
birthday address of December 1997, King Bhumibol
Adulyadej called for a shift in priorities and a return
to a more reasonable pursuit of growth: “I have often
said to such an audience as this that to be a tiger is Rice farmer Suthep Ad-noi poses in front of his rice paddy in Pathum Thani province in central Thailand. He began farming at age 15.
not important. The important thing for us is to have a
self-reliant economy. A self-reliant economy means to
have enough to survive.” had a monarch since the first seat of power was founded one. During the current reign, the king has made an
in Sukhothai in AD 1238. To understand Thailand and effort to seek the input of farmers, and organizations
It was not a philosophy of austerity that he was its potential for sustainable development, it’s critical he established, such as the Chaipattana Foundation
expounding, but one of moderation, prudence, and to understand the importance of the country’s royal (which means “victory of development” in Thai) or the
reasonable consumption and expectations, following heritage, and the hierarchical system of patronage, Rajaprajanugroh Foundation, were created to help
the “middle path” of Buddhism. These same notions which exists to this day. Before the transition to a con- the rural poor address perennial challenges such as
would inform his Sufficiency Economy Philosophy (SEP), stitutional monarchy in 1932 commercial enterprises irrigation, land fertility and crises caused by natural
which was formulated after the 1997 financial crisis were nominally under sufferance of the monarch, whose disasters. These organizations stepped in to execute
(see pages 34-35). During these years, as the country officers regulated everyday life. The tradition of strong projects the government, whether owing to red tape
accepted the stark consequences of having recklessly centralized control has carried over to modern times or a lack of policy initiative, was unable to undertake.
pursued profit and growth, the king’s ideas provided with the result that the bonds between government The king’s Royal Development Study Centers played a
Thailand a framework and compelling vehicle for its own and business remain strong. All the earliest Thai-owned similar role by spreading knowledge and development
form of sustainable development. Adopted by top firms commercial initiatives were started or backed by the solutions directly to rural areas. In these ways, the
and influential among policy-makers, the SEP would government or royalty. Many of the descendants of monarch was also upholding his own social contract
help the country rebound after the debacle of 1997 those families and companies continue in business with the people to “rule with righteousness.”
as well as weather the global financial crises to come. today. Hence, the Thai world view — a world view that
encompasses business as well as everything else — These agricultural communities were — and in some
revolves around the powerful looking after the weak. areas still are — the pulse of the Thai heartland. Until the
GREEN BY DESIGN Those entrusted with power are expected to wield it manufacturing boom of the 1980s as much as 70 percent
with discretion, under obligation to the greater good. of the workforce dedicated themselves to farming and
That the most remembered advice came down from that sector typically accounted for more than 30 percent
on high was befitting a country that had traditionally It’s a classic patron-client social construct that also of the nation’s GDP. Farmers’ lives revolved around the
looked to its monarchs for leadership and guidance means that development has traditionally not been a cycles of the seasons. They awoke with the dawn, tended
through troubled times. Thailand, or Siam, has always grassroots-led phenomenon, but largely a top-down to their crops and animals during the day, and went to
31
INTRODUCTION
At the Heart of It: You, the Consumer
Shoppers outside a mall in downtown Bangkok.
We live in a digital age where conspicuous consumption
has become a way of life. We are constantly bombarded
with advertising for new computers and mobile phones,
new cars and clothes. New malls spring up all the time,
and the culture of consumerism encourages us to spend
and live beyond our means. At the same time, our own
behavior, whether through frequent travel or feckless
lifestyle habits, also feeds into this cycle of extravagant
consumption, bringing us to a precarious place where
the planet’s population of 7.2 billion people is now
using up the equivalent of 1.5 more times the resources
than the earth can replenish in a year.
So, not surprisingly, one of the UN’s 17 SDGs is –
quite simply – “ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.” However, there is only so much
that governments, businesses, big international organi-
zations and small NGOs and social enterprises can do.
Eventually people of means have to look at themselves
and face up to their own habits and consumption
patterns. That can be difficult to do. In the face of
such Herculean global challenges as lifting the world’s
billion-odd poor people out of poverty, in the midst
of polar ice caps melting, wars and terrorist attacks,
corporate expansion and greed, and the daily stresses
of one’s own life, it’s easy to feel powerless – or care less
– about making a contribution to solving such colossal
problems. But if you do care and adopt a mindset of
awareness, your decisions can help decide the future.
Most of the time these are not big decisions and they
32
don’t require sacrifice. Indeed, sustainable development
as a concept is not about sacrifice but about creating
a better society. You can contribute in ways specific
to your own occupation or lifestyle. That may be the
decision to recycle or compost waste products, taking
a trip on a subway as opposed to using a car, refusing
to accept that plastic bag in the supermarket, buying
a more energy-efficient light bulb, or opting for an
eco-tourism excursion rather than a luxurious shopping
spree in a foreign country. All these little decisions
inform the big picture. When they are multiplied
millions of times by other individuals making similar
decisions they can be decisive. By recognizing this we
can help propel the paradigm shift beyond the bound-
aries of one’s home or office.
In many ways, we see this shift already occurring.
Consumer power is pushing the private sector toward
practices and products that are environmentally
friendly and do not exploit the downtrodden or child
labor, or contain harmful chemicals, for example. A
wide array of labels, ranging from certifications for
organic produce to the fair trade labels on bags of
coffee beans, have given consumers unprecedented
access to the information we need to make informed
choices: where products come from, how they are
made and who made them.
When consumers vote with their wallets for this or
that product, the big corporations pay attention. In the
much-acclaimed 2008 documentary Food, Inc, Gary
Hirshberg, the hippie environmentalist-turned-million-
aire organic yogurt entrepreneur spoke of Wal-Mart’s
decision to stop selling a brand of milk that contained
a synthetic growth hormone because of consumer
outrage. “Individual consumers changed the biggest
company on earth,” he said. Rarely has so much power
ever been vested in the pockets of individuals to
affect positive change on such an immense number of
different levels: fiscal, political, social and ecological.
Never has the time been riper – or more urgent – to
seize those opportunities and use that power in respon-
sible ways for the betterment of our own lives, our
descendants and our planet.
bed in the early evening. They used natural fertilizers
like manure. They grew their own food. They made
their own clothes, tools, baskets and fishing nets. And
they also built their own houses, raised up on stilts to
prevent them from flooding and to provide a shelter
for animals, out of natural materials that were sourced
locally. From the forests they picked their own medicinal
herbs to use as remedies. Whatever surplus remained
from their crops after feeding themselves they sold or
traded for other foodstuffs and supplies. In these ways,
many farming families, mostly small leaseholders, were
following key principles of the SEP and sustainable
development long before these terms were coined.
On top of their agrarian origins, Thais were Buddhists
(today, some 95 percent of Thais still identify themselves
as such). Buddhist teachings have many overlaps with
the concept of sustainable development. The religion
holds nature sacred. It stresses moderation, immaterial-
ism, and the interdependence of all life forms. Buddhist
teachings also reveal the importance of cause and effect,
frequently using animals and flowers as metaphors,
as well as the cycles of life, death and rebirth found in
the forest where the Buddha attained enlightenment
while sitting under a sacred fig tree that is still revered
by many Thais.
In essence, Thailand’s roots and King Bhumibol’s
guidance provide the proper grounding for sustainable
development to flourish in the kingdom. Not surpris-
ingly, newer sustainability projects may have a distinctly
Thai slant that applies homespun wisdom to global
concerns, such as the way monks have “ordained” trees,
wrapping them in the same saffron robes that they wear
in order to protect them from timber poachers. On a
larger scale, how do these attributes apply to the more
contemporary context in which millions of immigrants
have populated Thailand and millions of others have
moved from the countryside to reside in cities and
enjoy more Westernized, materialistic lifestyles? The
appeal of such traditions, and traditional occupations
like agriculture, may be waning, but they are far from
lost causes. Many leaders and academics see these
roots and customs as ways to bolster sustainable
development and the SEP within the context of the
country’s own culture and values.
INTRODUCTION
THE PURSUIT OF GDP
But how exactly? Since the end of World War II, in
particular, Thailand has become a vastly more complex
society – and a successful one, at least by contempo-
rary measures. Still classified as a low-income country
through the 1950s, Thailand became one of the “miracle”
economies of the last half of the 20th century. As
American money flowed in to fuel the war effort in
Indochina in the 1960s, these funds paved the way
Still classified as a low-income country
through the 1950s, Thailand became one of
the “miracle” economies of the 20th century.
for new roads, communications networks, irrigation
systems, electricity grids, hotels, airports, air-condi-
tioned office buildings and other infrastructure projects.
To manage this new era of foreign investment, the
Thai government established the Board of Investment
(BOI) in 1966. Seven years later, Thailand’s first-ever
industrial estate was set up just northeast of Bangkok
and a concerted drive to promote investment for
exports began in 1977. The 1960s and 1970s laid the
foundations for the industrial boom to come in the
1980s and for one of the world’s most successful tourism
industries. Starting around 1986, the next decade was
a golden age of prosperity in Thailand. The weak Thai
baht greatly benefited exports, especially in the man-
ufacturing sector, which replaced agriculture as the
biggest contributor to GDP by the mid-1980s, while low
oil prices spurred on this demand. This decade was also
characterized by the relocation of factories and other
production facilities from Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong,
to the point where a new Japanese factory was opening
every three days in the country by the 1990s, as a strong
yen sent Japanese manufacturers in search of cheaper
places to make their goods and cars.
Part of this success story was also fueled by commercial
discoveries of gas in the Gulf of Thailand in the 1980s
that provided the all-important foundation for the
explosive growth in manufacturing that followed. This
33
INTRODUCTION
THE KING’S SUFFICIENCY ECONOMY PHILOSOPHY
The king at the Pikun Thong Royal Development Study Center.
Thailand has its own framework for sustainable
development. It’s called the “Sufficiency Economy”
(Setthakit Pho Phiang), after a phrase coined by King
Bhumibol Adulyadej in 1997. Setthakit is the Thai word
for economic activities; pho is the word for “enough”;
and phiang means “just”. So the phrase means a “just-
enough economy.”
The Sufficiency Economy Philosophy (SEP) was for-
malized and came into the popular parlance in Thailand
after the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997. In his birthday
speech of that year the king advised that the ambition
to become one of the new economic “tigers” of Asia was
folly. He said it was much more important to develop
“an economy where people are self-reliant and have an
adequate livelihood for themselves.” His levelheaded
recommendations after a period of reckless speculation
and easy credit, which resulted in millions of people
becoming unemployed, captured the national mood at
the time.
In subsequent years the monarch elaborated on
the importance of moderation as a cornerstone of a
philosophy with universal relevance and wide appli-
cations. “Sufficiency is moderation. If one is moderate
in one’s desires, one will have less craving. If one has
less craving, one will take less advantage of others. If
34
INTRODUCTION
all nations hold this concept without being extreme or
insatiable in one’s desires, the world will be a happier
place,” he remarked during his birthday speech of 1998.
In a way, this approach and mindset represented
the culmination of King Bhumibol’s development work,
linking many of the major facets together in an over-
arching framework that puts a distinctly Thai spin on
sustainable development.
Many of the maxims underpinning the SEP evolved
from his efforts over many decades to deal with issues
of sustainability in Thailand, from water and soil man-
agement to “New Theory” agriculture, which combined
affordable technology with natural solutions, such
as the building of check dams to fend off floods and
irrigate fields. Any such strategies depended on the
right technique being deployed with the appropriate
technology in the right environment. Long a part of the
king’s projects, this strategy has also become a hallmark
of sustainable development all over the world. Students at a provincial school are taught the basics of Sufficiency Economy as part of the national curriculum.
Similar to the sustainable development ethos, the
king was not urging for a return to the past, for Thais positive actions beget positive consequences, also principles. In 2007, the United Nations Development
to give up all their creature comforts or for devel- provided a Thailand-specific context widely understood Programme (UNDP) devoted its Thailand Human
opment that denied growth or free market mech- by Thais from all walks of life. Development Report to explaining the evolution and
anisms. He recommended simply that people and After moderation, the second pillar of the SEP is application of the Sufficiency Economy in the public
likewise businesses live and act within their means. “reasonableness”. By this standard we must gauge and private spheres.
In an article by Professor Harald Bergsteiner and Dr the impact that our actions and decisions have both Perhaps the SEP’s greatest strength is how it can be
Priyanut Dharmapiya, appearing in the book Sufficiency on others and the world around us. In the context of applied to so many different areas of life. It’s equally
Thinking: Thailand’s Gift to an Unsustainable World, the sustainable development, it’s easy to see how the little valid when it comes to facing such contemporary
framework of SEP is elaborated as “a state of being that decisions we make every day, like littering or putting our quandaries as the worrying rise of household debt in
enables individuals, families, organizations and nations garbage into a proper container, are reasonable or not, Thailand, or when trying to surmount the difficulties
to enjoy, at a minimum, a comfortable existence and, if because they either solve or create problems. faced by big businesses where growth and increasing
conditions permit, a reasonable degree of luxury that Another intrinsic part of the philosophy is prudence. profits are always priorities. The principles of moder-
balances economic, social, environmental and cultural As it’s defined in the book King Bhumibol Adulyadej: A ation, reasonableness and prudence can equally serve
conditions.” Life’s Work, this virtue is all about “working carefully, the rural farmer or the urban entrepreneur. Coming at
These days, developing a “moderation mindset” is of proceeding by stages, growing from an internal a time when Thailand was buffeted by the trade winds
paramount importance, given the world’s increasingly dynamic, achieving a level of competence and self-reli- of globalization and jolted by the aftershocks of the
stretched global resources. The kind of moderation that ance before proceeding further, and taking care not to economic earthquake of 1997, when many Thais felt
the king called for is also synonymous with the “middle overreach one’s capabilities.” helpless before such enormous forces, the SEP came as
way” of Buddhism that avoids extremes by trying to Since the late 1990s, the SEP has informed pol- a great relief: a way to make do with less and become
balance necessity and luxury, self-deprivation and icy-making, inspired educational reforms in school more self-reliant.
over-indulgence, tradition and modernization, as well curricula, and underlined the country’s five-year Since it’s now on the curricula of thousands of
as self-reliance and dependency. Though there are no economic development plans. Books, pamphlets, schools nationwide, the philosophy’s most enduring
hard and fast rules about this, it is usually a question of feature articles and websites have been created to legacy may be yet to come as it influences the
balancing needs with wants. The application of Buddhist teach the principles of the Sufficiency Economy and thinking, behavior and consumption patterns of future
principles, and the lessons of karma, which shows how to publicize the successes of those that followed its generations.
35
INTRODUCTION
As manufacturing required more and more
laborers, around one million people moved
from the countryside to cities each year.
came in the form of a huge refining and petrochemical
industry located on the country’s Eastern Seaboard,
close to the offshore gas wells and a deep-sea port at
Laem Chabang, which became fully operational in 1991,
together with the mushrooming of industrial plants
churning out electronic components, machinery and
lots of cars.
Between 1987 and 1995 the Thai economy grew at an
annual compound rate of 9.1 percent with manufactur-
ing contributing some 31 percent to GDP by that last year.
This achievement made international headlines with
Newsweek magazine dedicating a cover story to what
it called “Thailand’s economic miracle.” Even as logging
and poaching decimated Thailand’s forests and wildlife,
social and environmental concerns were rarely raised,
which is hardly unusual for developing countries where
providing access to the most rudimentary amenities of
life, such as electricity, education and proper sanitation,
are the initial priorities. The “Green Revolution” that
swept Thailand in the 1960s and 1970s, for example,
relied heavily on chemicals that boosted yields in the
short term but negatively affected soil quality in the
long run. This revolution and its side effects were not
endemic to Thailand. Many other countries, like India,
desperate to feed its poor, pursued similar agricultural
policies that yielded similar results. People were fed,
36
farmers made money, and the environment paid for it.
During the rise of the manufacturing and service
sectors in the 1980s and 1990s, the country’s mass
tourism potential also came on the international radar,
thanks in no small part to the “Visit Thailand” campaign
organized by the Tourism Authority of Thailand in 1986
to mark the 60th birthday of King Bhumibol Adulyadej,
when the number of arrivals surged by 24 percent to
3.4 million. Lured by beautiful scenery, friendly people
and affordable accommodations, the tourist boom
also had its downside as proved by the deterioration
of coral reefs, resorts encroaching on national parks
and beaches becoming tourist traps abuzz with jet-skis.
As tourism became the biggest earner of foreign
exchange the question had to be asked: How could
the country balance the money-making opportunities
of this growth with the maintenance of the natural and
cultural attractions which made it possible in the first
place? But tourism was far from the only area where
this imbalance between fiscal and ecological concerns
needed to be addressed.
As the manufacturing sector required more and more
laborers, around one million people moved from the
countryside to cities each year in search of a better
living, according to a report by the United Nations
Development Programme. The newfound wealth
concentrated in the pockets of once-poor laborers,
and often sent back to their families in the provinces,
hastened the rise of more materialistic lifestyles in
Thailand. So by the time of the economic collapse in
1997, some 90 percent of rural households had a TV
set and 60 percent owned a motorcycle. To afford such
conveniences they sometimes went into debt. Still, the
nation’s success in GDP terms was undeniable. Millions
were lifted out of poverty and the economy grew 20
times between the early 1960s and 2013, according to
the World Bank, but there were costs.
PUSHING THE LIMITS OF GROWTH
As with the 1997 crisis, it took another disaster to bring
attention to another timely issue: deforestation. In the
southern province of Nakhon Si Thammarat a landslide,
exacerbated by illegal logging, tore through a village
and claimed some 230 lives in 1988. That same year the
government banned logging, though it has continued
on a smaller scale. Between 1947 and 2000 more than
two-thirds of the country’s forests had disappeared. The
rate has slowed in recent years. Still, perhaps less than 30
percent of the kingdom’s forest cover remains. Among
other things, the loss has threatened the integrity of key
watersheds not to mention the country‘s biodiversity.
Many keystone species, like the tiger, which have lost
much of their old territory, have been hunted to the
brink of extinction. Less than 300 still roam the country’s
hinterlands. Without that forest cover, elephants, the
kingdom’s most totemic animal, are also running out
of places to forage.
The country’s rapid industrialization has had other side
effects too. The Karen villagers of Lower Klity Creek saw
their water supply contaminated by toxic lead from
mines in Kanchanaburi province, leading to disabilities.
In 1992, thousands of people living near the Mae Moh
coal-fired plants suffered from breathing difficulties,
nausea, dizziness and inflammation of the eyes and
nasal cavities. All in all, half of the surrounding rice fields
were damaged by acid rain and some 42,000 people
suffered from breathing ailments, after an electrostatic
precipitator malfunctioned, causing the release of sulfur
dioxide and particulate matter.
Ground zero for such debates about pollution is the
Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate that opened in 1990. Not
only the largest industrial estate in Thailand, it’s one of
the biggest hubs of petrochemical businesses in the
world with a massive port designed to accommodate
heavy vessels hauling factory equipment and massive
cargoes. In spite of its undeniable success in monetary
terms, locals and NGOs claimed that some 2,000 people
died of cancer and other diseases in the decade after
the complex opened.
Bangkok is yet another flash point for debates about
the ravages of unchecked development and unplanned
urbanization. From a population of three million in the
1970s the number of inhabitants swelled to three times
that number in just a few decades. The downsides of
this expansion are plain to see: chronic traffic jams, air
INTRODUCTION
The Two-Degree Tipping Point
In the field of climate change, two degrees
Celsius has become both a warning sign and
a magic number, for scientists believe that if
global temperatures rise any more than that
above preindustrial levels then the planet
will be on the verge of a catastrophic tipping
point. As far back as 1975, the Yale professor
of economics, William Nordhaus, had said that
a global mean temperature increase of two
or three degrees would be without precedent
in the “last several hundred thousand years,”
writing in an abstract for that paper, “Can We
Control Carbon Dioxide?”: “It appears that
emissions of carbon dioxide particulate matter,
and waste heat may, at some time in the future,
lead to significant climatic modifications.”
In a 1990 report by the Stockholm
Environment Institute, the upper limit of two
degrees was affirmed, though the report
warned that even a rise of one degree “could
lead to extensive ecosystem damage.” When
115 world leaders and thousands of NGO
members, scientists and the media descended
on Denmark for the Copenhagen Climate
Change Conference in 2009, that figure was
the barometer of a debate which disappointed
many by not setting any binding targets. In
fact, the two-degree limit did not become
international climate change policy until
the Cancun Agreements of 2010. Thailand
has ratified the Kyoto Protocol of 1997,
which extended the historic 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). In advance of the 2015
UN Climate Change Conference in Paris, as
part of the Intended Nationally Determined
Contributions (INDCs), the kingdom has
declared its commitment to help reduce
global warming by cutting greenhouse gas
emissions by 20 to 25 percent by 2030. Will
the world’s biggest polluters follow suit?
37
INTRODUCTION
A lack of road surface area in Bangkok combined with millions of cars leads to both traffic and pollution.
pollution, dirty canals and a dearth of public green
spaces. With these woes have come surges in crime,
drug abuse and other vices that have splintered some
families and unraveled some of the traditional fabric
of Thai culture.
Until more recent times, when NGOs and civil society
groups rose to the fore, one of the few counterbalances
against such unsustainable forms of development has
been the aforementioned royally initiated projects
overseen by members of the royal family. The projects
have consistently addressed many of the country’s most
pressing social and environmental concerns: helping
the poor, promoting education, conserving marine
resources, promoting reforestation projects, developing
agricultural cooperatives and implementing water
management systems and other schemes for farming
and fishing communities in rural areas who receive little
help from the government and tend to live a subsistence,
at best, lifestyle.
Often cited as a landmark scheme was the Royal
Project, which was initiated in 1969 to help eradicate
opium cultivation and slash-and-burn farming in the
mountainous area of Doi Angkhang by giving the hill
tribes alternative crops to grow like coffee and peaches.
The establishment of the Royal Project’s first agricul-
tural research station in the highlands also allowed the
38
monarch to test out his ideas about reforestation, such
as the building of check dams, which have proven to
be very effective. Following on from these auspicious
beginnings was the Doi Tung Development Project.
Established in 1988 on the mountain of the same name
in Chiang Rai province, under the royal patronage of
Princess Srinagarindra (the reigning monarch’s mother),
the project’s goal was to provide better livelihoods
to villagers who were living under the cloud of the
opium trade. Over time, the Doi Tung brand expanded
to encompass four different business units for food,
handicrafts, horticulture and tourism. The success of
the program has led to it being implemented in other
countries afflicted by narcotics such as Afghanistan. Its
coffee also helped fuel the creation of this book.
Today, the project is recognized the world over
as a paragon of sustainable alternative livelihood
development, and all of the project’s products sport the
seal of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime as
a hallmark of its success. The project’s final phase, set to
finish in 2017, is about strengthening the business units
so that the brand and the community are sustainable,
as well as concentrating on capacity building and
education, so that locals can take over the project when
it concludes. At its heart the scheme addresses the major
concerns of sustainable development: economic, social
and environmental.
GREEN LIGHTS AND GRAY AREAS
What prevents Thailand from creating similarly
successful initiatives throughout the country and
across many sectors? Two of the key issues are good
leadership and good governance, both of which were
seen as lacking during the 1997 economic meltdown.
In taking up the challenge, many Thai institutions rose
to the occasion, like the Bank of Thailand. The central
bank’s emphasis on strong , independent leadership
and tough new policy mechanisms shored up the
economy against future disasters. By 2003, Thailand
had paid back the IMF for the huge loan. Strong
governance also came to the rescue again during
the economic downturn of 2008 and 2009, triggered
by the American subprime mortgage crisis, which
did not impact Thailand’s economy as it did other
countries. In contrast, the last decade of political
infighting has created a leadership vacuum in these
corridors of state power. As successive governments
have come and gone, policies are created, abandoned
and revived in turn. Ministries work in silos. The
long-term planning and efficient, multiparty collabo-
ration required by sustainable development is lacking.
At the same time, there have been some examples of
visionary leadership in the public sector. The gov-
ernment’s plan to promote more sustainable forms
of transport marked a major shift in policymaking.
For decades a key driver of Thailand’s manufacturing
boom was the building of roads at the expense of
railways, in spite of the fact that transporting goods
by the former costs more than double the latter.
Beginning with the 10th National Economic and
Social Development Plan that ran from 2007 to 2011,
the road-heavy development model was scaled back
in favor of a new emphasis on mass-transit networks
around the capital, to be completed in 2022, and
high-speed railways, to be built in collaboration with
China and Japan, that will connect the country’s ports
and industrial estates with neighboring nations.
One of the main objectives of the current 11th National
Economic and Social Development Plan (2012–2016)
is to move towards a “low carbon society.” But at the
same time, state-owned enterprises are still pursuing
INTRODUCTION
coal-fired power both at home and abroad. A proposal
put forth by the Electricity Generating Authority of
Thailand (EGAT) to build a coal-fired power plant in
Krabi province has come under fire from environmen-
talists and tourism operators who believe its construc-
tion and operations will mar local scenic areas and
harm tourism.
In the energy sector, Thailand’s current scheme, the Energy
Efficiency Development Plan (2011–2030), which is based
on tapping a mixed array of sources, calls for more than
doubling the country’s capacity by 2030 to meet the
country’s economic needs. But in doing so the government
hopes to reduce the use of natural gas to a third of the
total while boosting alternative sources by 25 percent over
20 years through the Alternative Energy Development
Plan (2012–2021). Much of that energy will come from
renewable sources like solar, wind and hydro, while the
government explores other lesser-known avenues of clean
energy such as geothermal and tidal energy.
Reaching that 25 percent goal is not just wishful thinking.
Thailand is now the solar powerhouse in the ASEAN
region, harnessing more energy from the sun than all
the other members combined. The kingdom was also
one of the first Asian nations to implement a feed-in
tariff, or “adder” program, which offers renewable
energy producers long-term contracts to sell electricity
at attractive rates. Emphasizing the profit motive in
tandem with sustainability, the state is serving as a
genuine facilitator for such enterprises, a policy push
that has been lauded by the business community.
Sustainability has become a benchmark for many
corporations which have seen its multifaceted value.
The kingdom’s largest oil and gas refiner, Thaioil,
which topped the 2015 Dow Jones Sustainability Index
List (DJSI) as the Energy Industry Group Leader for
the second year in a row, uses the DJSI Sustainability
Assessment as a tool for corporate risk management.
For the conglomerate SCG, which has built a roughly
US$100 million new office building in Bangkok that is a
towering example of “green architecture,” sustainability
has inspired innovation through its “value-added” and
“SCG eco value” products. For SMEs like Khiri Travel,
the concept of sustainability is a form of branding that
39
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

also helps them to save money on energy and water bills

and led to the eco-tours that appeal to this niche market.
Good Governance is the Key
When it comes to contemporary culture, the popularity
Until the 1997 economic crisis one could say
of health-conscious lifestyles has inspired a new wave of
that the profit motive had trumped the other
small-scale entrepreneurs running restaurants, farmers’
democratic pillars of sustainable development
markets, organic shops and selling a wide range of
in Thailand. But the downturn had an upshot in
artisanal products. Among these smaller businesses,
that it brought the issue of governance into the
one of the newest trends to emerge around the world
spotlight as many blamed the economic crisis
and in Thailand is the social enterprise (SE). Essentially
on careless management at both the public
a cross between an NGO and a small business, the SE
and private levels.
tries to strike a balance between pursuing philanthropy
In response, the Thai Institute of Directors
and making profits. Of these SEs, Dairy Home has a
(IOD) was established in 1999. Since then this
fair trade agreement with local dairy farmers to make
non-profit membership organization has
organic products and sell them throughout the country,
endeavored to teach Thai company directors
while the Lemon Farm supermarket and macrobiotic
the imperatives of good governance and best
restaurant chain has a similar agreement to procure
management practices. Through its courses
organic produce from its countrywide network of
and seminars, like “Ethical Leadership —
independent farmers. At a time when agri-businesses
Creating a Sustainable Culture,” awards and
are coming to dominate the agricultural sector these
publications, the IOD has been responsible
are small but significant moves. Monks wrap the same saffron cloth as their own robes in a “tree ordination” ceremony to protect the tree.
for training thousands of company directors,
executives and secretaries in the exacting
In spite of such efforts, much of the ground-level work and individuals. What all of these eco-savvy projects Many of these challenges are not unique to Thailand.
standards of international governance and
in crucial areas of sustainability consists of communi- have in common, whether they are about sourcing Most of the kingdom’s neighbors face similar obstacles.
how to take a firm stand on corruption.
ty-led projects in places like rural Trat province. There, sustainable seafood, transplanting coral reefs or How Thailand faces up to them and whether or not it
It’s been particularly successful in working
villagers saw first-hand how their mangrove forests organizing seed banks for farmers, is that they recognize makes a strong and sincere commitment to the 2030
with big listed companies, so much so that
had been decimated by shrimp aquaculture, so they the limits of growth, or what ecologists now refer to Agenda for Sustainable Development is sure to define
Thailand ranked tops in ASEAN for three
set about implementing a new system of checks and as “planetary boundaries,” and they are based on the the country’s progress in the decades to come. The new
consecutive years between 2013 and 2015 in
balances, with fines for those who disobeyed them, to awareness that nature is capable of regrowth only if SDGs can provide a road map for the next 15 years. In
corporate governance, according to the IOD’s
right this ecological wrong. Another project that started human activities do not adversely affect this capacity light of the country’s achievements in some areas, like
rankings.
from humble beginnings is the Tree Bank that began in and important ecosystems like forests and marine leading ASEAN in solar energy, like the many royally
Whether or not governance has improved
Chumphon province in 2006. Variations on the scheme habitats are managed with these considerations in mind. initiated projects, like producing companies that are
at the state level is questionable. For the most
now exist in all of Thailand’s 77 provinces and some winning international plaudits, and like implement-
part, political infighting over the last decade
300,000 farmers take part. As such abundant examples indicate there is a growing ing an internationally renowned Universal Coverage
has curtailed any positive developments on
mindset of sustainable development in Thailand. Scheme (UCS) that gives free medical care to almost
this front as rival groups fight for power and
The success of such ventures highlights a key driver in Granted, many challenges and gray areas remain if all Thais, there is grounds for cautious optimism and a
their own vested interests instead of serving
every area of sustainable development: the profit motive. the kingdom is going to become a world-class player foundation going forward to create this more enduring
the needs of the people they are supposed
Doing good deeds for the sake of the environment is in this field and properly balance economic, social form of development.
to govern. Many business leaders agree that
one thing. Doing such good deeds while making money and environmental concerns, on the public, private,
the lack of transparency and accountability,
is a much more enticing, and ultimately enduring, community and individual levels. Political harmony,
coupled with a lack of public participation
proposition. Another pivotal linchpin is collaboration. effective law enforcement and productive dialogue
in the decision-making process, are still
When villagers, government authorities and NGOs are all essential for the long-term actions that the * * * * *
perennial problems, which have weakened
work together in the spirit of solidarity that is becoming sustainable development agenda requires. A shift
the economy, and hurt the kingdom’s com-
increasingly essential to such endeavors around the toward more responsible consumption and spending,
petitiveness.
world, such efforts encourage public participation and by large organizations, households and invidual
the building of networks of like-minded communities consumers, is also required.

40 41
PART 2
ISSUES AND
INFORMATION
Every country faces a distinct set of
circumstances and unique challenges.
What are Thailand’s?
In this section, we present 30
topics that will necessarily be at
the heart of Thailand’s sustainable
development, such as energy
resources and water security, labor
and transportation, education and
public participation. They are divided
into four chapters, following the
traditional three pillars of sustainable
development – the environment,
economy and society – and a fourth,
culture, which is particularly important
to the kingdom.
Each of these articles is intended
as a concise introduction to the
subject, providing essential context,
statistics and indicators, as well as
brief explanations of the reasons we
should care in the first place.
We also spotlight issues, trends
and critical challenges, or “reality
checks”, in the name of giving you
a firmer grasp on the key ingredients
and obstacles to sustainability in
Thailand.
THE THAI
ENVIRONMENT
Energy
Soil
Water
Forests
Oceans and Seas
The environment is absolutely central to
Biodiversity sustainable development because future
generations will also depend on having
Urbanization clean air to breathe, clean water to
drink, healthy food to eat, and enough
Pollution and Waste energy to power their ambitions. With-
out these, the world’s expanding popu-
Disasters
lation will be running on empty.
From the ground up, Thailand, like
many other countries, is facing
complex environmental challenges
and coming to grips with the impacts
of its past actions. Put simply, several
decades of successful economic
growth have come at the expense of
the environment. Energy discoveries
have powered new industrial develop-
ment and brought electricity to the en-
tire country as well as pollution, waste
and public health scares. Industrial,
agricultural and aquacultural output
have been boosted but the forests,
rivers and soil are less healthy, affecting
their ability to host the country’s
remarkably rich biodiversity. Fish-related
exports have soared but stocks in Thai-
land’s beautiful seas are rapidly being
depleted. Tourism and urban areas
employ millions now but are negatively
encroaching on natural ecosystems.
On the horizon is one of the biggest
environmental issues humanity has
ever faced: climate change. Its more ad-
verse effects, causing extreme weather
and natural disasters, are already being
seen around the world. Bangkok is
in a particularly precarious position.
Experts have ranked it number three,
after Manila and Dhaka, on a list of the
world’s cities most vulnerable to rising
seas. Climate change could create
hardship in a country already prone to
droughts and floods, where so much
of the agricultural and fishing sectors
“We shall never achieve harmony with
land, any more than we shall achieve
absolute justice or liberty for people. In
these higher aspirations, the important
thing is not to achieve but to strive.”
Aldo Leopold, who pioneered the ethics of wildlife and
environmental conservation
depend on effective soil, water and
marine resource management.
Fortunately, along with this adver-
sity, a far greater awareness of these
environmental issues and the need
for better balance has evolved. The
country’s current monarch has made
improving water management and
the quality of soil his own life’s work.
Reforestation projects are beginning
to reverse a decades-long loss of forest
cover. In the public sector, much lon-
ger-term plans, especially in develop-
ing renewable power sources, are being
implemented through incentives and
private sector collaborations.
Thailand is rich in natural resources
and lush landscapes. Learning how to
preserve these treasures and steward
the environment for future generations
will be at the heart of its sustainable
development.
 ENERGY
# Ʉ+*2 -Ʉ #$)Ʉ#$')Ɩ.Ʉ
+./ƇɄ+- . )/Ʉ)Ʉ!0/0- Ʉ
Ever since Thailand began industrializing in the
1960s, its steady economic growth has been largely
backed by fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural
gas. While the peak levels of economic growth
of the late 1980s and 1990s eventually bottomed
out, the country’s energy demand has consistently
risen. From 2004 to 2013, the Thai economy grew
at an average rate of 3.6 percent a year while the
consumption of energy rose by an average rate of 2.3
percent. Due to growing public resistance to tapping
traditional forms of energy such as coal, as well
as increasing political concern over the country’s
reliance on imported natural gas, Thailand has been
placing much more emphasis in recent years on
renewable energy.
Though it is a net energy importer, Thailand has
significant native energy resources. The kingdom
contains substantial deposits of coal, ranking second
to Indonesia as a coal producer in Southeast Asia.
This fossil fuel was first discovered in Thailand
around the turn of the 20th century in the southern
province of Krabi, though the largest deposits were
later unearthed in the Lampang basin of the north.
Because Thai coal is poor in quality, it is used mainly
for power generation.
While the country is not awash in oil and natural
gas, both of these commodities can be found
underground or buried deep under the Gulf of
Thailand’s seabed. Oil was first discovered near the
Fang district of Chiang Mai province in 1954, but it
was not until the 1980s, during the so-called “era
of luminosity” (choat chuang chatchawan in Thai)
that the kingdom began to shine as a source of oil
and gas. These discoveries helped power Thailand’s
impressive economic boom that resounded in the
late 1980s and 1990s.
The country’s domestic oil and gas fields are
scattered across the north, the west and the central
regions, as well as the northeast’s Korat Plateau.
According to Oil & Gas Journal, Thailand held
proven oil reserves of 453 million barrels (72 million
46
Oil and natural gas platform in the Gulf of Thailand.
kiloliters) as of 2013, an increase of 11 million barrels
from the previous year.
Prior to the year 2000, oil made up half of Thailand’s
fossil fuel consumption, some 80 percent of which
had to be imported. To offset this imbalance, and to
mediate the swings in the global oil market, Thailand
turned to natural gas, which now accounts for nearly
a third of the country’s total energy consumption
mix today. Strong opposition to coal-fired power
plants and hydropower projects has ensured that
natural gas makes up the bulk – around 70 percent –
of the fuel for generating electricity.
While natural gas is Thailand’s most abundant
domestic energy resource, production has fallen
short of meeting the demand. Since 1999 Thailand
has become heavily dependent on gas imports from
neighboring Myanmar to supplement the fuel mix
for power generation. These imports supplied almost
27 percent of the total gas consumption in 2006, but
gradually trailed off to a little more than 22.3 percent
in 2013.
Heavy reliance on energy imports has been a serious
concern, especially since natural gas from domestic
sources is projected to dry up in the next decade.
PTT, Thailand’s largest oil conglomerate, has been
Heavy reliance on energy
imports has been a serious
concern, especially since
natural gas from domestic
sources is projected to dry
up in the next decade.
PTT has been tasked with
helping the country out of
this energy hole.
tasked with helping the country out of this energy has been providing an incentive in the form of
hole. Originally a state enterprise that was partially feed-in tariffs (or FIT) to boost private investment
privatized in 2001, PTT has served as the govern- and encourage public participation in renewable
ment’s main authority and powerhouse on all energy, especially solar. In addition, the government
energy-related matters. has introduced capital grants and tax exemptions
for purchases and imports of renewable energy
Thailand’s solution to the impending gas shortage is equipment. In 2015, Thailand’s Board of Investment
multi-faceted. For starters, it is trying to beef up its (BOI) prioritized the renewable energy sector as a
oil and gas exploration and production endeavors, priority industry for development and investment.
while attempting to slow declines in mature fields, The BOI offers foreign investors attractive incentives
as well as promoting the exploration of technically for financing renewable energy production in
challenging fields through licensing rounds. At the Thailand. Through a combination of policy support
same time, PTT and its subsidiaries have aggressively and technological innovation, the country is also
invested abroad to acquire overseas assets that will beginning to tap into the full potential of the Feed-in tariff
hopefully guarantee Thailand’s access to resources in bio-economy-based energy sources such as biomass (FIT):
the future. and biogas. The world’s most
commonly used
In the long run, however, increasing energy measure to pro-
efficiency and promoting alternative sources of mote renewable
energy. It offers
power offer more promising prospects. To their a guaranteed
credit, policymakers have foreseen this shift. By 2020 purchasing price
the state hopes to increase the supply of alternative for electricity
energy resources to make up almost a quarter of the generated from
country’s needs. renewable energy
sources for a
specified period
As a country blessed with so much sunshine, solar of time so as to
energy will play a major role in Thailand’s renewable ensure cost-
energy revolution. Since 2007, the government effectiveness.
47
PART II | ENVIRONMENT

TIME LI NE

A Brief History of
Key Discoveries and Issues

1921–1954 1982 2006–2007

The search for petro- A new fiscal regime, Consumer activists
leum begins in 1921 known as Thailand II, file a petition with the
after local residents
report oil seeps in
is introduced, limiting
the cost recovery of
1997–2001 Supreme Administra-
tive Court to delist PTT
The Asian Financial on the stock market.
1979–1981
the Fang basin of the annual gross revenues
north. But it’s not while increasing Crisis in 1997 hits the The move follows their
until 1954, with private royalties as global oil petroleum industry successful court action
Unocal signs a sales hard. As a result, PTT to halt the listing of the
sector involvement, prices surge. Thailand
contract to supply gas buys the Thai Oil refin- Electricity Generating
that the first oil dis- II is short-lived as the
to the domestic mar- ery plant. In 2001 PTT Authority of Thailand
covery is made in the cost of petroleum dips
ket. Shell and Esso are is partially privatized (EGAT). A year later,
Chai Prakan district of in 1985.
granted large blocks in to become a publicly the court rejects the
Chiang Mai.
the Phitsanulok basin listed company. suit but demands that
and Korat Plateau, PTT transfer part of its
respectively, in 1979. assets, including the

1959
Both companies 3,000 kilometers of gas
1985–1986
strike it rich quick as transmission pipelines,
Esso discovers the to the state.
A small, privately Nam Phong gas field
run refinery starts to Several oil field dis-
produce 1,000 barrels
of oil a day, though the
in 1981, and Shell
discovers the Sirikit, or
coveries result in an
upturn in petroleum
1989
Lan Krabue, oil and gas A new fiscal regime,
exploration rights are production from 4.97
field in Kamphaeng Thailand III, comes
given to the Defense million barrels of oil
2014
Phet province. into effect, revising
Energy Department. equivalent (BOE) per
day to 108.5 million. the royalty rate to
Thailand and Malaysia a sliding scale that A military coup sets
reach an agreement to enables commercial
1971–1974
the stage for major

1960s jointly explore petro- production for all sizes national reforms of
leum resources along of fields. many sectors including
The Petroleum Act is the Thai-Malay border energy.
Union Oil (which later promulgated. Known
becomes Unocal) is in late 1986.
as Thailand I, the law
granted exploration governs concessions
rights to the Korat granted before 1989. In
Plateau in 1962. Two 1973 Unocal makes the
years later, several first discovery in the
foreign companies offshore area called
apply for offshore the “Erawan Field” in
exploration rights, but the Gulf of Thailand,
it’s not until 1968 that which is followed by
foreign companies are a number of other
invited to bid for them discoveries.
in the Gulf of Thailand
and the Andaman Sea
under the Minerals
Act.

Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda (center) starts a new era of energy production.

48
PART II | ENVIRONMENT ENERGY

The Five Major Players in Domestic Energy

three thermal power plants, six combined cycle
power plants, 22 hydropower plants, eight re-
newable energy power plants, and a diesel power
plant with a total installed capacity of more than
15,000MW.
THE BANGCHAK PETROLEUM
PUBLIC COMPANY LIMITED
(BANGCHAK) refines crude
oil and markets the finished
products. It then sells these
PTT PLC is synonymous with products directly to consumers
Thai oil and gas. It operates in through its nationwide network
upstream and downstream pe- of service stations.
troleum sectors and coal busi-
nesses in Thailand and abroad. Created as a state enterprise in 1967 but partially
Domestically, the company is the privatized many years ago, the company has also
dominant power player, with oil branched out into the fields of solar energy and
refineries, factories for petrochemical produc- oil and gas exploration. Its subsidiary, Bangchak
tion, and retail petroleum products and services. Solar Energy, operates several solar power plants
It also owns extensive submarine pipelines for with a combined capacity of 118MW. In October
gas in the Gulf of Thailand. The company has in- 2014, it acquired an 81.41 percent interest in Nido
vestments in subsidiaries, associates and joint Petroleum Ltd, an independent oil and gas explo-
ventures that operate in petroleum exploration ration and production company listed on the Aus-
and production activities, as well as natural gas op- tralian Securities Exchange.
erations, oil marketing and international trading.
BANPU PCL is Thailand’s biggest
Under its subsidiary, PTT Exploration and coal producer and has since
Production, the conglomerate has invested in expanded into Australia, China,
Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia, Oman, Indone- Indonesia, Laos and Mongolia.
sia, Algeria, Australia, Canada, Mozambique The company provides explora-
and Kenya. PTT also owns 45.4 percent of Sakari tion, drilling, mining, and trad-
Resources, a Singaporean coal company that ing-related services for coal.
operates two coal mines in Indonesia and owns
a 10 percent share in a coal mining company in Banpu also operates a 1,434MW coal-fired power
Mongolia. In 2012 PTT became the only Thai firm plant in the controversial Map Ta Phut Industri-
to ever be listed in the top 100 of the Fortune al Estate in Rayong province. More recently, it
Global 500. became a partner in a joint venture to develop a
lignite-fired power plant in the Hongsa district in
THE ELECTRICITY GENERAT- Xayaburi province of Laos. The plant is scheduled
ING AUTHORITY OF THAILAND to begin operations in 2016.
(EGAT) is a state enterprise that
once had a monopoly on Thai- SOLAR POWER COMPANY
land’s electricity generation GROUP (SPCG) is a relatively new
capacity and its transmission player in the field of clean energy,
network. In 1992, independent but its future looks bright. Since
power producers (IPPs) and small power pro- 2010 the company has construct-
ducers (SPPs) were allowed into the Thai market, ed a network of more than 30
ending the monopoly. In response, EGAT created utility-scale solar farms across
the Electricity Generating Public Company Ltd Thailand’s northeast with a combined capacity of
(EGCO) as the first IPP. Today, EGAT operates 200MW and connected them to the grid.

50 51
PART II | ENVIRONMENT ENERGY
FURTHER READING
• Thailand: Energy Outlook and the Contribution of JGSEE,
CZ
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• Proposed Power Development Plan (PDP) 2012 and a Framework for Improving Accountability and

Power Struggles: A Demanding Balancing Act

Performance of Power Sector Planning,
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• Between Populism and Price Increases: Who Will Pay for the Cost of Renewable Energy? by Davida
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Thailand’s current power develop- Hence, the state’s initiative to build Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
ment plan – a blueprint of the coun- the two new power stations in Krabi in 2011 forced the Energy Ministry R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
try’s efforts to generate enough and Surat Thani. to reconsider its plan of building five
electricity to keep pace with eco- The current plan, in order to nuclear power plants over the next
nomic growth – calls for more than ensure power supply security, also 15 years. Clean Energy: The Pathway to a Sustainable Future
doubling its capacity by 2030. But promotes careful planning in expand- On the bright side, the Energy
planning such a dramatic increase ing the capacity, the diversification of Efficiency Development Plan (2011– Biomass and Biofuels Earth could be converted at an effi- t
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52 53

SOIL
The lifeblood of agriculture
Soil is much more than dirt. It’s a living entity: a
combination of organisms, minerals, liquids and gases
that nurses plants and nourishes crops. Vegetation
dies off without such life-sustaining nutrients.
In short, soil is as complicated as the wildly different
terrains that it supports. In the north of Thailand
and to the west bordering Myanmar are highlands
of sandy soil. The central plains consist of low-lying
farmland characterized by alluvial soils fed by five
rivers from the north, with mudflats at the mouth
of the Gulf of Thailand. The gulf-facing parts of the
Eastern Seaboard and southern provinces are filled
with saline soil, or alkaline soil, unsuited to crop
cultivation. And in the famously arid northeast, prone
to desertification, salt is also an issue, as swathes of
Desertification: the region sit atop enormous salt deposits buried
A type of land under the Korat Basin and the smaller Sakhon Nakhon
degradation Basin. Both were seabeds in prehistoric times.
in which a
relatively dry Given Thailand’s reputation as one of the world’s top
region becomes
producers of agricultural products, one would think
increasingly arid,
typically losing that the country’s bedrock must be its nutrient-
its bodies of rich soil. Not so, says Chalermpol Kirdmanee,
water, vegetation principal researcher and head of Plant Physiology &
and wildlife. It Biochemistry Laboratory Agricultural Biotechnology
is caused by a
variety of factors,
Research Unit at the National Center for Genetic
such as climate Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), the
change and man- country’s research arm on biological science.
made activities.
“Soil conditions in Thailand are like famished, mal-
nourished kids who eat too much junk food,” he said.
Soil organic
matter (SOM): It’s a provocative way of saying that Thai soil has five
The organic mat- times less the vital nutrients like nitrogen than the
ter component of accepted global standard, which makes much of the
soils, consisting land unsuitable for farming. Chalermpol, who has
of plant and ani- spent more than 20 years working with royal initiated
mal residue, cell
projects on soil salinization in the northeast, explains
and cell tissues that many of the problems are man-made. Ignorance
of decomposed
and greed top the list of culprits. Both are to blame
soil organisms.
SOM is a proven for the monocropping that became a staple of local
indicator of soil farms in the 1970s. This style of cultivation uses the
quality. same plot of land to plant the same type of crop over
54
Farmers in the northwest seed soy beans in burnt soil after a rice harvest.
and over again, until the nitrogen and other essential
elements are leached from the soil. The intensive use
of chemical fertilizers, which began in the 1960s as
part of the “Green Revolution” and reached Thailand
a decade later, has also had a harmful effect on
soil, while modern farming equipment like tractors
has compacted the earth, preventing moisture and
organic matter from penetrating it.
The damage has been devastating to say the
least. According to the latest survey by the Land
Development Department (LDD), under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, more than 54
percent of the total land in the country is low grade,
while the amount of soil organic matter (SOM), a
key indicator of the soil’s health and fertility, is too
low nationwide. Among these substandard varieties
is acidic soil – meaning soil with a pH level lower
than 5.5. This is mostly caused by the misuse of
chemical fertilizers and by the air pollution created
by burning coal and bunker oil (a sludgy extract).
Globally, Thailand keeps good company in facing
these issues. According to figures released at the
World Economic Forum of 2012, some 40 percent of
the planet’s soil is degraded. The main causes have
been identified as high-yield agricultural practices
requiring the intensive use of chemicals and
over-plowing, which strips away topsoil, in addition
to removing crop stubble by burning or animal
grazing. At this rate of loss, the world’s topsoil, which
is vital for sustaining plant life, will be gone within
60 years.
However, over generations, Thailand has been able
to overcome some soil issues and create a dynamic
agricultural sector due to the skill and knowledge
of farmers and farmhands, rather than the richness
of the earth. And thanks to scientific innovations
and new projects aimed at encouraging organic
crops, as well as King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s royally
initiated projects, the country does not lack in good,
grassroots examples for farmers and officials to
follow down a more sustainable path.
“Soil conditions in
Thailand are like
famished, malnourished
kids who eat too much
junk food.”
Chalermpol Kirdmanee, a lead
figure at the National Center
for Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology (BIOTEC)
Types of Soil in Thailand
ACIDIC SOIL, or soil with a pH level lower than 5.5,
is the most widespread issue in Thailand, accounting
for some 29 percent of the land. More than half of that
total has severe quality issues. The problem is caused
by the misuse of chemical fertilizers and air pollution
caused by burning coal and bunker oil.
SHALLOW SOIL, often located on hill slopes, suffers
from a proliferation of gravel and pebbles, which make
up more than a third of its content. Located close to
the surface, hence its name, shallow soil is infertile
because it cannot retain water. Around 14 percent of
the land in Thailand is classified as shallow soil.
ALKALINE SOIL contains too much salt. This makes
it bad for cultivation purposes as the salt content
remains in the plant and prevents the earth from ab-
sorbing water. It is found in coastal areas and in the
northeast basins where large deposits of salt remain
from prehistoric seas.
SANDY SOIL is loose since sand makes up 85 percent
of its structure. As the dregs of rivers and seas, sandy
soil cannot hold water but certain plants like sugar-
cane, cassava and pineapple thrive in it. Mostly found
in coastal areas, riverbanks and around sandstone
mountains in the northeast, almost 4 percent of the
soil in Thailand can be classified as sandy.
ACID SULFATE SOIL boasts high amounts of these
substances and a pH level lower than 4, as a result
of being deluged by salty seawater. Naturally, this
strain of soil, which makes up less than 2 percent of
the total, proliferates around the Southern and Eastern
Seaboards.
PEAT is made up of decomposed vegetation and
organic matter that has accumulated over thousands
of years. Also known as mires or bogs, peat is good for
growing grass and is one of the most efficient carbon
sinks on the planet. These bogs are found around the
sea-hugging parts of the south and east coasts.
HARDPAN accounts for around 8.5 percent of the
soil in Thailand. Beneath the topsoil is buried a thick
layer of earth from whence its name is derived and
which yields little in the way of agricultural products.
Hardpan often results from farming and tilling the
same plot of earth over and over again.
55
PART II | ENVIRONMENT

JOUFSWJFX
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Time magazine

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Solving Nature’s Dilemmas from the Ground Up



While most monarchs are associated
with opulently appointed palaces,
those of King Bhumibol Adulyadej
in Bangkok and Hua Hin have long
served as labs and launching pads
for environmental projects. These are
not mere hobbies. The king has spent
so many hours working on issues of
soil, for example, that his birthday,
December 5, is now celebrated as
World Soil Day by the United Nations.
One of the most groundbreaking
initiatives was the Land Development
Project in the Cha-am district of


Phetchaburi province. Created in
1968, the project is renowned as the
first one to deal with land manage-

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ment through the introduction of

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drought-prone area as well as the
application of organic fertilizers and

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soil treatments. Establishing this agri-
cultural cooperative in the village of
Hoob Krapong was only the start.
From there, the king and his

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crew set up soil treatment projects
across the country. In the Phanom
Sarakham district of Chachoengsao
province, for example, the arid land
with salty soil became ground zero

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for a pilot program designed to show

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and farmlands has also risen to
A man plants vetiver grass.
56
The king with officials at the Pikun Thong Royal Development Study Center in Narathiwat.
how micro-reservoirs can be used as
a “water buffer’’ to slow down the
spread of alluvial deposits brought
about by rivers and streams in
floodplains.
Over the years to come, more
pilot projects took off. Up north, in
the Huai Hong Krai village of Chiang
Mai province, the program intro-
duced check dams and vetiver grass
to solve the perennial trouble of soil
erosion. “When we talk about soil
'"0
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and His Majesty the King, people
usually think of vetiver grass,” said Dr
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Chalermpol Kirdmanee. At the top
of the mountain, the king advised
the project coordinators to refor-
est the area at the watershed level to
create more moisture. On the slope,
they planted vetiver grass, famous
for its deep and strong roots, to stop
soil erosion. Then the monarch sug-
gested that they build check dams in
the small ravines to slow down the
water run-off and keep the good allu-
vial soil from being washed away.
Down south in Narathiwat
province, the Pikun Thong Royal
Development Learning Center broke
ground by using different tech-
niques to “trick the soil” into becom-
ing more fertile and less acidic. Across
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
the northeast, which is notorious
for its salinized soil, dozens of proj-
ects have been implemented using
the king’s belief that solving nature’s
dilemmas requires natural solutions.
That was the modus operandi of the
collaborative efforts between the
Siam Cement Group and the Crown
Property Bureau to launch more soil
treatment projects that used saline-
resistant plants and trees such as iron-
woods to siphon off saltwater from
the ground.
“For the king, soil conservation is
a philosophy in which he uses nature
to control nature. He will look at the
big picture and then use his under-
standing of science and local culture
and traditional wisdom,” said Dr
Chalermpol.
To pay tribute to his many con-
tributions to environmental science
and soil management, in 2002 the
International Union of Soil Sciences
(IUSS) made a resolution to celebrate
World Soil Day on His Majesty’s birth-
day. That motion was unanimously
adopted by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations in 2013, only a year after the
IUSS gave its first “Humanitarian Soil
Scientist” award to the Thai king.
FURTHER READING
Actions Needed to Enrich the Earth
Seedlings grown at Thung Song cement plant in Nakhon Si Thammarat province.
Nipping monocropping in the bud
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which is characterized by an overuse
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of farming in the long term.
More carbon

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back into the soil through the
elimination of bad farming practices
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burning off crop stubble is crucial for
nourishing the earth’s nutrients.
Soil erosion

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Department (LDD) estimates that
one-third of Thailand suffers from soil
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matter and nutrients.
Cultivating agriculture The LDD’s
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• The Ideal Soil 2014: A Handbook for the New Agriculture,
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• Soil Erosion Problems in Northeast Thailand: A Case Study from the View of Agricultural
Development in a Rural Community near Khon Kaen,
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that the amount of agricultural
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consistently find that many farmers
misuse the land by farming crops
not suited to their particular type of
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zoning and education could also
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nutrients and the conditions of the
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This worrisome trend looks set to
continue thanks to global warming.
SOIL
Soil conservation Launching more
pilot projects on soil conservation
around the country that are adapted
to regional needs and include local
participation is a necessity.
Low SOM

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is one of the most important factors
in soil quality. The more organic
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classified as problematic due to a
variety of environmental woes such
as erosion.
Farmers learn about fertilizer technology.
57
 WATER
Managing a fundamental element
For Thais, water is much more than just a natural
resource. It is integral to the lifeblood of their
culture, coursing through the New Year celebra-
tions in April when Buddha images are washed and
revelers doused, at festivals such as Loy Krathong,
where offerings are made to the Goddess of Water,
in wedding rituals like the anointing of the couples’
hands by guests, or through the bathing ceremony
performed on bodies before cremations.
As a country once dominated by agriculture and
still dependent on it for food and income, water
makes all the difference between bumper crops
and broken dreams. The
country’s factories and
industrial complexes would
lose their liquidity without
it and tourism would also
dry up if it were not for
this most fundamental of
elements. In fact, without
water all of us would go
hungry – UN estimates
state that it takes 3,500
liters to produce one kilo
of rice and 15,000 liters
to produce the same
amount of beef. Such
figures make up part of our
water footprint.
Thailand is fortunate to
have been endowed with
an abundance of water
resources due to its geo-
“In an age when man has
graphical position in the
forgotten his origins and tropics amidst monsoons
is blind even to his most that result in a six-month-
essential needs for survival, long wet season. According
water along with other to “Droughts in Thailand,”
a 2012 report prepared
resources has become the
by leading Thai experts,
victim of his indifference.” the average precipita-
Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring tion in Thailand is 1,374
58
millimeters per year, well above the global average
of 990 millimeters. But supply is not the issue.
Instead, distribution and resource management are
the key challenges.
To help manage this ebb and flow, a proper irri-
gational infrastructure of dams, dykes, moats and
floodgates covers only a small fraction of Thailand’s
land area, and the distribution of these facilities
is uneven. Overall, only one-sixth of the country’s
farmland is irrigated, according to the Hydro and
Agro Informatics Institute (HAII) under the Ministry
of Science and Technology. The overwhelming
majority of that lush farmland is in the central
region, famous as the country’s “rice bowl” and the
most productive region. So many of the farmers
in other parts of the country face the threat of
drought and must rely on the whims of the weather
and whatever strategies they can devise to eke out a
living. Little wonder that natives of the northeast –
the most arid region – try to propitiate the “rain
god” Phaya Thaen before every monsoon season
begins in May by blowing off bamboo rockets in an
ancient fertility rite.
Drought, however, is only one part of a triple threat
that beleaguers the country’s authorities on water
management. As Pramote Maiklad, the former
director-general of the Royal Irrigation Department
(RID) explained, dealing with floods and treating
wastewater are the two other main issues. “The
central region has been facing a lack of water and
serious floods. The scarcity stems from the rising
demand for water from the agricultural sector,
especially rice growers, and other large-scale
monocrop plantations. Even though almost 90
percent of the irrigation systems are concentrated
in this region, the demand is still rising,” he said.
Floods are also troublesome. The lower part of
the central region, irrigated by a low-lying river
basin and floodplain, is especially susceptible to
rising waters and is often inundated by run-off
from northern waterways. During the rainy season,
Rice fields in Ayudhya belonging to the monarchy were used to help drain flood waters and then set aside to store the water for future irrigation needs.
these rivers tend to swell, bursting their banks and any other element by global warming. Dr Royol
overflowing into urban areas. The last big deluge Chitradon, director of the HAII, a government
was in 2011 when the unusually heavy rainfall – 20 agency that monitors data on water and advises
percent more than the average – combined with other agencies on management issues, said rising
mismanagement and perennial problems, such as seas have already begun inundating coastal areas
flagrant land use and outdated drainage systems, with saltwater, contaminating both farmland and Water footprint:
to set the stage for what the World Bank classified freshwater sources.
The amount of
as the fourth costliest disaster in the history of the water you use
planet. Yet, the most worrisome aspects of climate change in the course of
are its volatility and unpredictability. Entire weather a day, not just
However, those circumstances were exceptional. patterns are changing. Storms may come out of the directly from
Far more common yet much more chronic is the blue to blacken the skies and dampen the earth. drinking or
hazard of wastewater. As the country continues The cycle of floods and drought may become even flushing the toilet
but indirectly.
to industrialize and urbanize, this toxic tide is on more severe in the future. According to Na-
the rise. It’s especially problematic in and around tional Geograph-
industrial estates. By law, factories are required to Such changes, said Dr Royol, will make it harder ic magazine, 95
install wastewater treatments; however, in reality, for the powers-that-be to predict and map out percent of our
the laws are not enforced and some factories accurate water management plans. “The problem water consump-
discharge their wastewater directly into rivers and is that rain will fall in unusual places at unusual tion comes from
the products we
canals. The problem is compounded by a lack of times. We might not be able to use old models purchase and the
wastewater treatment systems. In Bangkok, only and analytical methods to predict these kinds energy required
half of the wastewater is treated. Outside the of patterns in the future,” he said. As successive to produce them
capital, the total is much lower. governments struggle to come up with a compre- and the food we
hensive water management plan to forecast such eat. Just one kilo
Even these issues are mild compared to the dilemmas and ward off future floods and droughts, of rice takes an
estimated 3,500
storm clouds massing on the horizon in the form the subject of water management has taken on a liters of water
of climate change. Among climatologists, the grave and tremendous significance: part science, to cultivate, for
consensus is that water will be impacted more than part prophecy, and all important. example.
59
PART II | ENVIRONMENT
w
CZ







The King and the Water Paradox


“From that point on,” King Bhumibol
Adulyadej wrote in his journal, “I have
thought about this seemingly insolu-
ble and paradoxical problem: when
there is water, there is too much,
it floods the area; when the water
recedes, it is drought.”
“That point” the king refers to was
a 1955 tour of Thailand’s northeastern
region, the country’s poorest, where
farmers were barely able to produce
one successful crop. Traveling over
680 kilometers by train and 1,592


kilometers by road, flooded by stories
and images of hardship, the king was
moved. The effective management
of the country’s water resources has
been an abiding preoccupation for
him ever since.
Over the ensuing decades, a wide
variety of resources, ideas, proj-
ects, programs and technology were
directed toward improving this fun-
damental underpinning of rural exis-

BVUIPSJ-
tence. “If we take proper care of the
environment, there will be water
for many hundred years,” he once

that encroaches upon these natural
observed, echoing the long-term
thinking that is at the heart of sus-
tainable development. “By that time
our descendants might be thinking
of some new ways to solve the prob-

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lems.” As much as any story of his
reign – the rise and fall of Communism
or the rising skyline of Bangkok – the

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king’s attempts to improve the secu-

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comes from the products and energy
rity of the farmer was the one he per-
sonally led.

ment of water resources and thus the
In May 1960, the king revived
the Royal Ploughing Ceremony,

floods is highly fragmented between
an ancient fertility ritual that gave


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effects of floods can only be under-
farmers hope. In 1962, near his

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state organizations under seven
summer residence of Hua Hin, he

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different ministries apply more than
invested his own money to build an
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of Khao Tao. The poor living condi-

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tions of the villagers were due, in part,

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to soil erosion and fresh water scar-
city. The king’s dam blocked seawater
from flowing into a natural channel
60
“If we take proper care of
the environment, there will
be water for hundreds of
years.”
King Bhumibol Adulyadej
and helped trap rainwater flowing in.
The 600,000 cubic-meter-capacity
reservoir known as Khao Tao reser-
voir would be the first of many local-
regulations.
ized projects the king helped create.
It was also typical of his develop-
ment model: establish direct contact
with the villagers and learn about
their problems, offer practical solu-
tions the villagers themselves could
adopt, cut through bureaucratic red
tape to implement a solution, and
then monitor the progress.
In order to help villagers better
manage their natural water supplies,
throughout the country he advised
them to protect watersheds and build
reduce deforestation and ease the
weirs as miniature dams to help reg-
ulate a river’s flow. He also advo-
taken if the villagers stand to earn
cated the construction of reservoirs
some money.
and ponds dubbed “monkey cheeks”
to store floodwaters during the rainy
season so that it could be used later
when other sources had dried up.
The idea, which came to him in the
wake of the 1995 floods, was based
on the way that monkeys keep special
reserves of food and other nutrients
in their cheeks to use in times of
emergency. The ponds that the villag-
ers dug functioned in the same way.
To treat wastewater in the canals of
Bangkok, the king told the authori-
ties to divert freshwater containing
high amounts of oxygen into them
to dilute the polluted water.
When coming up with these plans
his modus operandi is deploying
“appropriate technology” that har-
nesses the raw power of nature. As
Pramote Maiklad, the Royal Irrigation
Department ’s former secretary-
general explained, “The king often
uses nature to solve natural prob-
lems, or at least the technology he has
invented with some natural elements.
Whatever the initiatives are, he always
makes sure that his ‘appropriate tech-
nology’ must be simple and doable so
local folks can use it.”
By the 1990s, with help from the
king’s Chaipattana Foundation, the
recipe had been repeated thousands
of times and the overall number of
the king’s small-to-medium-sized
projects (reservoirs, weirs and small
dams) was adding up with 70 percent
of the more than 3,000 royally initi-
ated projects focused on improving
the country’s water security.
The king was also an innova-
tor. Of his inventions, few are more
renowned than the artificial rain-
making technique he patented some
30 years ago, and the Chaipattana
aerator, patented in 1993, to recycle
wastewater by adding oxygen to it. In
2009 the World Intellectual Property
Office (WIPO), a United Nations orga-
nization tasked with advocating intel-
lectual property rights, bestowed the
WIPO Global Leader Award on King
Bhumibol Adulyadej as a champion of
intellectual property rights and a pro-
lific inventor, with some 20 patents
and 19 registered trademarks to his
name.
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
Measures to Improve Water Management
A check dam at Huai Kong Khrai Royal Development Study Center in Chiang Mai.
Go to the source To preserve the
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sensitive areas like river basins and
watersheds must be protected
and kept off-limits from potentially
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should be encouraged to build small
weirs along the river to preserve
upstream watersheds and replenish
the underground water supply.
Flood prevention measures To
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proper land zoning measures need to
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WATER
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plans to be put in place while there is
still time.
Public participation To win the
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the private and public sectors must
allow locals to have a say in issues
that impact their water security. They
must also trust that the firms and
authorities are conducting and taking
into account honest environmental
impact assessments.
Hazardous wastewater To keep
industrial-strength wastewater from
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ties must enforce the law by imposing
and the building of infrastructure fines on companies that flout the
resources must be barred.
New farming techniques Thai
Leadership glut To cut through all farmers need to break away from
the red tape that ties up the water-intensive crops.
EFDJTJPONBLJOH
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ment needs to streamline bureaucrat- Water footprint 4UBSU
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ic processes and legal apparatuses. to raise awareness about everyone’s
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To deal with the shifting weather and irrigation moats must be dredged
patterns associated with global and drainage systems maintained or
warming requires firm policies and updated.
61
 FORESTS
 Ʉ + )Ʉ*)Ʉ/# (Ʉ!*-Ʉ!**ƇɄ2/ -Ʉ)Ʉ*34" )ɄɄɄɄ
The world’s most productive ecosystems are the
tropical forests that stretch across South America’s
Amazon and through parts of Africa, India and
Southeast Asia. Not only do these greenbelts
provide shelter and sustenance for around half of the
world’s species, they also serve as vital watersheds
and carbon sinks. Thailand also has a wealth of such
forest. Those in the northern provinces of Chiang
Mai, Chiang Rai and Nan, which are key watershed
forests for Thailand, are under threat.
In general, Thailand’s forests can be divided into
two main categories: evergreen and deciduous. In
the north, the latter species cling to the highlands
and are made up of such subspecies as cloud
forests. In the northeast, dry dipterocarp and dry
deciduous forests make up much of the tree line,
whereas evergreen forests enrich the provinces of
the south and the east. On the isolated fringes of
the Eastern Seaboard and the southern flanks of
the Andaman Sea are the vital yet much-decimated
mangroves.
All of these are threatened by deforestation. Until the
late 19th century this was not an issue in Thailand.
That changed with the arrival of the British who were
already carving up the teak forests of Burma as the
fodder for beautiful hardwood furniture and the raw
material for the ships that kept their empire afloat.
These days, logging is well down the list of defor-
estation drivers in Thailand. Instead, commercial
agriculture and subsistence farming vie for the top
spots, followed by mining, major infrastructure
projects like dams and roads, and urban encroach-
Carbon sinks:
ment. Drivers like these also help explain why defor-
Rivers, forests, estation accounts for some 10 percent of greenhouse
soil and the gas emissions around the globe.
atmosphere are
carbon sinks,
areas that absorb In developing countries the root causes behind
and store carbon deforestation are not difficult to nail down:
for long periods short-term profits trump the long-term benefits of
of time, thereby human health and ecological welfare. It is not only
taking it out of large landowners who clear forests. In Thailand,
the atmosphere.
unable to secure title deeds, for decades small-scale
62
Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary is an important nature reserve near the border with Myanmar.
farmers have headed into the forests to clear plots
for cultivation. These days, agribusinesses, for
instance, encourage northern farmers to clear trees
to grow corn and other monocrops. The firms offer
a good price for the crops, which are used as animal
feed. After the harvest, the farmers torch the field
refuse, creating a toxic haze that has periodically
plagued the northern region.
As David W. Pearce summed up in his paper, “The
Economic Value of Forest Ecosystems,” “rapid
population change and economic incentives...make
forest conversion appear more profitable than forest
conservation.” This philosophy is endemic to most,
if not all, of Southeast Asia. In Thailand’s case it’s
had some disastrous repercussions. According to
the latest government statistics, Thailand’s forest
cover is roughly around 31 percent, though some
experts insist it may be closer to 27 or 28 percent.
The only way to get these statistics is through
satellite images, which take about two to three years
to compile. Whatever the figure, it still represents a
steep decline from 1945 when around 60 percent
of the forests were still standing. Though the rate of
deforestation has slowed to around 0.2 percent per
year on the low end, the implications are still dire,
with floods, landslides and soil erosion taking their
toll on communities and crops, while the decline
of keystone species such as the tiger and hornbill Community
threatens the country’s biodiversity. forestry:
Coined back in
Among the bright spots on the horizon is the spread the 1970s and
popular in places
of community forestry, which allows villagers like North Amer-
who live in and depend on these ecosystems to ica, Brazil and
use their homegrown wisdom to manage them in India, community
more sustainable ways. This strategy has paid off forestry describes
in South America, where countries like Bolivia and how local villag-
Brazil have drastically reduced deforestation rates ers work with
NGOs and the
in the Amazon. Already the Thai government has state to manage
granted legal status, if not stewardship, to some the forests near
9,000 villages situated in or near forests. At least where they live.
a thousand other communities exist in a no man’s It’s still a relative-
land that has more grey areas than green spots. ly recent trend in
With reforestation a priority under the current Southeast Asia.
government, which hopes to increase the forest
cover to 40 percent over the next 10 years, the state
has begun reclaiming land listed as forest reserves
from villagers, resort moguls and plantation owners.
“An intact forest cycles nutrients,
regulates climate, stabilizes soil, treats
waste, provides habitats, and offers
opportunities for recreation.”
Janet Larsen, the Worldwatch Institute
63
PART II | ENVIRONMENT FORESTS

R EA SONS
Why Forests Matter to Sustainable Development Vital Mangroves Cleared for Commercial Use
Watersheds 'PSFTUT
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A 2014 report from the United in developing countries where more Fisheries, there were 342,235 rai of
soak up and discharge rain into the tributaries that make Nations Environment Program (UNEP) than 90 percent of the world’s man- land under shrimp cultivation in 2008.
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called “The Importance of Mangroves: groves are found.” While this meant profits for local
these watersheds helps promote the natural ecosystems A Call to Action” states that mangrove Thailand is very much part of this shrimp farmers, it has spelled disas-
on which we rely and also helps mitigate disasters such as forests are being cut down at a rate alarming story. In isolated parts of the ter for mangrove forests conser-
mudslides and floods. three to five times faster than any country’s Eastern and Southern sea- vation. Hundreds of thousands of
other forests. The emissions resulting boards, mangroves are hanging on for acres of mangroves were clear-cut
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from the burning and cutting of them dear life. Their importance to the local to make room for short-term aqua-
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gases produced by deforestation in locals after the 2004 tsunami, when intensive farming practices contami-
many other time-tested medicines. the world today. fishing villages along the Andaman nated waters.
This is an ecological disaster in the coast that were protected by man- Since the 1960s, Thailand has
Deep breaths

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serving as natural air purifiers in the process of producing making. Forming a wooded wetland groves suffered far less damage and lost more than half of its mangrove
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and waterways, mangroves are vital the forests had been chopped down Phatthalung has lost all of them.
ingredients in a healthy marine eco- and carved up to make charcoal. Recently, modern farming tech-
Darwin’s theater

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the encroachment of tourism, con- established two mandatory certifica-
or parasites. Think of the forests as a stage where these struction of industrial parks and the tion schemes for Good Aquaculture
battles for survival are enacted on a daily basis. intensive operation of fishing boats, Practice and the Code of Conduct for
aquaculture is clearly a key culprit. Responsible Shrimp Farming.
Raw materials

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One of the world’s top five shrimp In addition, community initiatives
with which we build and furnish our homes. exporters, Thailand ramped up in southern provinces such as Trat and
shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas Surat Thani are helping to protect and
Great outdoors The phrase “human nature” denotes an when a 1981 fishing policy limited reclaim mangroves not only for the
alliance between people and the natural world that has its shrimp capture at sea. According forests themselves, but also for the
roots in our evolution from cave dwellers to urbanites that to the Royal Thai Department of health of the community at large.
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Karen villager with cumin grown in the forest. to the great outdoors.

crabs and shrimp, nests for birds and

hotspots for eco-tourists.
Expounding on the ramifications
Forest Facts of the report, UN Under-Secretary-
General and UNEP Executive Director
OUR GREAT ANCESTORS began farming some 11,000 years ago. Since then half of the globe’s forest Achim Steiner said, “The escalat-
ing destruction and degradation of
cover has been lost, the majority of it in the last 50 years. On a global level, agriculture drives some 80
mangroves, driven by land conver-
percent of deforestation. sion for aquaculture and agriculture,
THE WORLD’S MOST productive eco-systems are tropical forests, which stretch across South America, coastal development and pollution
especially the Amazon, and through parts of Africa, India and Southeast Asia. These greenbelts provide is occurring at an alarming rate, with
over a quarter of the earth’s origi-
shelter and sustenance for around half of the world’s species. nal mangrove cover now lost. This
OF ALL THE DIFFERENT types of forests, primary forests occupy about one-third of the total. Sometimes has potentially devastating effects
referred to as old growth forests or virgin or primeval forests, they are renowned for their age, beauty and on biodiversity, food security and
biodiversity, whereas woodlands recovering from a forest fire are referred to as second-growth forests. the livelihoods of some of the most
marginalized coastal communities Shrimp farms have had a disastrous impact on mangroves.

64 65
PART II | ENVIRONMENT FORESTS
FURTHER READING
• Forest Guardians, Forest Destroyers,
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TIME LI NE • An Overview of Thai Forestry,
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www.worldpolicy.org/blog/

Agricultural fodder The cutting Developments in

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1000 AD Political instability in
the ranks of the milita-
Massive floods kill
more than 800 people
to populate the highlands and grow
agribusiness.
Long before the
kingdoms of Sukhothai 1956
ristic governments al-
lows timber poachers
2005 and inundate the
country for months on
and Ayudhya are en- free reign to decimate Thailand’s first national end. The surging
The Thai Forestry
Cash crops Oil palms and the euca- throned, farmers work the countryside and park of Khao Yai is waters could have
Organization is formed
together to manage mountains. Some given UNESCO World been alleviated to
lyptus plantations used for pulp paper to let the government
water and other re- estimates put the Heritage Site status some extent by forest
are cash crops that are environmen- exert more commer-
percentage of illegally as the Dong Phaya watersheds. As a
sources in a pioneering cial control over Thai
tally unfriendly. These plantations felled timber coming Yen–Khao Yai Forest result, the govern-
display of what comes forests.
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to be dubbed commu- out of Thailand at 60 Complex for its phe- ment announces that
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nity forestry. to 70 percent of the nomenal range of flora it would spend some
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total during this time. and fauna. three billion baht on
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reforestation projects.
percent per year. Northern hillsides bear the scars of deforestation.
1890 1896
Better enforcement Thailand
has an impressive list of laws on the
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needs to be integrated into other companies hold the them modern forms of After the massacre of
them or prosecuting those who break
them is a challenge. Vested interests The state has
research fields like agriculture to bring
about a more holistic approach that
majority of teak leases
in Thailand, which
forestry management.
From 1896 to 1925, a
pro-democracy pro-
testors at Thammasat
1990 Environmental activ-
ists march some 250
also act as a bargain- Brit served as the chief University on October To slow the rate of kilometers from the
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along the Thai-Cambodian border “I think the days of forests for the sake of forests is over, and
Community forestry

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productive. We have to bring them all together in landscapes
said the plans could not succeed five years despite the trees being on a in an integrated way to make them useful to each other.”
Confiscated illegal rosewood. without increasing local input. protected species list. Louis Verchot, principal scientist for the Center for International Forestry Research

66 67
 OCEANS AND SEAS
 2Ʉ21 .Ʉ*!Ʉ 1 '*+( )/Ʉ-$)"Ʉ
+-*.+ -$/4ƇɄ/*0-$./.Ʉ)Ʉ#'' )" .ɄɄɄɄɄɄɄ
The story of Thailand’s oceans and seas captures the
tensions of sustainable development in a clamshell.
On the one hand, the rich natural resources of
Thailand’s coastal areas have been instrumental in
driving positive growth and development, especially
since the 1970s. Oil and natural gas reserves, the
enormous tourism industry and one of the world’s
biggest seafood industries are now the basis of
millions of jobs and are all major drivers of the
modern-day Thai economy.
But in their wake, these developments have left some
toxic residues that illustrate two of the common
global scourges of the rush for growth: environ-
mental and human exploitation. Wherever there are
Ocean natural and financial riches at stake, expect unsus-
acidification: tainable practices fueled by short-term opportunism.
At least one-third
of the carbon Thailand’s 22 National Marine Parks, encompassing
dioxide emitted more than 6,000 square kilometers, are among the
from cars, facto-
ries and build- most beautiful tropical sites in the world and studies
ings is absorbed in biodiversity, with coral reefs, mangrove forests
by the oceans, and seagrasses inhabited by endangered species like
which raises their the dugong (or sea cow), marine turtles, manta rays
acidity while and whale sharks. But the authorities have rarely
lowering their strictly regulated the tide of tourists or the construc-
ability to safely
absorb more car- tion of tourism infrastructure. As a result, biomass
bon. This process in and around many parks has declined due to this
of acidification encroachment as well as illegal fishing.
has had a pro-
foundly negative Islands like Koh Chang, Koh Samet, Koh Lanta, Koh
effect on marine Phi Phi and the archipelagos of the Surin and Similan
life like corals.
island chains, which all reside within the confines
of supposedly protected parks, are inundated with
tourists. Only the latter two, because they are closed
Coral cover: during the six months of the monsoon season from
The amount of May to November, have truly retained their pristine
stony coral that nature.
exists on a reef.
It’s both the reef’s But tourism is far from the only culprit in what is a
main building
block and an im- multi-pronged issue, not just for Thailand but for
portant habitat many other countries surrounded by water. Around
for many marine the world, ocean acidification is contaminating
creatures. marine ecosystems, just as overfishing has decimated
68
fish stocks. (Marine biologists believe that 90 percent
of the bigger species like tuna have been fished out
already.) Destructive fishing methods such as bottom
trawling have destroyed many coral reefs, the world’s
second most productive ecosystems after rainforests,
or substantially reduced the coral cover, and the
purse seine nets that some industrial trawlers use
scoop up loads of other marine creatures known
as by-catch. Coral bleaching and the dip in bigger
marine creatures like mantas and whale sharks have
threatened the kingdom’s reputation as one of the
world’s best dive spots.
Thailand’s significant fishing industry has also come
under the spotlight for its use of forced labor on
vessels, either legal or illegal, which caused the
US to downgrade the kingdom to the lowest rung
on its annual human trafficking list in 2014. As the
government looks to enact new regulations to
comply with international standards and protect
fishermen, the Thai seafood industry, worth an
estimated US$7 billion per year, is still reeling from
Koh Phi Phi Leh is part of a National Marine Park near Phuket in southern Thailand.
those allegations and faces a potential ban from the
EU on its seafood products.
Compounding these challenges is the industrial
activity along the coasts. In previous decades,
discoveries of natural gas and oil in the Gulf of
Thailand fueled the industrialization of the country’s
Eastern Seaboard and the growth of the nation as
a whole, with the state-run Map Ta Phut Industrial
Estate and deep-water port in Rayong province
built to host petrochemical companies and other
heavy industries. Unfortunately, since 2004, there
have been more than a dozen oil spills and leakages.
As with so many other environmental issues either
on land or at sea, the long-term effects of these
pollutants on their respective environs and the
creatures that live there are as yet unknown.
Now that the contentious Southern Seaboard
Development Plan is pending final approval,
concerns are mounting that these resource-rich
waters off the coasts of Songkhla and Satun
provinces may be damaged by a new wave of
development. As alternatives to Map Ta Phut, the
new deep-sea ports could be much-needed sources
of employment and revenue. But locals worry that
the mega-projects may threaten two of the region’s
biggest earners – fishing and tourism – displacing
many community members who rely on these
sectors for their livelihoods.
69
PART II | ENVIRONMENT OCEANS AND SEAS

R EA SONS
Why Oceans and Seas Matter to Sustainable Development
Soaking up carbon Oceans and seas are the biggest
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and cities.
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country’s economic lifelines with Thailand ranking number
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nothing new in the south. Since the a launching pad for embarking on
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mangroves are sanctuaries for marine animals. They

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wastes and protect shorelines from the intensity of water
currents.
Development Wave for the South?
For more than two decades, the gov-
ernment has been trying to develop of an Environmental Health Impact
an alternative to the Map Ta Phut Assessment.
Industrial Estate in Rayong prov-
ince to generate income and jobs for
the south. For the residents of Satun
and Songkhla provinces waiting for
the controversy-plagued Southern
Seaboard Development Plan to break that will decimate the area’s biggest
ground, Map Ta Phut’s own record of
creating hazards to human health and
the environment has created unease.
Yet such development schemes are ing ground for marine creatures and damage to the area’s
biggest revenue spinners
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Greenpeace Mini-Marathon to oppose the coal-fired power plant and seaport in Krabi.
coal) largely to no avail. The govern-
ment has pushed ahead with them.
The new Southern Seaboard
Development Plan is one of the most
ambitious schemes to date. Part of it
entails building a “land bridge” that
will link the Andaman Sea with the
Gulf of Thailand to facilitate trade
with neighboring countries and the
rest of Asia. That part of the project
will necessitate constructing two
deep-sea ports on either coast in the
provinces of Songkhla and Satun.
Construction has not yet begun at
Pakbara, located in the latter prov-
ince, as they are awaiting the results
The Pakbara area is both
While the government is enacting
a new Fisheries Act to protect marine
resources, locals still fear that if the
project goes ahead it will open the
floodgates to more such schemes
revenue spinners and sources of
employment: fisheries and tourism.
The Pakbara area is both a spawn-
Marine Park, which encompasses
fisheries and tourism.
51 islands in the Andaman Sea. The
vast marine park is the first such park
in Thailand. Experts have estimated
the park to be home to roughly 25
percent of the world’s fish species. It
is also where the ever-popular Koh
Lipe is located, serving as a boon in
tourism revenue for the local com-
munity.
According to Sakanan Plathong,
a researcher at Prince of Songkla
University, the new ports have engen-
dered widespread skepticism on the
part of locals. “From what has hap-
pened at Map Ta Phut, people here do
a spawning ground for
marine creatures and
a launching pad for
odysseys to the spectacular
Tarutao National Marine
Park. Locals fear that if
the development project
goes ahead it may cause
and sources of employment:
environmental problems,” he said.
Fishing is another quandary. Up
and down the coasts, development
projects have threatened this tradi-
tional occupation, thanks to waste
water discharges polluting the seas.
The small-scale fishing communities
have suffered the most because their
low-tech vessels cannot compete
with the bigger trawlers, according
to a 2013 report from Greenpeace.
Following the construction of the
two ports, industrial estates will be
built to house petrochemical facto-
ries and other such heavy industries
reliant on energy from newly con-
structed power plants. Local resi-
dents, who have spoken at public
forums, are worried about the poten-
tial impacts on the environment from
all of these mega-projects.
Even though the economic incen-
tives may be tempting enough to lure
some of the better-educated fisher-
men or young factory workers away
from their usual occupations, Sakanan
pointed out that most of the locals,
who are undereducated and lack the
skills to capitalize on these opportuni-
ties, are unlikely to benefit much from
any of the new projects.

70 71
PART II | ENVIRONMENT OCEANS AND SEAS
FURTHER READING
• State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture: Opportunities and Challenges
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Hidden on the High Seas

• Oceans in the Balance, Thailand in Focus
(SFFOQFBDF

• Report on Southern Coastal Land Development, by National Economic and
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contain riches in their cargo holds reporting them to the police or other
that have made the country into a authorities.
captain of the seafood industry but, The report estimated that some
in a grave irony, are staffed by some 300,000 migrants are employed in R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
of the poorest of the poor. the fishing industry. They make up
The vast majority of the fishermen 90 percent of the total. Some 17 Undercurrents of Concern in Local Waters
are migrant laborers from Myanmar percent could be classified as forced
and Cambodia caught in a net of labor. Even though about 50,000 Better coordination Laws and
exploitation. fishing trawlers are registered, there policies on marine and coastal
Recruiting men like these to work are half that many unlicensed vessels resources management and planning
in the fishing industry began in 1989 and those lacking proper registration BSF
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after Typhoon Gay ravaged parts of (commonly known as “ghost boats”) and unsustainable development that
Southeast Asia and India, racking up at sea. For the migrants staffing them, fails to address such major issues as
a body count of some 800 people the main occupational hazards are coastal erosion.
(many of them fishermen) working in 20-hour shifts, beatings, malnutrition The negative publicity from that
the Gulf of Thailand. In the typhoon’s and, in extreme cases, execution-style exposé, and other reports which Out of their depth Limited
wake, Thai brokers began smuggling killings. have leaked out over the years, has research on oceans and seas means
foreign men into the country to take Thanks to their efforts, for which put a dent in bilateral relations with that bureaucrats possess insuffi-
up jobs on fishing trawlers that many they are paid a pittance if any- the US, which downgraded Thailand cient knowledge to draw up and
Thais would no longer do. thing at all, the seafood business is to its lowest ranking on the State implement proper legislation.
A 2 011 r e p o r t f r o m t h e an important economic driver for Department ’s human trafficking
International Organization for Thailand, pulling in some US$7 billion index in 2014. In the middle of 2015, Industrial weakness Despite the
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country to seek work through mid- exporter of fisheries products in 2012 devastating seafood embargo. the permissible limit.
Rayong’s Koh Samet after the oil spill in August 2013.
dlemen. While some of them got with the US, UK and EU as the main The Thai government responded
work in food processing factories markets. with what they called “swift and just Guardians of the seas  
generations lived a nomadic life on of migrant labor instead of better
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sea.

72 73
 BIODIVERSITY
The biggest threat to flora
and fauna is humankind

Wherever you go in Thailand, it is Indochinese region in the north and the Sundaic
“The prospect of virtually impossible to ignore the region to the south. The only problem is that this
country’s incredible biodiversity: biodiversity is under constant threat from deforesta-
biodiversity in Thailand the rich variety of animals, trees tion, urban encroachment, pollution, the poaching of
is very much in crisis. and plants combined with the wild exotic species and climate change.
The present conservation range of ecosystems, landscapes
efforts have not been able and habitats. In some ways, you could argue that the loss of
to hold back the alarming flora and fauna is inevitable given Thailand’s rapid
Scientists estimate that between 5 transformation from a largely agrarian nation to a
rate of biodiversity loss.” to 8 percent of all known animal Newly Industrialized Country. Until the mid-20th
From a report by Thailand’s Office of and plant species on earth are century, the majority of Thai people lived in small
Natural Resources and Environmen- found here. The list includes communities in harmony with nature. The forests Endangered pangolins are hunted for their meat and scales; the latter is used in Chinese medicine.
tal Policy and Planning 10,250 kinds of vascular plants, provided them with a constant source of food, clean
1,010 species of birds and 336 water, firewood and herbal medicine, instilling a
species of mammals, according to the Convention on profound sense of wonder and respect for their and 2014, forest cover shrank from 53 percent of the coverage to 40 percent of the total land area within Tipping point:
Biological Diversity Fifth National Report – Thailand surroundings. Villagers worshipped Mae Phosop, the country to 31.5 percent. The impact of deforestation 10 years. A new Fisheries Act due to come into force The term refers
2014. Amongst these strange and rare creatures, goddess of rice, as well as the spirits who inhabited on wildlife populations has been startling. Elephants, before the end of 2015 promises to reform fisheries to the critical
Thailand boasts the world’s smallest bat and possibly the trees and the mountains. which numbered in the range of 100,000 individuals management and control illegal fishing. juncture at which
the tiniest mammal, known as the Kitti’s hog-nosed at the beginning of the 20th century, have fallen to the collapse
bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai) or bumblebee bat, But reverence for those natural riches has not been around 2,000 in the wild today, while the population Many inside and outside of government know that of biodiversity
could irrevers-
which weighs a mere two grams. enough to prevent the loss of wildlife or the felling of tigers is estimated at less than 250. these measures are essential, but there is often a ibly change life
of forests. Starting in the 1960s, vast tracts of jungle gap between good intentions and implementation. on Earth and
This diversity is due, in part, to the country’s were cleared to make way for commercial crops, Because forests act as carbon sinks, this rapid defor- Will these initiatives be enough to protect Thailand’s threaten the
location at a biogeographic crossroads between the such as rice, cassava and sugar cane. Between 1961 estation has also contributed to Thailand’s rising creatures and ecosystems from the continued survival of many
greenhouse gas emissions. Meanwhile, factories onslaught of commercial development and climate species, including
illegally dump waste into the country’s once pristine change? humans.
rivers whilst mangroves have been cleared to make
way for shrimp farms or luxury hotels, posing threats
to marine diversity. Without more concrete actions,
this cradle of biodiversity could very well reach
a tipping point.

Can Thailand change its mindset to put sustainable

development ahead of short-term profit before it is
too late?

The country’s National Biodiversity Action Plan,

covering the period from 2015–2021, sets lofty goals.
Among the most important are a reduction in the
rate of habitat loss by 50 percent, the improved
protection of threatened species, and a concerted
campaign to better educate the public about the
importance of preserving biodiversity throughout
Clockwise from top left: Forest frog, Kitti’s hog-nosed bat, Indochinese tiger, pitcher plant; and a lotus flower with bees. the nation. There are also plans to increase forest

74 75
PART II | ENVIRONMENT BIODIVERSITY
FURTHER READING
• Convention on Biological Diversity Fifth National Report – Thailand 2014, by
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of plants and animals interact are essential for the world’s weapon in the fight against global warming. R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
future. While industrial-scale development brings short-
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are still used in traditional medicine. Now pharmaceutical
companies are carrying out research to determine if some End of the line Overfishing has UP
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fisheries management and control Energy demand Thailand’s under-
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of energy to offset the declining
ineffective as the previous act. production of oil and gas could put
vital ecosystems at risk.
Fascinating Facts and Stats About Biodiversity Invasive species Thailand is
threatened by so-called “invasive Raising awareness
#FUUFS
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■ The World Wildlife Fund’s Living Planet Index, which tracks more The Malayan sun bear is the smallest bear species.
species” which are not native to a and more public awareness are
than 10,000 representative populations of mammals, birds, reptiles, Habitat loss Thailand has suffered TQFDJmD
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vital if Thailand is to create a greater
amphibians and fish, has revealed a 52 percent decline in world severe habitat loss as a result of the habitat of indigenous species. understanding about the necessity of
animal populations since 1970. The sharpest falls have occurred VSCBO
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amongst populations of freshwater species, which plunged by 76 habitats are widely recognized as MJTUT

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to appreciate the immense value of
percent, followed by terrestrial populations, which fell by 39 percent. one of the primary forces driving the ranging from the Caiman crocodile OBUVSF
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estimates that man has discovered 99.8 percent of all mammal government laws to safeguard the
species on the planet together with 99.9 percent of all bird species. nation’s forests and biodiversity have
By contrast, he postulates that we have identified a mere 20 percent not yet been sufficiently enforced.
of all insects and 31 percent of crustaceans. But how many species
are there on earth? Using new analytical techniques, a ground- Poaching

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breaking study published in the journal, PLOS Biology, puts the animals and plants drive a fast-grow-
total number of species on earth at 8.7 million of which close to 90 ing black market for endangered
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percent have yet to be discovered. Such is the richness of global remains one of the major wildlife
biodiversity. Great hornbill at Khao Yai National Park. USBGmDLJOH
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■ Though Thailand has become more and more industrialized and urbanized, it still boasts an array of
natural attractions and refuges that nurture biodiversity. In total, the country has 127 national parks, Toxic agriculture The widespread
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58 wildlife sanctuaries and 67 non-hunting areas covering 20 percent of the country’s total landmass.
other agricultural chemicals can
■ Hotspots refer to areas of outstanding yet threatened biodiversity. Conservation International has wreak havoc on plant and animal
identified 35 hotspots around the world, which comprise just 2.3 percent of the earth’s land surface, populations. The good news is that
but support more than half of the world’s plant species together with an estimated 43 percent of bird, there are plenty of sustainable alter- “We should judge every scrap of biodiversity as priceless
mammal, reptile and amphibian species. Scientists working with CI argue that by conserving these natives to these chemicals. These can while we learn to use it and come to understand what it
protect crops against known diseases
hotspots, we can protect the earth’s biodiversity with only limited financial resources. Critics of the whilst providing a livelihood for means to humanity.”
plan say it is man attempting to play god. farmers and their communities. Edward O. Wilson, biologist, professor and author

76 77
 URBANIZATION
Because cities consume a large amount of
- .*0- .ƇɄ/# 4Ʉ(0./Ʉ Ʉ()" Ʉ Ů$ )/'4ɄɄɄɄ
A popular Thai saying claims that Bangkok is
Thailand. Indeed, as the hub of the kingdom’s
politics, commerce, media and much more,
the capital is what is known as a “primate city,”
dominating over the rest of the country. With no
other city boasting more than 500,000 residents,
Bangkok accounts for 80 percent of Thailand’s total
urban area, according to the World Bank, and is the
fifth-largest urban area in East Asia. The capital’s
glitz and prosperity may be envied upcountry, but
the drawbacks of this urbanization – the crowds, the
pollution and the traffic – are just as notorious.
As the city expands – it’s now home, temporary
or permanent, to nearly 8.8 million people –
Bangkok has also become the country’s capital of
consumption. A third of the electricity generated in
Thailand goes to feed the power-hungry needs of
urbanites, with shopping malls alone devouring more
electricity than all of Cambodia. Bangkok’s carbon
dioxide emissions per person are more than 10 times
78
those of a northeasterner and the city consumes
more water than the rest of the country combined.
According to the Asian Green City Index of 2011,
Bangkokians use 340 liters of water per person per
day, higher than the 276-liter average of residents
in the 22 other Asian cities surveyed. That means
much of the city’s water has to be pumped in
from upcountry reservoirs, shortchanging farmers
who need it for their crops. Because of a lack of
wastewater treatment plants, the discharge (mostly
untreated) goes straight back into the Chao Phraya
River and various canals.
Air pollution is another perpetual hazard. In a 2013
study, the Pollution Control Department (PCD)
claimed that Bangkok has the third worst air quality
in Thailand, ranking behind the district of Na Pralarn
in Saraburi province, home to the country’s biggest
gypsum factories, and the Map Ta Phut Industrial
Estate on the Eastern Seaboard.
The city’s sanitation capacity has also been pushed
to its maximum capacity. The excess refuse must be
dumped at landfill sites in nearby provinces, such as
Samut Prakan, where locals have protested after big
fires at garbage dumps left an acrid, eye-watering
stench in the air for weeks.
All these symptoms are suggestive of poor urban
planning. Instead of expanding northwards, as city
planners have recommended, Bangkok’s mid-section
continues to widen, spilling over into its eastern
fringes as urbanites follow the expansion of the
Skytrain. Condos, housing estates and shopping
complexes spring up in their wake. This blueprint
of urban development is being replicated across
the country. Urban encroachment in floodplains
and agricultural areas in Nakhon Ratchasima, for
example, was blamed for exacerbating the epic floods
of 2011. Up in Chiang Mai, still without a popular
public transport system, traffic jams are a growing
problem and air pollution is rising to the forefront of
ecological issues.
Silom Road in Bangkok, one of the city’s busiest commercial thoroughfares.
All these cities have essentially emulated
the ribbon development style. This model,
pioneered in the UK in the 1920s and ’30s, spawned
both urban sprawl and suburbs as people acquired
cars that enabled them to live farther away from the
town center. As a result, land prices in the middle of
the city shoot up beyond the means of the majority,
so the middle classes and the poor have to move
out to the city’s outer limits and suffer through long
commutes in heavy traffic. This is also why Bangkok
has such a an excess of motorcycles and cars. Of
the 34.5 million private automobiles registered in
Thailand almost a quarter of them are in Bangkok. But
the city has far too little road area – only 10 percent
compared to 23 percent in Tokyo or 38 percent in
New York City – to handle the number of vehicles.
That said, there are some bright spots on the
horizon. In 1999, the Skytrain, or BTS system, got
online after more than 20 years of plans derailed by
successive governments and corruption. The BTS was
followed by the MRT, or subway, five years later. Both
of those mass-transit systems are being expanded
now to cover the city’s outer reaches.
The subway and Skytrain may allow commuters
the chance to rise above or duck under the city’s
gridlock for short intervals, but it’s impossible to
ignore Bangkok’s other gritty realities and pressing
problems for too long. Sidewalks are narrow
gauntlets hemmed in by vendors and green spaces
are lacking.
As long as the capital remains the biggest city of
opportunity, political power is centralized and
material benefits and decent jobs are kept within city
limits, it is likely that this slapdash style of urban-
ization will prevail. Vested interests and political
interference will continue to upend plans, suspend
projects and, worst of all, prevent other municipalities Ribbon
from following a better model of more sustainable development:
urban growth. This term, which
came into vogue
Given all these challenges, what’s the best solution? in the 1920s,
describes the
According to Associate Professor Ariya Arunin, pattern of devel-
who works in the Department of Architecture at oping houses,
Chulalongkorn University, one possibility is to buildings and
upgrade the Division of Town and Country Planning, infrastructure
currently under the Department of Public Works projects along
and Town and Country Planning, into a full-fledged transportation
routes. It is most
national think tank devoted to devising policies, often cited as
programs and laying down plans for the whole the cause of un-
country, dispelling the notion once and for all that regulated urban
Bangkok is Thailand. sprawl.
79
PART II | ENVIRONMENT

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In looking for the underlying causes
to the unique issues facing Bangkok,
such as too few parks and too many
cars, policymakers and activists have
typically fingered the same culprit:
town planning or a lack thereof.
Basically a blueprint for how a city
should be developed, these master
plans are drafted in bigger Western
countries or Asian nations like Japan
and China years before projects are
constructed. But in Thailand the town
plan is not completed until after the
projects are up and running, if there
is any such plan at all.
That makes it easy for corrupt
businessmen and politicians to get
in on the ground floor of such devel-
opments, said Srisuwan Janya, who
works as a pro-bono lawyer for com-
munities affected by environmental
woes. In 2014, he helped residents in
Soi Ruamrudee in Bangkok to win a
case against a high-rise building (pic-
tured), because the developers had
not constructed the building accord-
ing to the town plan.
This is commonplace, he said.
“Development policies in Thailand



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The Bang Bua Canal in Bangkok.
80
URBANIZATION
FURTHER READING
• Urbanization in Thailand,
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of Arts and Humanities
• Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream,
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are carried out in
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
piecemeal efforts.
Many development
plans are there not The Road to a Cleaner, Happier Bangkok
because they should
be, but because land-
owners and inves-
tors want them to be
there. Roads are built
to follow in the path
of real estate spec-
ulators and those
influential people
who will get bene-
fits from the con-
struction. Then we
have many build-
ings and infrastruc-
ture projects built in
the wrong environ-
ment which leads
to various problems A resilient Bangkokian makes a phone call on Ram Intra Road.
such as traffic con-
gestion and floods.” mercial properties, and zoning laws
A lack of planning and overdevel- are often ignored.
opment are the causes of many envi- It’s not that the authorities have
ronmental woes in Bangkok, where never paid any attention to urban
roads block drains, swamps and planning (as far back as 1935 the
canals have been filled in for com- government first attempted to draft Capping car emissions

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amendments to the plans that allow
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attempts to draw them up rarely go UBYFT
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during their implementation period.
according to the plan. In fact, the first for a higher level of emissions could Cutting energy consumption
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up until 1960 by an American firm. energy conservation through using“Improving the quality of
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data to understand trends
today expire after five years. If a new to keep factories and other commer- while discouraging people from using
plan has not been put in place then cial developments from encroaching too much air-conditioning.
in urban expansion is
developers can apply to construct on communities need to be enforced. important, so that policy
new projects with little in the way of Green lungs

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makers can make better-
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trees and create new green spaces support sustainable
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and housing.”
Planning, in an article. The rest of for more strategic long-term planning Marisela Montoliu Munoz, director
the kingdom’s 77 provinces have no Treating wastewater 5IF
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Urban, Rural and Resilience Global
in drawing any up in the near future. to build more wastewater treatment to prevent any further revision or Practice
81
 POLLUTION AND WASTE
Few issues have such direct bearing
on human health as these two

At the heart of all definitions of sustainable
development is the idea of leaving the world a better
place for future generations. Few issues generate
alarm and galvanize people into action more than
man-made disasters because they suggest our legacy
may be the opposite. Incidents such as Three Mile
Island in the United States in 1979 or Chernobyl
in the former Soviet Union in 1986 revealed the
possible prospect of leaving our children with a
negative burden. Oil spills, poisoned rivers and toxic
leaks leave in their wake indelible images of human
tragedy and tarnished ecosystems.
In Thailand, air, water and noise pollution as
well as the disposal of waste have been major
concerns for decades. A growing population means
higher consumption and increased waste for the
government to manage. In
addition, the economy’s
increasing reliance on
manufacturing and industry
means more people are
living in proximity to
factories and dump sites.
Illnesses and disabilities
suffered by ethnic Karen
living by the lead-
contaminated Klity Creek
in Kanchanaburi province,
exposed since the late
1990s, put a spotlight on the
devastating consequences
of pollution and led to a
landmark ruling in 2013
instructing the authorities
Few issues generate alarm to act.
and galvanize people into
action more than man-made In the northern provinces
the burning issue is the
disasters because they
smoky haze that descends
suggest we will leave a during the hot season every
negative burden on future year, which blurs vision,
generations. clogs up lungs and causes
fits of coughing that leads, in extreme cases, to
terminal diseases like lung cancer. In 2013, one study
found that the level of dust in the air was above the
safety limit of 120 micrograms per cubic meter for 45
days that year.
Too often the farmers burning rice straw and husks
become the scapegoats, when in fact forest fires
sparked by the hot-and-dry season are partly to
blame, as are the shifting weather patterns that make
the air stagnant at that time of year, and the big
agricultural conglomerates planting monoculture
farms of maize and other products. By the Asia
Foundation’s 2014 estimate, in the district of Mae
Chaem in Chiang Mai province alone, some 37,000
tons of corncob waste are burned each annum.
Down south, it’s a different strain of air pollution that
has locals in a chokehold. The smoke blowing over
from Indonesia, especially northern Sumatra, comes
from the clearing of forests for oil palm plantations
and the pulp paper industry. These black clouds have
cast a pall over diplomatic relations between half
a dozen different ASEAN members, showing how
pollution and waste issues, like climate change, know
no borders and can become serious regional issues.
A 2014 report released by the World Health
Organization (WHO) revealed that air pollution
could be linked to some seven million deaths around
the world in 2012 as an indirect cause of strokes,
heart attacks and cancer. That total, representing one
of eight deaths worldwide, was much higher than
expected. Of the victims, some six million of them
resided in the poorer and middle-income countries
of South and Southeast Asia, as well as the Western
Pacific regions. Many of the deaths were related to
indoor air pollution such as soot and smoke from
coal or wood-coal stoves.
But there are other factors to consider. Dr Carlos
Dora, WHO Coordinator for Public Health,
Environmental and Social Determinants of
Health, said of the report’s findings, “Excessive air
Thick smoke billows from a fire blazing through a rubbish dump on Phraeksa Road in Samut Prakan province.
pollution is often a by-product of unsustainable
policies in sectors such as transport, energy, waste
management and industry. In most cases, healthier
strategies will also be more economical in the long
term due to healthcare cost savings as well as climate
gains.”
To its credit, the Thai government has notched up
some notable successes in putting such policies into
action to cut such dangerous emissions. In 2005, the
Pollution Control Department (PCD) recommended
to the Ministry of Transport that they drastically
lower the permitted emission rates for two-stroke
motorcycles in order to eliminate them from the
streets. The plan worked. Since it would be too costly
for the motorcycle manufacturers to rebuild their
machines to comply with the new standards, they
stopped making them. To fill the market gap, the
manufacturers then made four-stroke motorcycles
more affordable.
At the beginning of 2012 another PCD recommen-
dation came into law, as Thailand adopted EU 4
standards for fuel quality that cut levels of sulfur
dioxide and vehicle emissions. Just as the new law
allowed commuters to breathe a little easier, the
government rolled out a huge rebate program for
first-time car buyers in 2012 that flooded the streets
with over one million new vehicles, basically coun-
teracting the previous effort. This type of inconsis-
tency in policy is common around the world.
In terms of water, the quality in many of Thailand’s
main rivers and canals has dipped, with con-
tamination caused by the discharge of untreated
wastewater. One of the key challenges is that the
kingdom has only 100-odd wastewater treatment
plants to accommodate more than 8,000 munic-
ipalities. The former director of the PCD, Supat
Wongwangwattana, whose recommendations to
other ministries paved the way for new laws cutting
down on motor vehicle emissions, said that money
for these wastewater treatment plants must come
from government coffers. But maintaining them
should be the responsibility of the municipalities
who must collect fees paid by local communities
or businesses, under the polluter pays principle of
international environmental law.
Polluter pays
This approach, he said, of providing economic principle:
incentives or disincentives, as the case may be, is the One of the most
only way to get the public interested in recycling and basic and glob-
reducing their own household wastes. Appealing ally accepted
to the bottom line is a stratagem that can also pay tenets of environ-
mentalism is that
dividends when dealing with companies and plants whomever causes
that illegally dump their hazardous waste products. the mess should
However, until these types of programs and policies pay to have it
are implemented, waste will continue to pile up. cleaned up.

82 83
 PART II | ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION & WASTE

FURTHER READING
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The discovery of natural gas in the ers in 2009, after years of protests saying that all their efforts to manage
Gulf of Thailand in the early 1970s achieved nothing, confirmed some and treat the waste products were
fueled the plan to build a massive of their worst suspicions. In a move carried out in accordance with the
R EA SONS industrial complex and port on the that startled the business sector law. Government officials sent out to
Why Reducing Pollution and Waste Must Be a Priority Eastern Seaboard, though it did not and galvanized the country’s eco- investigate the claims of malfeasance
get off the drawing board until the advocates, the Supreme Cour t sided with the business owners.
Future burdens

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fifth National Economic and Social upheld the suspension of 65 of 76 In the long term, the fallout from
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Development Plan (1982–1986). projects under scrutiny
potential victims in the long run and also take their toll Map Ta Phut opened in 1990. due to inadequate Health
on future generations through the damage done to the Quality of life 'FX
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life downstream. factory equipment and massive environmental consultant,
create political tensions. cargoes to hone the country’s com- said of Thailand, “In rural
Cutting-edge technology The very nature of sus- petitive edge, to bulk out production areas, there is almost no
Global warming "GUFS
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tainable development depends on controlling pollution capacities, and to facilitate exports. enforcement at all. Water

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extremely successful in monetary pollution – you can make all
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In the long term, the fallout lived. Within a year the court
surprise that the quality of the air we breathe has a direct purpose for all products. from these scandals may ruled that 74 of the 76 proj-
have more beneficial ects could proceed. Three
years later, a fire broke out
outcomes, as locals have at one of the petrochemical
awakened to the dangers plants, killing 12 and injuring
posed by these estates and 129. The factory was closed
“In rural areas, are now banding together down and residents of many The Map Tha Phut Industrial Estate in Rayong.
there is almost no to make their voices heard, nearby communities evacu-
enforcement at all. ated. But business at the other facto- these scandals may have more bene-
just as the companies are ries carried on as usual. ficial outcomes, as locals have awak-
Water pollution, realizing the significance These kinds of calamities are ened to the dangers posed by these
air pollution, noise of their corporate social not unique to Map Ta Phut and estates and are now banding together
pollution – you responsibility to local occur around the world. But they to make their voices heard, just as
can make all the communities. have led industrial parks all over the companies are realizing the sig-
complaints you the country to come under criti- nificance of their corporate social
cism and scrutiny. In 2013, a gov- responsibility to local communities.
want, and no one sands of jobs. Locals and NGOs, ernment study undertaken in the Ta In what is perhaps a positive sign
pays any attention however, have raised concerns Thoom community of Prachinburi of the changing times and recogni-
to you.” about pollution, claiming that some province revealed high levels of tion of the need for action, the PTT
Anthony Zola, environ- 2,000 people died of cancer and mercury – a dangerous heavy metal – Group, SCG, Dow Thailand and the
mental consultant other diseases in the decade after in villagers’ hair and the fish in the Glow Group formed the Community
Map Ta Phut opened. The corpo- river that runs through the 304 Partnership in 2014 with the goal of
rations contested those claims. But Industrial Park. The park’s spokes- turning Map Ta Phut into a greener,
Students march to raise awareness about global warming and waste at a festival in Loei province in northern Thailand. a lawsuit, launched by 27 villag- person denied any wrongdoing, eco-industrial town by 2018.

84 85
PART II | ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION & WASTE

R EA LIT Y CH ECKS

The Secret Costs and Visible Impacts

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86 87
 DISASTERS
'**.ƇɄ-*0"#/.Ʉ)Ʉ/# Ʉ!0/0- Ʉ*!Ʉ'$(/ Ʉ#)" Ʉ
A report by the United Nations Office for Disaster
Risk Reduction (UNISDR) that was released for
the Rio+20 conference to mark 20 years since the
UN-organized Rio Earth Summit in 1992 included
Thailand twice in its survey of the countries most
devastated by natural catastrophes over those two
decades. In terms of the number of people affected,
Thailand placed fifth with 72 million, and in the
category of economic damage the kingdom came
fourth, losing US$45 billion.
The tsunami of 2004 figured heavily in those tallies.
On December 26, at the peak of tourism’s high
season, shockwaves reverberated across Southeast
and South Asia as the third largest earthquake ever
recorded on a seismograph struck. The epicenter off
the coast of northern Sumatra triggered 10-meter-
high waves that inundated coastal communities in
Buffaloes roam near the Pasak Jolasid Dam in Lopburi province.
‘’The worst-case scenario might be more like a
slow demise, the cumulative effect from Thailand’s
failure to cope with natural disasters and the risks
posed by climate change. The country will then be
poor again, a place which tourists do not care to
visit and investors do not want to do business.”
Dr Seree Supratid, director of the Climate Change
and Disaster Center at Rangsit University
88
a dozen-odd countries with Indonesia, India and Sri
Lanka bearing the brunt of the estimated quarter
million casualties.
Thailand, where some 6,000 people died, was
comparatively lucky, considering there was no
early warning system in place and many hotels
and other properties had been built close to the
shore. But a quick and decisive response from the
Thai government and International Disaster Victim
Identification Units ensured that there were no
outbreaks of epidemics and, although the country’s
health care system was stretched to the limit, it did
not break.
Even those jolts, terrible as they were, did not
prepare the country for the floods of 2011, as
the surging waters inundated some 65 out of 77
provinces. The floodwaters did not recede until early
2012. All in all, the floods claimed more than 800
lives, affected some 13.6 million people and cost
the country some 1.4 trillion baht (or about US$42.5
billion), according to the World Bank. Besides the
torrential rainfall – some 20 percent higher than
usual – the blame for the extensive damage from
the floods also came down to such causes as
unregulated urban sprawl and overdependence on
flood-control infrastructure. Seen by many as typical
of the preferential treatment given to Bangkok and
its denizens, the government’s decision to protect
the inner city of the capital heightened social
tensions, offering a glimpse of how natural disasters
can also have serious spillover effects.
Though the two disasters made the most headlines
and news network clips, smaller-scale calamities
have impacted the country’s rural regions on a
regular basis. Between 1989 and 2012, there were
227 floods in Thailand. These hundreds of floods
claimed more than 4,000 lives and destroyed
more than a million homes, according to the 2012
Statistics on Disaster by the Department of Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) under the
Ministry of Interior. Droughts have also plagued
Ruins of hotels in Khao Lak in Phang-nga province in southern Thailand, which was hard hit by the 2004 tsunami.
the country’s agrarian heartland, and the arid
northeast, costing the country some 15 billion baht
and affecting some 25 million acres of farmland.
Coming in third on the list were tropical storms,
causing some 926 deaths and destroying more than
a million homes.
Bangkok, one of the world’s most low-lying cities, is
also vulnerable. For one thing, it sits in the midst of
a gigantic flood plain and river delta. For another, it
sinks between 20 and 28 millimeters per year, a rate
that has doubled in the last decade, according to an
estimate by a Chulalongkorn University professor.
Surface erosion and excessive groundwater
pumping, mostly by industries, housing estates and
small businesses, are the main culprits. With ground
water access entirely unregulated by the government
and urban sprawl only growing, Bangkok looks set
to sink further in the next decades, with its longest
street of Sukhumvit Road potentially under threat of
crumbling to erosion.
In the 2013 Climate Change Vulnerability Index
prepared by Maplecroft – a risk analysis firm for inter-
national corporations and many UN organizations –
Bangkok placed third after Dhaka and Manila in a
survey of major cities sure to be affected by climate
change. Thailand ranked 45th most at risk out of all
the countries in the world.
To counter these disasters what Thailand needs are Disaster risk
sustainable solutions on multiple scales, with better reduction:
and more integrated water resource management, An intrinsic part
regional land zoning and public participation at a of sustainable
community level to address disaster risk reduction. development,
This is not what has been happening. Successive disaster risk
governments have not changed their flood-preven- reduction cuts
a wide swathe
tion strategies, which remain heavy on structural across politics,
measures. the environment
and socioeco-
Danny Marks, a PhD student at the University of nomics, both in
Sydney doing fieldwork in Thailand for a disser- the public and
tation on the floods, blamed some of the latter private sectors,
by addressing not
disasters on the inequalities in Thai society. only a commu-
Summing up an article he wrote for Pacific Affairs nity’s level of
magazine in 2015 called “The Urban Political readiness to face
Ecology of the 2011 Floods in Bangkok: The such hazards and
Creation of Uneven Vulnerabilities,” he said: “Those limit their impact,
in power will continue to be able to have the but assessing
their vulnerabili-
greatest access to both natural and man-made ty to them in the
resources and to decide how to use them. So first place.
they’ll continue to use land in ways that are most
profitable, yet degrade the environment and
apportion flood protection infrastructure to areas
where they live or invest in. Simultaneously, the
poor will continue to suffer the most: they will
continue to live in areas of high vulnerability
without receiving additional assistance or will be
forced to relocate due to new projects.”
89
 DISASTERS

The Ayudhya Historical Park was badly flooded in 2011.

R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
Recommendations for Reducing
the Risk of Disaster
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elsewhere.

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“Climate change is a gross injustice – poor
people in developing countries bear over
90 percent of the burden – through death,
disease, destitution and financial loss –
yet are least responsible for creating the
problem. Despite this, funding from rich
countries to help the poor and vulnerable
adapt to climate change is not even one
percent of what is needed.”
more early warning systems such odds with state policies to construct inspections in earthquake-prone
as the one set up in the wake of the massive dams and other overarching areas would point out the fault-lines

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in designs to save future lives and
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plans to cope with droughts must implement better land use planning
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mangrove forests which serve as
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BARBARA STOCKING, Banding together
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CEO of Oxfam Great Britain, Global Humanitarian Forum on May 29, 2009. pation is vital at local levels as small

91
PART II | ENVIRONMENT



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Are Bigger Catastrophes on the Horizon?





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other environmental factors, although
the delivery on promises since then
has been inconsistent at best.
The bad news is that natural and
environmental catastrophes like the
floods are likely to occur with increas-
ing frequency and much greater
intensity in the face of continued
human interference in the planet’s
climate, while the poorest and most
marginalized communities are likely
to be the worst affected because of
limited access to land, funds, food and
education.
A re p or t f rom the Inte r-
governmental Panel on Climate
Change released in 2014 warns that
if the current usage of fossils fuels
Cars under water in Bangkok. Record floods wrought havoc across the country in 2011.
continues to accelerate, the average
temperature of the earth’s surface will
rise by 1.4C–2.6 degrees Celsius by the
middle of the 21st century. That could
mean serious flooding in low-lying
cities like Bangkok.
Scientists predict the result will
be more extreme weather con-
92
ditions with prolonged droughts,
violent storms and rising sea levels
damaging Thailand’s agricultural and
tourism sectors. In the kingdom, as
everywhere, plants and animals that
are unable to adapt to warmer cli-
mates may be threatened with extinc-
tion. Warming temperatures may
“adversely affect rice and other crops,”
the report says. Meanwhile, climate
change could accelerate the spread
of infectious diseases like malaria or
dengue fever as parasites and bacteria
find a more favorable environment in
which to replicate.
The terrifying threat of climate
change was made clear by World
M e t e o rolo g ic a l O r g a ni z at ion
Secretary-General Michel Jarraud in
September 2014, after concentrations
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
reached a record high of 142 percent
more than the pre-industrial era. In
an impassioned plea to the interna-
tional community, he warned that
we must take concerted action now
or face potentially devastating con-
sequences. “We know without any
doubt that our climate is changing
and our weather is becoming more
extreme due to human activities such
as the burning of fossil fuels,” he said.
“We are running out of time.”
To reduce the impact of climate
change in Thailand, policymakers
need to urgently curb greenhouse
gas emissions that reached a stagger-
ing 278 million tons in 2010, accord-
ing to an article called “World Carbon
Emissions: The League Table of Every
Country,” published in The Guardian.
The most practical way to lower emis-
sions of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases is to support the production of
renewable energy sources, promote
energy conservation through the
reduction of power usage and lay the
foundations for a more environmen-
tally friendly society.
But actions speak louder than
words. And so far there is little evi-
dence that the authorities in Thailand
are prepared to take the bold steps
necessary to reduce the country’s
dependence on fossil fuels or put the
issue of climate change higher up on
the list of priorities. The sooner politi-
cians start taking climate change seri-
ously, the better for everyone. Unless
they do, future generations may have
a heavy price to pay.
DISASTERS
FURTHER READING
• Thailand Disaster Management Handbook, CZ
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When Mother Nature Rattled Thailand
THE FLOODS OF 2011 From the middle of 2011 until early
2012 some 65 out of 77 provinces in Thailand were affected
by rising waters that ruined crops, destroyed businesses,
flooded homes and claimed more than 800 lives. All in all,
some 13 million people had their lives and careers disrupted
by the floods, which cost the country some 1.4 trillion baht,
according to the World Bank, which ranked it as the world’s
fourth-costliest disaster ever.
2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI The third-most powerful
earthquake ever measured on a seismograph struck on
An anguished woman after the 2004 tsunami.
the morning of December 26, 2004, sending shock waves
hurtling across the Andaman Sea and Indian Ocean from the epicenter off the north coast of Sumatra.
Altogether the tsunami claimed around 250,000 lives (including some 6,000 in Thailand) in a dozen
different countries.
TYPHOON GAY The first typhoon to make landfall in Thailand since 1891, this cyclonic storm whipped
up winds of 185 kilometers per hour by the time it struck Chumphon province in 1989, killing some 450
people and causing some 11 billion baht in damages. Most of the victims
were on boats in the Gulf of Thailand.
THE 1988 LANDSLIDES Landslides are hardly unique to Thailand.
Neither is their primary cause: rainwater cascading in sheets down
mountainsides. But the problem has been exacerbated by illegal logging.
That was what made the events of November 22, 1988 so tragic, when
walls of water washed down the barren hills in a village in Nakhon Si
Thammarat province, killing 230 people and destroying around 1,500
homes. In the aftermath of mourning, the government banned logging.
TROPICAL STORM HARRIET Harriet is still known as the worst
tropical storm to ever lash the country. Forming in the Philippines in
1962, it gathered momentum over the South China Sea. By day six the
gusts had turned into a full-blown tropical storm that devastated Nakhon
Si Thammarat province, where 911 people died and 16,700 lost their
homes. The silver lining in this black thunderhead was that the disaster
prompted King Bhumibol to create the Rajaprajanugroh Foundation, an
emergency organization charged with mobilizing and coordinating aid. Damage caused by Typhoon Gay.
93
THE THAI
ECONOMY
Agriculture
Manufacturing
State-owned Enterprises
SMEs
Tourism
Thailand’s economy may be at a
Finance turning point. A “business as usual”
approach is likely not the best strat-
Trade
egy moving forward. Farmers and
many others are saddled with one
Transportation
of the highest rates of debt in the
Labor region. The kingdom’s manufacturing
sector, which transformed the
Competitiveness country from a developing nation to
an upper-middle-income one, faces
Corruption difficult challenges. With a lack of
skilled workers necessary for more
high-tech industries and the emer-
gence of cheaper labor in neighbor-
ing countries, Thai manufacturers
are at risk of losing their competitive
niche. The country’s many state-
owned enterprises are enormous
contributors to the GDP but not as
efficient as they might be, and its
SMEs are always clamoring for more
government support.
Across the board, labor is in need
of an upgrade: improved training in
vocational occupations, English and
so-called 21st-century skills, such as
technology literacy, are necessary for
Thailand to maximize the great poten-
tial of its people. Although the king-
dom has the second lowest unemploy-
ment rate in ASEAN, this is largely due
to the staggering number of workers in
the “informal sector.”
Tourism, one of the Thai economy’s
mainstays, has proven remarkably
resilient. But as the country nears the
30-million mark in arrivals, its attrac-
tions – the coral reefs, mountains,
forests and traditional culture – that
inspired this boom must be protected
from tourism’s footprint.
In Thailand’s financial sector,
bankers and economists learned a
great deal from the 1997 financial crisis.
“We have used GDP to determine
wrongfully what is in fact the state
of well-being of a country … GDP is
necessary but inadequate, and we
need to develop additional indices that
would tell a more comprehensive, a
more holistic story about how human
society is progressing.”
Jigmi Thinley, former prime minister of Bhutan, who
pioneered the idea of “Gross Domestic Happiness”
Since then they have implemented
a system of checks and balances that
has created strong fundamentals and
more immunity to risk. This is part
of the reason why Thailand remains
an attractive place for foreign inves-
tors, even as corruption and the lack
of political stability conspire against
investment.
Overall, sustainable development
opportunities abound in Thailand and
the values that drive them could provide
a rich way forward for the country. The
resourceful and entrepreneurial spirit
of the kingdom’s population as well as its
modern infrastructure, business-
friendly environment, and geographic
position at the crossroads of trade
routes, make it an excellent launch
pad for sustainable development
initiatives, and for commerce and
innovation in general.
 AGRICULTURE
The changing face of farming

Contract Thailand’s importance regionally and globally as an Bangkok still have livelihoods, incomes and ideas
farming: agricultural producer is significant. At the heart of shaped by what happens on the farm. And some of
A type of agricul- that story is rice. One of the world’s top producers the trends are alarming.
tural production and a leading exporter, the kingdom has long held
in which the the role as the rice basket of Southeast Asia. In All over Thailand, and other parts of the world, the
buyer and farmer 2011, for example, it sold an estimated US$6.43 challenges are similar. The first chapter of the con-
reach an agree-
ment stipulating billion worth of rice. Other important crops for the temporary tale was authored during the so-called
the price and/ economy include natural rubber, sugar cane, cassava “Green Revolution” of the 1960s and 1970s. Through
or quality and and tropical fruits. the use of herbicides and pesticides, combined with
timeframe for a more mechanization and better land management,
specific amount Concerns abound, however, about the plight of the scientists figured out how to increase crop yields. Toiling in the fields in the northern province of Phitsanulok.
of an agricultural Thai farmer. Burdened with mounting debt and This farming revolution reaped plenty of rewards:
product to be de-
livered. Normally losing ground to faceless conglomerates, will the many of the world’s hungry were fed; many of the at the Thailand Development Research Institute who Such lofty ambitions may run counter to some
the buyer is an so-called “backbone” of the country benefit from world’s destitute found employment. However, there has also served as a consultant to the government on ground-level realities. Nipon argues that farmers
agribusiness that Thailand’s status as a Newly Industrialized Country? have also been damaging side effects. The reliance rice and other commodities, said, “The future of Thai must take a more Darwinian approach to farming
provides such It is a question with not only economic implica- on chemicals has been linked to health afflictions agriculture is in big family farms, not government to adapt to both market and weather conditions in
things as seeds, tions – the agriculture sector contributes between and ecological degradation. Many chemicals like policies. If the government gets their way they will an age of turmoil and uncertainty. “Flexibility is the
fertilizers and 11 to 13 percent of GDP – but also political, social, DDT, banned in Western countries, are still widely kill agriculture.” Yet those family farms are threatened key to sustainability,” said Nipon. As an example,
technical know-
how on credit to environmental and cultural ones. While the number used here. In 2005, Thailand imported 78,000 tons by the disinterest of the younger generation and the Thailand was once the biggest cassava supplier to
is down markedly from 76 percent of the workforce of farming chemicals. By 2011 that total had shot rise of agribusinesses, which are vertically integrated the EU, but when that tax loophole closed, Thai Bio-economy:
the small-scale
farmer. in 1966 to 38 percent today, millions of Thais outside up to 160,000 tons. Lacking the proper schooling and able to control the entire supply chain, providing farmers turned to China where they have come The bio-economy
on application, Thai farmers have often over-used farmers with seeds, chemicals, livestock and feed. to dominate the market. Subscribing to that logic, encompasses
These conglomerates also practice contract farming if the price of rice is low, then farmers must turn the production
pesticides and over-fertilized their crops. of renewable bio-
with farmers, who are often landless (only 29 percent to other crops, just as many rubber plantation logical resources
Moreover, the chemicals are not cheap. In particular, own land titles). By renting land to them, companies owners are now switching to oil palms. Another and their conver-
the rising price of fertilizers has driven Thai farmers cut their costs. They have what amounts to free potential solution is innovation. Some experts sion into food,
deeper into debt. According to government statistics laborers to work the land, and it is the farmers who believe Thailand can follow in the footsteps of feed, bio-based
for 2011, the average debt carried by farmers was become the most vulnerable to risk. European farmers and become a regional leader in products and
the emerging “bio-economy,” which is seeing rising bioenergy via
104,000 baht, equal to about five years of their innovative and
income. According to a survey by the Centre for Is there a sustainable solution on the horizon demand for products such as biomass – organic efficient technolo-
International Trade Study of the University of Thai of the farm? It’s not so clear. In the mid-1980s, a matter that can be used as an alternative energy gies. It is already
Chamber of Commerce, Thai farmers are the poorest loose amalgamation of NGOs joined to form the source. How well the farmer fares is certain to have a reality and one
in all of ASEAN, with the least profits from sales Alternative Agriculture Network, bringing together repercussions all the way from the farm to Bangkok. that offers great
largely due to higher production costs. And clawing small-scale and organic farmers with cooperatives opportunities
and like-minded groups. At their first forum in 1992 and solutions to a
their way out of this debt is difficult. Lacking organi- growing number
zational clout, farmers have almost no negotiating they defined “sustainable agriculture” as a more of major societal,
power over the trade of their own goods. Terms are holistic approach toward “agricultural production “Someday we shall look back on this environmental
instead dictated by the international market price, and farmer livelihood that contributes to the reha- dark era of agriculture and shake our and economic
controlling middlemen and conglomerates. bilitation and maintenance of ecological balance heads. How could we have ever believed challenges,
and the environment, with just economic returns, including climate
that it was a good idea to grow our food change mitiga-
Government attempts to shore up the sector have promoting a better quality of life for farmers and tion, energy and
occasionally resulted in blunders with some experts consumers and fostering the development of local with poisons?”
food security,
arguing that less government intervention, not more, institutions for the benefit and the survival of all Jane Goodall, Harvest for Hope: A Guide to Mindful and resource
is the solution. Nipon Poapongsakorn, a senior fellow human kind.” Eating efficiency.

96 97
PART II | ECONOMY AGRICULTURE

TIME LI NE
R EA SONS

Why Agriculture Matters to Sustainable Development Growing the Seeds of

an Agrarian Revolution
Cash harvest

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King Rama V organizes “New Theory,” an mobilizing poor farm-
considered hand in hand with environmental threats.
first trade exhibition to integrated approach to ers from the northeast
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in Europe and the US. most farmers in this
agriculture. communities upcountry. region are still small
1969 1991 landholders with poor
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The Royal Project, Thailand takes over

1962–1968 designed to replace from Malaysia as the

world’s largest rubber
1917
opium with other

2007
As the so-called crops suitable for the producer and export-
“Green Revolution” mountainous climate er. The year-round
Phraya Phojakara of northern Thailand, rainfall down south is
sweeps the world, Originally founded in
returns from Cornell bears fruit in the ideal for rubber trees.
increasing crop 1995, the Organic Ag-
University with a PhD form of strawberries, Almost 90 percent of
yields through the riculture Certification
to become the chief peaches, apples, tea, the country’s rubber is
use of pesticides and Thailand (ACT) is the
breeder at the Rangsit coffee, lettuce, cab- exported.
herbicides, more first and the only such
Rice Experiment bage and flowers. This
mechanization, better body in the kingdom
Station, charged with acclaimed program
management and that offers certification
carrying out the first has been emulated in
superior irrigation recognized the world
agricultural research in parts of South America
1980s
techniques, Thailand over. In 2007 ACT
the country. and more recently in
develops a new hybrid branches out to form
of rice that becomes a Afghanistan.
The agrarian sector a regional body to
global success. certify organic farmers
is transformed by
1975 land shortages, urban
migration, the loss
in Southeast Asia and
transfer knowledge.

1933 1961
In the mid-1970s, of competitiveness
growing cassava for in the global market,
animal feed helps and unsuccessful
Thanks in part to Phra-
ya’s groundbreaking
King Bhumibol names
the first Thai-style
shore up the struggling
economy of Thailand’s
government schemes,
like importing cows
2013–2014
work, Thailand takes tractor, designed by northeast where half from Australia which The government’s
the top honors and 10 Debriddhi Devakul, of the country’s farm- became known as rice-pledging scheme,
“The future of Thai agriculture other awards at the the “iron buffalo” ers eke out a living “plastic cows” because which offered farmers
World Grain Exhibition after it underwent
is in big family farms, not conference held in extensive testing on
from soil that is either they failed to breed fixed prices for dif-
too sandy or salty to under tropical ferent kinds of paddy,
government policies. If the Canada. the experimental farm be really profitable. conditions. crashes amid political
government gets their way at Chitralada Palace Cassava, known as turbulence and finan-
to seek sustainable
they will kill agriculture.” solutions for farming
the “poor man’s crop,” cial unsustainability.
requires little water This leads to rice rot-
Nipon Poapongsakorn, a senior fellow dilemmas. and few fertilizers. ting in warehouses and
at the Thailand Development Research many farmers going
Institute into further debt.

98 99
PART II | ECONOMY AGRICULTURE
FURTHER READING
• Thai Agriculture, Golden Cradle of Millennia CZ
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vendors on the streets of Bangkok tious supplements like growth hor-
and Chiang Mai make for fantas- mones or antibiotics are needed.
But now, insects, long an alternative methane gases from either end like
source of protein in rural parts of Asia, cows do.
have finally shed some of their stigma For farmers in the northeast used
as a repugnant snack among Western to reaping only one rice harvest per
consumers. year, crickets can be harvested every
Indeed, research has shown that two months. They are also more resis-
caterpillars have more protein than tant to periods of drought (a common
red meats or chicken and they come occurrence in the northeast) and with
with much less saturated fat. They are around 200 different species for sale
also packed with vitamins and miner- in Thailand offer plenty of diversity.
als. “Eating a few insects is like taking Besides crickets and palm weevils,
a multivitamin,” Patrick B. Durst, a which are farmed, other common
industry, told The New York Daily ants, giant water bugs, silkworm
Vendor sells fried insects at a market in Phuket.
ronment too. The water and food farms operating in Thailand, accord-
of a delicacy, with energy bars that
consist of ground-up crickets turning
per year, making it the world leader. up on the shelves of health stores in
causes of deforestation. To produce In 2013 the UN agency released a the US, and the first American cricket
book called Six-legged Livestock: farm beginning operations in 2014.
feed, 2,900 gallons of water and a Edible Insect Farming that chronicles Concluding their repor t on
lot of room for bovines to roam. To Thailand’s success story in opening a Thailand, the authors wrote: “The col-
produce a pound of crickets, con- new chapter in health food, as what lection of edible insects in Thailand is
versely, takes a mere two pounds was once unpalatable to Western an historic practice, but their farming
of feed, one gallon of water and a palates has turned into something is relatively new. Incomplete informa-
tion nationwide indicates a growing
and healthy market. However, knowl-
edge gaps regarding sustainable
ment practices for farmed insects
are a major risk for the industry. The
current lack of government involve-
ment in the promotion of the indus-
try is seen as a major weakness.
Edible insects have huge potential
ally in helping to feed the burgeoning
Bamboo caterpillars are a popular snack in Chiang Mai province. global population.”

100 101
 MANUFACTURING
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Value chain: When Thailand suffered its worst floods in half General Prayuth Chan-ocha installed himself as its
a century in 2011, the world took notice not just chairman even before he was made prime minister.)
The successive
steps through because widespread damage impacted millions
which a product of people, but also because they caused a global The late 1980s marked a significant turning point
is made, from shortage of computer hard disk drives and slowdown when a strong yen sent Japanese manufacturers in
purchase and in production at Japanese car plants around the search of cheaper places to make their goods and
delivery of the world. As The New York Times reported at the time, cars. Thailand welcomed them with open arms.
raw material, to “The image of Thailand as a land of temples, beaches
manufacturing
operations and and smiles has over the years been reinforced by Commercial discoveries of gas in the Gulf of Thailand
on to distribution, the country’s tourism advertising campaigns. But in the same decade provided the all-important
marketing and the flooding has revealed to the world the scale of foundation for the explosive growth in manufactur-
sales, with each Thailand’s industrialization and the extent to which ing that followed. This came in the form of a huge
stage generating two global industries, computers and cars, rely on
revenue for the refining and petrochemical industry located on the
components made here.” country’s Eastern Seaboard, close to the offshore The cab of a car in a welding assembly line in Samut Prakan province.
company provid-
ing the service. gas wells and a deep-sea port at Laem Chabang,
Different stages That growth seems all the more remarkable when together with the mushrooming of industrial plants
of the chain can you consider that the first real chapter in Thailand’s churning out electronic components, machinery and That crisis laid bare some of the less visible, noxious face of changing export markets, new technologies
be performed by industrial development opened with the establish- aspects of Thailand’s manufacturing boom. Most and consumer tastes, increased competition from
different compa- lots of cars.
ment of the Board of Investment (BOI) in 1966. Seven notable was the fact that despite its impressive lower-cost neighbors and rising wages amid lagging
nies. The “higher years later, Thailand’s first-ever industrial estate was export performance, it was unable to generate net productivity, not to mention Thailand’s volatile
up” the chain (de- It was textbook development. A country with a
sign, innovation, set up just northeast of Bangkok and a concerted foreign exchange earnings. Throughout the 16-year politics and consequent lack of policy continuity.
prodigious agriculture sector that fed itself while
application of drive to promote investment for exports began in boom from 1980 to 1996, the country suffered from
exporting healthy surpluses shifted much of its
advanced tech- 1977, with the BOI as the cheerleader beckoning a growing trade deficit – not least in manufactured
nology), the more
resources and people into strategically located
foreign investors. (There is perhaps no more telling goods – that contributed to a grotesque current
revenue that can manufacturing plants serviced by good roads
evidence of the symbolic importance of the BOI to account deficit of more than 8 percent of GDP in each
be earned. Thailand’s economic policies than the fact that in less and ports as well as pro-business official policies. of the two years before the crisis. One of the main
than three weeks after taking power in May 2014, Although economists now talk about “emerging reasons was a persistent reliance on imported capital
markets” and “developing countries,” the term that goods, intermediate inputs and technology. As a
was more in vogue back then was the one that study by the United Nations Industrial Development
really captured the process: “industrialization.” Organization in 2002 put it: “An export-oriented
And Thailand was a champion among what were strategy, which is overly reliant on industrialization
called the NICs (Newly Industrialized Countries). Its based on increasing volumes of imported inputs,
pre-eminence in vehicle manufacturing among such equipment and technology, is likely sooner or later to
countries even earned it the epithet “the Detroit of impose serious pressure on the balance of payments.”
Asia.” Indeed, after the US, it is today the world’s
second-largest producer of light pick-up trucks. Since the crisis, aided by a more flexible exchange
But in other crucial ways it has not moved up the rate, Thailand’s manufacturing sector has continued
value chain. to expand. Today it accounts for about 38 percent of
the country’s US$391 billion GDP, by far its biggest
Between 1987 and 1995 the Thai economy grew contributor, and the country is now number 17 in the
at an annual compound rate of 9.1 percent. list of the world’s top 20 manufacturing countries.
Manufacturing’s contribution to this outstanding
achievement rose to 31 percent of total GDP by 1995, But questions remain about whether the sector
shortly before the Asian financial crisis of 1997. will be able to maintain its preeminence in the

102 103
PART II | ECONOMY
R EA SONS
Why Manufacturing Matters to Sustainable Development
Boosts development “Developing” used to be synony-
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“Setting up an integrated chip
finance and other activities that generate jobs.
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Peera Charoenporn, “Thai Manufacturing at the Cross-
sectors will follow.
104
MANUFACTURING
Moving Up the Value Chain
While Thailand’s early industrial company, is challenging both The good news is that the shocking
development followed the path of Apple and Samsung for the world’s excess of imports over exports that
export-led growth based on foreign best-selling smartphone brand. preceded the financial crisis of 1997
investment and low costs, its current By contrast, the Thai electronics has been well eliminated. Thailand’s
condition is a textbook case of how sector is in danger of resting on its trade and current account balances
hard it is to move to the next level. laurels as the world’s leading hard disk have been sustainable for several
Manop Thamsirianunt, chief drive manufacturer at a time when years. But manufacturing has grown
executive of Silicon Craft Technology,
Thailand’s first integrated circuit chip
design company, knows this well.
Since 2003 Manop and his colleagues
have been trying to move up the
value chain: rather than making parts
for everyone else, they are designing
and selling their own products. It’s
been a long, hard road.
company in Thailand was almost
impossible 12 years ago,” he told a
trade magazine. Manop said he and
his colleagues had to work with “very
limited resources and facilities.”
That hard road is one that more
Thai manufacturers need to take. It’s no
longer possible to compete on wages
and other low costs. Competitors,
in particular ASEAN neighbors and
Bangladesh, are able to offer lower
costs to foreign firms. Some lower- Plasma cutting processing technology display at a 2015 trade show in Bangkok.
tech production and labor-intensive
tasks in the garments industry have consumer demand is shifting more at a far slower pace than the boom
already shifted to other countries. to mobile and the interconnectivity years and the country’s neighbors.
Manufacturing scholars and of devices and appliances via the Most analysts believe the impetus
practitioners distinguish between “Internet of things.” needs to come from government
Original Equipment Manufacturing Indeed, the latter technology is programs and policies. Saowaruj
(OEM, making parts for others), the focus of Manop’s next big leap for Rattanakhamfu, PhD, a Research
“For the past 50 years, Thai manufacturing Original Design Manufacturing Silicon Craft Technology, especially Fellow at the Thailand Development
has developed under the circumstances of (ODM, making products that other toys and games and biomedical tech- Research Institute, wrote, “The manu-
passive and slow technological learning firms market under their brands but nology. From the outset, however, the facturing sector is in dire need of
of firms, ineffective and incoherent you own the design) and Original company had to do things the hard support from the government and
Brand Manufacturing (OBM, making way: design things for the global academia in the form of research
government policies, isolated education and marketing products under your market before making them for the funding, R&D personnel training,
and training institutes, technologically own brand). Thailand’s manufac- home one. “Since Thais did not yet research system development, and
turing sector is still overwhelmingly trust our technology development, tax incentives to encourage research
institutions, incompetent and politicized OEM, but the greatest value and we had to change our strategy to in different areas.
returns lie in the other two. China create a reputation in the interna- “It is time for the government to
provides a good example: once tional market. We believed if we could declare this as the ‘decade of pro-
unfavorable institutional context.” Chinese workers simply made the attain recognition on the world stage, ductivity improvement’ to strengthen
bits that went into Apple phones; it would be easier to make locals trust the environment and determine the
roads,” professor of economics, Thammasat University now Xiaomi, a private Chinese and accept us,” he said. direction for stakeholders to follow.”
105
PART II | ECONOMY MANUFACTURING
FURTHER READING
• Industrial Development Report 2013, Sustaining Employment Growth: The Role of Manufacturing and
Structural Change

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106 107
 STATE-OWNED
ENTERPRISES
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The role that state-owned enterprises (SOEs) play
in the course of a country’s economic and social
development is pivotal. In most countries, essential
services such as electricity, water, telecommunica-
tions and transport are provided by state-owned
companies during the early stages of economic
development. The role of SOEs often becomes less
prominent in more advanced economies where
the private sector is sufficiently sophisticated to
undertake large-scale and complex investment
projects in lieu of their state counterparts.
Struggling to break free from the middle-income trap
to become a high-income country, Thailand has to
redefine the role of SOEs in keeping with the changing
economic environment. Even today, the definition of
an SOE most often referred to is in the Budget Act of
1959. The law stipulates that a state-owned enterprise
is an enterprise in which the majority of the capital
is held by the state, including state departments and
government pension or insurance funds.
Currently, there are 56 such enterprises, not
including their subsidiaries. According to the Budget
Act of 1959 definition, these subsidiaries are also
SOEs, but the State Enterprise Policy Office (SEPO),
the official regulator of SOEs, does not regulate these.
Interestingly, the number of state-owned
enterprises as declared by the SEPO has not
108
changed much during the last two decades.
This is because no new SOEs have been created
as the Thai private sector became capable of
attracting investment without state support or
partnerships. At the same time, only four SOEs
have been dissolved and not a single entity has
been privatized. Major SOEs (namely, the Airports
Authority of Thailand, the Mass Communication
Organization of Thailand and the Petroleum
Authority of Thailand) that became listed
companies between 2001 and 2004 remain
state-owned as only a minority equity stake is
floated.
The unchanging SOE count conceals the real truth:
state enterprises are rapidly expanding through
more than 300 subsidiaries. According to statistics,
the total revenue of the 56 SOEs increased from 1.8
trillion baht in 2004 to 5.2 trillion baht in nominal
terms and 3.9 trillion in real terms in 2013. This
translates into an average real revenue annual
growth of 9 percent per annum – an enviable
number given that the average GDP growth for this
period was only 3.53 percent. As a result, SOEs’
revenue as a percentage share of GDP increased
from 28 to 44 over a single decade and they now
employ almost 290,000 people.
In terms of profits, the top five for 2014 were: PTT,
the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
(EGAT), Krung Thai Bank, Provincial Electricity
Authority (PEA), and the Government Savings Bank.
So why should policymakers be concerned about
revenue-generating, state-owned enterprises that
provide so many jobs? Unfortunately, behind the
glossy figures of profits lurk grave problems of
mismanagement, inefficiency and even corruption
in certain SOEs. The stellar financial performance is
often a product of mere monopolistic power rather
than superior management. Those that face direct
competition from their private competitors often
fare much worse than their counterparts because of
the intrinsic problems mentioned.
Suvarnabhumi International Airport in Bangkok is run by the Airports of Thailand (AOT), which listed on the stock market in 2002.
Reforms have been on the government’s agenda
since 1998 when the cabinet endorsed the first and,
thus far, only comprehensive State-owned Enterprise
Reform Master Plan. The plan envisioned the
separation of regulatory functions from policy and
operational ones, as well as separating monopolistic
activities from competitive ones. To date, things have
not gone according to the plan. There has been very
little progress except for the establishment of two
independent regulatory bodies for the telecommuni-
cations and energy sectors.
If reforms are still a pipedream, there have been
notable successes in the sector over the years. An
SOE whose role is still as relevant to the development
of the Thai economy as its founding 50 years ago is
the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives
(BAAC). The bank, established in 1966, provides loans
to more than 5.6 million farm households today.
With over 1,200 branches nationwide, it is one of the
most ubiquitous central government agencies and
certainly one of most knowledgeable when it comes
to Thai farmers, who are its clients. The chief strength
of the organization comes from its proximity to and
familiarity with its clientele.
Even more prominently, state enterprises such as
EGAT and the Provincial Water Authority have played
important roles in providing citizens with electricity
and water. Today, 99.1 percent of Thai households
have access to electricity and 79 percent have access
to tap water. The relative success of these enterprises
may be linked to capable management. Most of the
managers come from engineering backgrounds.
They are attracted by the professional challenges
and higher compensation compared with other
civil servants, plus the prestige of public service.
But in general, the role of SOEs has fallen prey to
increasing skepticism, as the private sector can easily
replace them. With almost daily reports of alleged
corruption in various SOEs, the question of whether
these enterprises still matter needs to be answered.
“I believe that eventually, one
of the next big issues that will
have to be addressed globally
is the role of state-owned
enterprises. If you can’t
compete fairly, honestly,
effectively, no government
should intervene.”
Hillary Clinton, former US Secretary
of State and presidential candidate
109
PART II | ECONOMY STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES

FURTHER READING
• Corporate Governance in Thailand, FEJUFE
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TIME LI NE Nikomborirak in Benefiting from Globalization: Transport Sector Contribution
and Policy Challenges


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A Shifting State of Affairs "DBEFNJD
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1932
Thailand changes 1993 1998
from an absolute The cabinet, under
Private sector oper-
monarchy to a the Chuan Leekpai
ators are allowed to
constitutional one administration,
provide telecom ser-
2006
after a coup d’état
2001
vices but only under approves the “Master
brought about by Plan for State Enter-
concessions handed
a small group of prise Reform,” which
out by the SOEs that The Supreme
military and civilians, is the only document The government of
hold the statutory Administrative Court
who form Siam’s first to date that lays out Thaksin Shinawatra
right to operate at the revokes the two royal
political party called a comprehensive launches the first
time. These conces- decrees that led to the
Khana Rasadorn. In strategy and timeline partial privatiza-
sions allow SOEs in corporatization of the
order to control the for the restructuring tion of an SOE, the
the telecom sector Electricity Generating
country’s economy, and privatization of Petroleum Authority
to collect handsome Authority of Thailand
the new government state enterprises in all of Thailand (PTT). To
“revenue shares” from (EGAT) in 2005. The
sets up several state sectors. accomplish this, the
the private conces- reason for the verdict
enterprises including Thai government sells
sionaires. Although is the conflict of in-
1999
banks, insurance 30 percent of its stake
the scheme leads to terest inherent in the
companies, rice and on the stock market.
the rapid develop- corporatization pro-
fishery trading firms Two more SOEs are
ment of fixed line and The Corporatization cess. This case marks
and a shipping line. listed in the next
mobile voice services Law is passed to allow the end of the “privat-
Before the outbreak three years. As the
like never before, over the mass corporatiza- ization episode” not
of World War II state government retains a
time it serves to weak- tion of state enterpris- only for the Thaksin
enterprises number majority equity share
en the state opera- es in preparation for administration, but
30 in total. in all three SOEs, the
tors that grow more eventual privatization. also for subsequent
complacent because The law provides a publicly listed com-
governments, because
1946–1952 of the easy money. regulatory framework panies continue to be
plagued by political poorly implemented
for the conversion of privatization is
state enterprises to meddling.
After the war, 19 addi- perceived by the
tional state enterprises private enterprises or public as serving the
are founded in order
to revive the economy,
1958 publicly listed compa-
nies without having to
interests of politicians
rather than those of
including those Under the govern- amend the sui generis the country.
devoted to energy. ment of General Sarit laws.
Thanarat, the role of

1953
state enterprises is
confined to the provi-
sion of basic services
Under the govern- such as transport,
ment of Field Marshal telecommunications,
Pibulsongkram, the water and electri-
State Enterprise city only. The private
Establishment Act sector is encouraged
is promulgated to to invest in manu-
facilitate the creation facturing industries,
of state enterprises in a move that was also
multiple industries, a reaction to the
including textiles, inherent inefficiency
glass, sugar and paper. and corruption among
From 1953 to 1956, a SOEs at the time.
total of 37 new SOEs
are created.

Before a 1953 Thai Airways flight.

110 111
PART II | ECONOMY STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES

R EA LIT Y CH ECKS R EA SONS

Challenges Facing State-Owned Enterprises Why Competitiveness and Innovation are Key
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112 113
 SMEs
Smaller businesses are big deals

One Tambon, In Thailand’s folklore, few economic endeavors Co-operation and Development (OECD), has
One Product receive more adoration and respect than rice surveyed SMEs and entrepreneurship in many
(OTOP): farming. In Thailand’s business news pages, it is countries, including Thailand in 2011. In fact,
Inspired by the big corporations (usually listed on the stock Thailand’s so-called SME density (number of SMEs
Japan’s success- exchange) that get the most attention. In the global per 100 population) of 4.2 is only slightly less than
ful One Village popular imagination, tourism is tops. But in the the typical density of 5 in OECD countries.
One Product pro- real world, the true economic heroes are the many
gram, OTOP is
a local entrepre- hundreds of thousands of businesses that go by the Thai SMEs are involved in the full gamut of business
neurship stimulus prosaic designation of “small and medium-sized activities. Most are in services (about a third, mainly
program aimed enterprises,” or SMEs. hotels and restaurants), manufacturing (30 percent),
at encouraging and trade and maintenance (retail and wholesale,
tambon (sub- In fact, there are around 2.8 million of them. That and vehicle maintenance, 28 percent), according A bicycle shop in southern Thailand’s province of Trang.
district) commu- figure is based on a dual classification of “small” to the Office of Small and Medium Enterprises
nities to improve
the quality and being not over 50 employees and “medium” from Promotions (OSMEP).
marketing of lo- 51 to 200. Altogether these outfits make up 99 substantial was done about it on the policy front. The OECD study makes plain how vitally important
cal products, like percent of all enterprises in Thailand and account for Closely related to the presence of SMEs in a Before the boom went bust, SMEs fell partly under this overdue recognition is: “Productive entrepre-
foodstuffs and nearly four out of five of the nation’s jobs. They also country is the level of entrepreneurship. And “co-operatives” policy and partly under industries, neurship and innovative and internationalizing SMEs
handicrafts. contribute around 40 percent to the country’s annual indeed Thailand scores very highly on this front. buried in the National Economic and Social will be key drivers of future economic growth and
economic output and 30 percent of export earnings. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, the latest of Development Plan. But then the Small and Medium must be given due attention in policy reform.”
which in 2013 surveyed 70 economies across the Enterprises Promotion Act B.E. 2543 was passed
These numbers are very similar to those of other world, found that Thailand consistently exhibits in 2000 and OSMEP was set up in 2001, with the
countries, even in the wealthier nations whose one of the highest entrepreneurship activity rates prime minister or deputy as chair. A year later, the
policy research unit, the Organization for Economic anywhere. The study found that 46.3 percent of SME Development Bank of Thailand was established.
Thailand’s adult population were involved in such In another crucial development, the Market for
activities (18.3 percent were starting or running Alternative Investments (MAI) – intended to provide
“new businesses” and 28 percent were “established a simpler, lower-cost alternative for smaller firms
business owners” – the second highest in the world, to list on the main board of the Stock Exchange of
after Uganda). Thailand (SET) – had its first stock listed in 2001. The Small and
Medium Enter-
The statistics are not all favorable, however. Before Now Thailand’s SMEs are approaching the final prises Promotion
the economic meltdown of 1997, SMEs contributed stages of their third five-year “master plan,” Act B.E. 2543:
42 percent to the country’s GDP. By 2013 this had which concludes in 2016. One important part Established in
declined to 37 percent, even though the number of of this has been a plan to upgrade producers of 2000, this act
SMEs increased sharply from about 2.19 million in the One Tambon, One Product (OTOP) community provided clear
2004. One reason for the slowdown was the raising enterprise program to become SME operators. definitions and
classifications of
of the minimum wage to 300 baht per day in 2011. SMEs and out-
More recently, General Prayuth Chan-ocha, after lined programs
The coming of the ASEAN Economic Community taking power in May 2014, became chairman of for their promo-
(AEC) at the end of 2015 will provide both new the Board of Directors of OSMEP. Among the many tion, including
opportunities and challenges for those involved other reforms his government has prioritized are the establishment
in SME promotion. Indeed, over the years, promises to pay greater attention to the needs of the Office
of Small and
governments have recognized the value of SMEs, but and contributions of the SME sector, so that it Medium
it wasn’t until the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis knocked could play a more sustainable role in the country’s Enterprises
a hole in Thailand’s economic model that anything development. Promotion.

114 115
PART II | ECONOMY SMEs

R EA SONS
Why SMEs Matter to Sustainable Development
Backing the Underdog: Bringing SMEs Out of Hiding
Creating jobs and wealth

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an agency accorded responsibility for
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considered government policies can help these workers prime minister in charge of econom- of 726.7 million baht to help SMEs it needs to offer special tax rates to
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benefit both themselves and the economy as a whole. behalf. While this appears to accord and competitiveness. However, this the formal system. As a former SME
the OSMEP some stature, the agency figure – even assuming it is deployed [operator] myself, I propose that SMEs
lacks the authority of a ministry. The effectively – reflects the lowly status must come up above the ground.
2011 OECD study of Thailand’s SME of the SME sector compared with Now they are hiding from everything,
sector, while recognizing that OSMEP other priorities of the state. It is about including taxes.”
has “played an important role in SME one-tenth of that allocated in the Indeed, bringing them out of
Facts You Need to Know About SMEs and entrepreneurship policy coordina- 2015 national budget for the Ministry hiding and integrating them more
tion in Thailand and made an import- of Culture and about a hundredth of into the visible economy is crucial to
■ By global standards, Thailand is a very entrepreneurial nation. Close ant contribution to national develop- the agriculture budget. formulating good policies and pro-
to half the population is engaged in new business ventures or the ment,” concluded, “There is a limit to Policy coordination and continu- viding guidance. As the OECD study
expansion of an existing business. Almost one in five of the adult the ability of OSMEP to achieve policy ity are made more difficult by lack observed: “Timely and reliable infor-
population (18–64 years) is involved in early-stage entrepreneurship coherence across government minis- of information and communication mation is critical to OSMEP’s perfor-
and 28 percent are classified as an “established business owner.” tries and agencies… [and it] lacks the between the sector, other businesses mance in improving SME and entre-
operational clout and authority to and government agencies. Most SMEs preneurship policies and programs.”
■ About a third of entrepreneurs say they are motivated more by achieve this objective fully.” are institutionally invisible. Only a In particular, the study said that the
necessity than opportunity. Other pundits have weighed fifth are registered and of those only definition of SMEs needed to include
in on the subject. One academic half pay any taxes. As the chairman a micro-level and a non-employing
■ There are proportionately fewer enterprises (0.4 percent) in Thailand employing between 51 and 200 described the OSMEP’s status as “a of the Federation of Thai Industries, level and that policymakers should
employees (“medium-sized”) than in OECD countries (around 2 percent) and other non-OECD Asian small agency that piggybacks on the Supant Mongkolsuthree, said, “If the “collect, harmonize and report data
countries (Korea about 6 percent; Japan around 10). Ministry of Industry.” Meanwhile, on this group.”
Chayut Setboonsarng, writing in a Those who know the real eco-
■ Bangkok has an SME density of about 10 per 100 people, whereas the north and northeast regions review published by the Elliott School nomic needs of SMEs, such as the
have a density of less than three. Two-fifths of SMEs are located in greater Bangkok where only a 10th of International Affairs at George “SMEs are both the most Asian Development Bank, point
of the population is located. Washington University, said that the dynamic and the most in particular to the lack of finance
OSMEP “lacks operational space” and vulnerable constituent in and the high cost of funds. Perhaps
■ Thailand has one of the highest female entrepreneurship rates in the world, though this has been remains limited in its ability to support the biggest obstacle to solving this
declining over the past few years, according to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) in 2013. the global economy. The
SMEs. problem is the absence of a Collateral
Total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) by females was 16.3 percent in 2013, down from a high After General Prayuth Chan-ocha 21st century belongs to Law in Thailand that provides a
of 20 percent in 2011, while the rate for men rose slightly over the same period. became prime minister, he then the SMEs.” framework for borrowing against
assumed the chairmanship of the Carlos Magariños, honorary global property. Yet, as the ADB’s Asia SME
■ The vast majority (93 percent) of Thai entrepreneurs are doing business domestically. That percent- Board of Directors of OSMEP. His gov- chairman of the Global Alliance of Finance Monitor points out, a draft
age is relatively high compared with other Asian nations. Only Indonesia boasts a higher rate at 98.8 ernment has promised to provide SMEs and former UNIDO director Collateral Law was introduced in 1998
percent. greater support to the SME sector general and still has not been passed.

116 117
 SMEs

FURTHER READING
• Thailand: Key Issues and Policies, OECD Studies on SMEs and Entrepreneurship, by
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• Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2014 Global Report,
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“The best way to check the
health of the economy is
to check the SMEs.” R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
WIMONKAN KOSUMAS, Challenges Facing the SME Sector
Deputy director general of the Office of Small and
Medium Enterprises Promotion (OSMEP)
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level of investment in research and malaise.”

119
 TOURISM
The travel business is an
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Thailand’s rise from an isolated outpost for
backpackers and hedonists to one of the world’s top
10 travel destinations is one of the country’s greatest
success stories. Tourism is now the country’s biggest
earner of foreign exchange and a major source of
employment. In 2013, tourism contributed 9 percent
to GDP and directly employed 2.5 million people, or
6.6 percent of the total workforce, with many more
Thais and other industries benefiting indirectly.
In 2013, Thailand became the 10th-most-visited
country in the world; the year after that Bangkok
was the globe’s second-most visited city, trailing
London and just ahead of Paris. Some of that
success came hot on the heels of a massive surge in
Chinese tourists who accounted for 17 percent of
the total number of arrivals in 2013: an almost 70
percent leap year on year. The numbers promise to
only mushroom in the coming years. With ASEAN
120
Aerial view of a beach on Phuket, Thailand’s most visited island.
countries cooperating on visa policies and the
growth of middle classes throughout Asia, Thailand
is likely to continue to be seen as a welcoming
destination that excels at providing value for money.
Meanwhile, the demographic shift from backpackers
and Europeans to visitors from Russia, India, South
Korea and China, who bring new cultural differences
and expectations with them, are posing their own
challenges, from issues of language and etiquette to
the necessity of developing new tourism products,
services and promotions that appeal to them.
In a way, it’s nothing new for Thailand and a test it
should pass easily. For hundreds of years, Thais have
been famously hospitable and outwardly tolerant of
the many foreigners, whether merchants, diplomats,
missionaries or miscreants, who passed through their
borders. When those winning traits were combined
with the country’s geographic position in the middle
of Southeast Asia, endowed with an abundance
of natural marvels, from green mountains to
white beaches and wild jungles in between, all the
elements were in place for a tourism revolution.
During the upheavals of the Vietnam War-era and
left-wing uprisings in Southeast Asia, Thailand was
a safe haven of relative stability. The influx of US
money aimed at maintaining Thailand’s position as
a bulwark against the red tide of communists, as
well as a base for launching American attacks on
Vietcong troops, triggered a transformation of the
country’s underdeveloped infrastructure. Roads were
tarmacked and railways laid, American GIs on rest
and recuperation tours demanded more Western
comforts, while locals profited from providing these
services. Meanwhile Bangkok grew as a hub of both
airlines and hotels.
Such rapid progress comes with a price tag that is
often paid at the expense of the environment. In an
ironic twist, the very same scenery that attracts all
these tourists, both domestic and international, has
been despoiled by some of them, or by unscrupulous
tour operators and authorities who have turned a
blind eye to violations of environmental protection
laws. On Koh Tao, for example, the number one
destination in Southeast Asia for scuba divers to get
certified, water pollution and the destruction of coral
reefs have put the island’s premier lure in jeopardy.
The World Bank’s Travel & Tourism Competitiveness
Index 2015 ranked Thailand 16 out of 141 countries
in terms of “Natural Resources” but 116 out of
141 in terms of “Environmental Sustainability.”
In the same report, Thailand ranked in the lower
“Research shows that for
every 30 new tourists to a
destination one new job
is created.”
Travel & Tourism Competitiveness
Report 2015 by the World Bank
tiers in “Coastal Shelf Fishing Pressure” (93),
“Stringency of Environmental Regulations” (103),
“Threatened Species” (109), and “Particulate Matter
Concentration” (123).
The spike in new arrivals has also put pressure on the
infrastructure, which now lags behind the expansion
of the industry. The first airport on Koh Phangan is
under construction. A second airport on Koh Samui
is on the drawing board. And many of the country’s
biggest attractions, such as the Grand Palace in
Bangkok and Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, are under
siege from a growing number of tourists.
By continuing to promote more untrammeled desti-
nations and niche markets like sustainable tourism, Sustainable
the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) can tourism:
play a dramatic role in relieving pressure and
A growing
spreading visitors across the country, bringing niche in travel
jobs and development to parts of the country that often based
really need them. on excursions
into nature that
As Thailand’s tourism brand continues to grow and revolve around
global travel remains on the upswing, this quandary low-impact trips
that benefit local
looms the largest: How do we balance the economic communities and
opportunities of this growth with the maintenance promise authen-
of the natural and cultural attractions that made tic experiences.
growth possible in the first place?
121
PART II | ECONOMY TOURISM

R EA SONS
Why Tourism Matters to Sustainable Development
Medical Tourism Market Healthier than Ever
Foreign exchange bonanza Tourism generates more
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medical care for a fraction of the price
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of recovery in the kingdom. Whether

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it’s for cosmetic surgery, cutting-edge
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sions that reverberate through many other sectors such as arguably the world’s leading destina-
trade and finance. tion for medical tourism, boasting a
Pillar of growth Tourism has always been one of the 40 percent share of the market, with
kingdom’s most resilient industries. Whether it was after Preserving Thainess

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this burgeoning niche market is
influence on the economy. themselves to appreciate the value of protecting and Bumrungrad International Hospital
promoting their heritage. (BIH), which is more akin to a five- followed by the US, the UK, the training. As the fountainhead of the
Spurs development Tourism can be a catalyst for new star hotel than your typically sterile Middle East and Australia. Together region’s spa and wellness industries,
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tage in this field of tourism: a one- ment claims. Buddha, as well as everything from
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stop medical center that boasts more Thailand’s rise in this field came colonic detox programs to new-age
than 30 specialty centers, a kitchen from an unlikely source. Many treatments, Ayurveda programs, yoga
Job creation The substantial contribution that tourism for preparing halal meals, a Japanese people see it as an outgrowth of the vacations and Chinese acupunc-
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restaurant and a staff of translators Asian Financial Crisis of 1997. After ture, Thailand has largely cornered
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affiliated with the Joint Commission streams. Businessman Bernard
were directly employed in the industry. Tourism tends to International ( JCI), the gold stan- Chan, whose family owns a part
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*$5
NBOBHF- doctors and nurses are renowned success to the Financial Times in
ment and marketing. for their competence and compas- 2014, “I’m not sure it can be repli-
sion. And one-month visas are avail- cated in other markets.”
able on arrival. In turn, these levels There are some bones of conten-
of quality and service have given tion though. The growing market for
medical tourism a shot in the arm foreign patients has driven up prices
that has caused a massive spike in for middle-class Thais who prefer
arrivals over the last decade. private healthcare to the country’s
According to Thailand’s Ministry less advanced public hospitals. The
of Public Health and the Kasikorn World Health Organization also
Research Center, medical tourists warns that, perhaps unsurprisingly,
made up some 10 percent of the more and more doctors at public
total arrivals in 2012, and that figure hospitals are moving into private
is rising by around 13 percent per healthcare where the benefits are
year, while their average expendi- better and the salaries are higher.
ture is increasing by 26 percent. Of The country’s wellness indus-
the total number of patients, Japan is try is another attraction for medical
still the number one source market, tourists and also those looking for

122 123
PART II | ECONOMY TOURISM

FURTHER READING
• The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015
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• Travel & Tourism: Economic Impact 2014
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Challenges Facing the Tourism Industry The Tourism • Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, CZ
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rising population of elderly travelers the country’s most pristine national
and a huge upsurge in tourists from marine parks and islands.
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national air travelers protests that paralyze 9 percent to the GDP around 42 billion US dollars
Marine parks .BOBHJOH
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new “Discover Thainess” brand arrive in Bangkok one of the city’s glitz- and directly employs (1.4 trillion baht) in revenue
supplies and the marine environ- appears to be making inroads. iest shopping strips, more than 2.5 million
ment remains a perennial challenge the number of tourist people, or 6.6 percent that will be generated by 28
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Political stability

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arrivals shoots up to of the total workforce, million international visitors.”
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street protests and coups that lead proving that tourism dors, restaurateurs, bar
the Tourism Authority of Thailand
is one of the most owners and taxi drivers
industries may be impacted. to travel warnings and advisories The government
resilient industries. benefiting indirectly.
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Organisation of Thai-
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1998
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rooms fit for tourists
from developers – suffer from the capital of the world still persists. Safety concerns Thailand’s lowest The TAT launches its
and little in the way of
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restaurants, bars and
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1960s–
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the high number of road deaths and
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suggesting Thai tourism is unsafe may
“hippie trail” began
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be unfair and deceptive as Thailand in Thailand, where “Visit Thailand Year”
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the scruffy travelers marks the 60th birth-
receive a warmer day of King Bhumibol
with a high rate of return visitors.
welcome than in many Adulyadej, and the
other countries. number of arrivals
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and rail systems.

124 125
 FINANCE

Ʉ.*'$Ʉ!$))$'Ʉ$)!-./-0/0- Ʉ$.Ʉ+-*1$$)"Ʉ
/# Ʉ!*0)/$*)Ʉ!*-Ʉ.0./$)' Ʉ 1 '*+( )/ɄɄ
The development of the modern Thai financial sector
began in earnest with the establishment of the Bank
of Thailand during World War II. The central bank
was hastily set up during the Japanese occupation
to safeguard the country’s financial sovereignty
from Japanese attempts to control Thailand’s money
supply and credit system.
Since then, the Thai banking sector
has ramped up its role as financial
intermediaries, pooling and trans-
ferring monetary resources. With
laws and restrictions that aim to
strengthen the domestic banking
sector, Thai banks have become
the center of the kingdom’s
business community and bolstered
its bottom line.
Following the implementation
of coherent economic plans that
“In the football game encouraged foreign investment
of the economy, the and national development, the
central bank acts as Thai economy enjoyed a long
center back. In order period of robust growth in the
to safeguard stability 1960s. During this time, Thai
financial institutions expanded
during the recent their roles to provide other
circumstances, we have services, such as clearing and
played a proactive role settlement, foreign exchange
due to high economic and risk management. In order
uncertainty. Now that to develop the country’s capital
market as another funding
political and economic channel for private companies, the
clarity is greater, the Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET)
central bank will play was established in 1975.
a supportive role.”
Despite boasting a high average
Former Bank of Thailand GDP growth of 7.8 percent
governor Prasarn
between 1980 and 1996, the Thai
Trairatvorakul from a
speech at the conference economy was beset by various
“Thailand Focus 2014: structural problems, especially
Reforming for Sustainable in the financial sector. As the
Growth” economic bubble burst, global
126
hedge funds speculated against the baht. The Bank
of Thailand initially (and disastrously) defended the
local currency until it almost emptied its foreign
reserves, finally succumbing to market forces by
floating the baht on July 2, 1997.
The float set off the Asian Financial Crisis and
triggered the collapse of the Thai economy. Over six
tumultuous months, the baht rose from 25 to the US
dollar and peaked at 56 in January 1998. Meanwhile
the SET Index plunged to a rocky bottom of 207.31
points in 1998 from its lofty peak of 1753.73 four
years earlier.
But in some respects the crisis also proved to be
a blessing in disguise. After that debacle, the Thai
financial sector underwent a major consolidation.
Weak financial institutions were closed down,
nationalized, or merged with stronger ones. The
surviving banks spent years clearing bad debts,
cleaning up their balance sheets and restoring public
confidence. All the while, the Bank of Thailand
revamped its supervisory role and became more
stringent in scrutinizing banks to ensure they
followed sound and prudent practices. In addition,
the World Bank and International Monetary Fund
prescribed some bitter pills in the form of harsh
austerity measures.
On the policy front, ever since the year 2000, the
Bank of Thailand has adopted a flexible inflation-
targeting regime, a popular monetary policy
framework used by many central banks all over the
world. Its clear inflation target, timely policies and
comprehensive communication have helped to keep
Thailand’s inflation in check over the past decade
and a half, which has restored the confidence of both
the domestic and global financial communities in the
Bank of Thailand.
In 2004, the central bank adopted the four-year
Financial Sector Master Plan Phase 1 (FSMP), during
which they carried out structural improvements
to the sector to enhance its efficiency, strength
Siam Commercial Bank’s Chaloem Nakhon branch.
and access. Key measures under the FSMP Phase Overall, the continuing implementation of the
I included the promotion of voluntary mergers to FSMP over the past several years has substantially
strengthen the financial status and widening the improved Thailand’s financial infrastructure, ensuring
scope of commercial bank business to embrace that the system functions smoothly and supports
“Universal Banking,” which enables banks to serve sustainable economic development. In the years to
all client groups and perform almost all types of come, innovation and growth are expected to be
financial transactions. the financial sector’s watchwords, with increased
movement toward creative forms of investment,
The Bank of Thailand rolled out the FSMP Phase II in such as crowdfunding.
2010, consisting of measures to reduce system-wide
operating costs, promote competition and
strengthen financial infrastructure. Foreign banks
operating in Thailand were also allowed to open
more branches or to become subsidiaries. The main
purpose of FSMP Phase II is to ensure that Thailand
continues to gain strength, improve its efficiency
levels and provide better financial access that will Inflation-
enable its financial sector to meet future challenges. targeting
regime:
While financial institutions have faced intensified A monetary
competition from domestic and foreign peers, as policy in which a
well as from non-bank institutions and the capital central bank esti-
market, they have also confronted challenges from mates a projected
“target,” or infla-
the increasing globalization of the economic and
tion rate, which is
financial systems. One major example of this was announced to the
Thailand’s reaction to the global economic crisis in public, and helps
2008. Lessons learned from the economic collapse of to control price
1997 mitigated the effects of this downturn. rises.
127
PART II | ECONOMY FINANCE

Alarming Acceleration of Household Debt

R EA SONS
Why Financial Stability Matters

revenue and expenditures. On the

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coupled with a series of demand-side

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from 14,500 baht in 2007. During to strengthen the financial position
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and investors.
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financial systems accommodate sustainable economic
growth and also bolster the competitiveness of a country’s
business sector.
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maintaining people’s purchasing power because inflation
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necessities and drags down the stan- impeded, thereby mitigating the risk
reducing uncertainty and making it easier for consumers
and companies to plan their saving and spending budgets.
The economic boom of the 1980s
and early 1990s ushered in a new
era of prosperity that arrived about
the same time as Western material-
ism and mall culture, resulting in the
continued growth of both household
downside, a greater access to credit,
economic stimulus measures by the
government, also drove up the level
of household debt.
A long period of accommodative
and intensified competition among
financial institutions has also been
partly responsible for the rapid rise in
household debt, which had surged to
10.22 trillion baht, or 84.2 percent of
GDP at the end of 2013, from 4.66 tril-
lion, or 54.6 percent of GDP, in 2007.
In more recent years, the slower
GDP growth and the government’s
tax incentives for first-home buyers
and first-car buyers to spur domestic
demand have also played significant
roles in pushing up the debt level of
of that debt was owing to the pur-
chase of land and residential units
while around the same amount was
spent on household consumption.
The remainder was spent on busi-
ness, farming, education and other
expenditures.
According to a survey on the eco-
household sector by the National
household revenue soared to 25,194
baht in 2013 from 18,660 baht in
2007, as monthly household expen-
ditures rose to 19,061 baht in 2013
that same time, the average house-
hold debt leapt to 163,087 baht from
116,681 baht.
This alarming acceleration of
household debt threatens future
liquidity and the debt serviceability of
the household sector, and also raises
serious concerns about nonperform-
ing loans at financial institutions. The
continuing increase in household
debt could also create more adverse
effects as it impinges on purchasing
power, limits consumption to the bare
dard of living.
Although there have been no
imminent signs that the loan quality
at commercial banks is deteriorat-
ing while household debt grows at a
slower pace, the Bank of Thailand has
periodically expressed its concerns
over these high figures. The situation
financial institutions and regulators
household debt does not go through
the roof.
There is no need to be too alarm-
ist. Precautions can be taken. In order
of Thai households and increase their
immunity to future economic risks,
it is essential to promote fiscal dis-
cipline by reducing excess spending
while at the same time encouraging
people to save money, stop borrow-
ing and take out insurance policies to
cope with emergencies. Shoring up
the finances of the household sector
would enhance overall economic sta-
bility, too. It would keep the wheels of
the economy turning by ensuring that
the public’s purchasing power is not
of another recession over the years
to come.

128 129
PART II | ECONOMY
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130
“I argue that it’s appropriate for people to pursue the
profit motive in business. If you want to change that,
you’re going against human nature. But when it comes
to setting the rules or creating the institutions, then
conflicts with your personal interest.”
George Soros, hedge fund manager who bet large sums against the baht prior
to the Asian Financial Crisis
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in global economic and financial
conditions could put these outward
investments at risk.
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insurance should also be intro-
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1904
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mercial Bank in 1906.
of Thailand.
apparent when it comes to caring for
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investors and corporations remain
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FINANCE
FURTHER READING
• i"DIJFWJOH
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Finance & Development
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Turbulence through • The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World

1984 1993
Licenses for Bangkok
comes the first local adjusts the exchange International Banking
commercial bank in rate from pegging with facilities are granted as
Thailand, changing its the US dollar to a bas- part of financial liber-
name to Siam Com- ket of currencies and at alization attempts.
the same time devalues
the baht by 15 percent
to 27 to the US dollar.
1997
1940
The baht flotation on
1975
The Thai National
July 2 marks the official
Banking Bureau starts
commencement of the
to lay the groundwork
for central banking and The Stock Exchange of Asian Financial Crisis
Thailand starts trading. that eventually wipes
managing government
out most domestic
debts. Two years later
financial institutions.
it morphs into the Bank
Gold bars donated by monks to the central bank in 2001.
1961
2000
1949 Aided by the World
Bank, Thailand begins
“If crowdfunding can help
innovative start-ups, it could help
implementation The Bank of Thailand
Thailand joins the make Southeast Asia’s second-
of its first National adopts the inflation-
International Monetary
Fund and the World Economic Develop- targeting scheme. largest economy more competitive....
Bank. ment Plan, which Thailand needs a start-up generation
succeeds in promot-
ing economic growth
to help improve the competitive-
1960s through increased
private and foreign
2006 ness. We need to be more innovative
and develop our own brands. Global
investment. Thailand’s central bank
As the Cold War heats
imposes draconian
demand is changing.”
up and the Vietnam
can money pours into to stem rapid apprecia- Thailand’s Securities and Exchange Commission
Thailand. tion of the baht, forcing and member of the National Legislative Assembly
offshore investors
to keep their money
in the country for at
least a year or face 2008 2011
stiff penalties for early Lessons learned from Economic disruption
withdrawals. the 1997 crisis help to from devastating
mitigate the effects of floods causes the cen-
tral bank to implement
the down cycle in
policy interest rates for
over three years.
131
 TRADE
3+*-/.Ʉ- Ʉ./$''Ʉ/# Ʉ )"$) Ʉ*!Ʉ/# Ʉ#$Ʉ *)*(4ɄɄɄɄ
For centuries, partly due to its advantageous
position in Southeast Asia and partly because of
its openness to foreign merchants and cultures,
Thailand has been the region’s gateway. Blessed with
abundant natural resources and agricultural goods
galore, the kingdom is one of the most economi-
cally advanced ASEAN economies. As a founding
member of this regional bloc, it boasts a regulatory
and trade environment that is amicable to foreign
investors.
Thus, the Thai economy is expected to get a further
boost with the implementation of the ASEAN
Economic Community (AEC) in 2015, which will
eliminate major tariffs and encourage more inter-
Intermediate
regional trading. Thai investors are expected to
benefit from the stock exchanges within the ASEAN
goods:
network. Some other AEC perks include various
These are partly “ASEAN+1” free trade agreements with China, Japan,
finished goods Korea, Australia, New Zealand and India, which will
or services that
are used to man- expand the trade boundaries for Thai goods.
ufacture what
are called “final Overall, the Thai economy continues to be
goods.” export-centric with exports making up nearly
132
two-thirds of Thailand’s GDP, or some US$255
billion in 2014. The country’s key export partners
are Japan and China, followed by the US, the
European Union, Australia and the ASEAN
countries. Topping the list of export items are
automobiles, electronics (such as computer hard
drives) and seafood, as well as agricultural goods
like rice and rubber.
Foreign investment will continue to play a
significant role in the Thai economy with investors
attracted to the country’s infrastructure, modern
legal framework, many active foreign chambers
of commerce and government policies that are
free-trade friendly. Since 1995 Thailand has been a
member of the World Trade Organization (WTO),
which replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT), another trade group that Thailand
had joined in 1982. The country also has free trade
agreements with Australia and New Zealand.
That openness, which has always been a defining
Thai trait in terms of culture and economics,
whether in times of strife or prosperity, continues
Situated some 25 kilometers north of Pattaya, Laem Chabang is the kingdom’s largest port.
to pay dividends. According to the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
World Investment Report 2013, Thailand was
among the eight priority destinations for foreign
investment between 2013 and 2015. Infrastructure
is crucial in bolstering such investments. With seven
international airports and numerous deep-sea
ports, Thailand is the transport hub of Southeast
Asia. That’s part of the reason why it was ranked
number 26 out of 189 countries in the World
Bank’s 2014 Ease of Doing Business Index, placing
third in Southeast Asia, behind only Singapore
and Malaysia.
But trade is symbiotic. Thailand also depends
heavily on imports. In 2014, those imports
totaled US$95.72 billion. More than half of them
were intermediate goods, with machinery, fuel,
electronic appliances, base metals and consumer
products in descending order of demand. The
country’s biggest import partners are Japan at 20
percent, China at 15 percent and the EU with an 8
percent share. A report entitled “Asia Development
Outlook of 2014: Fiscal Policy for Inclusive Growth,”
prepared by the Asia Development Bank, forecasted
that domestic demand should intensify in the years
to come.
After the political turmoil of recent years, Thailand’s
GDP is expected to finally recover somewhat, but
“Further economic recovery will depend on the
competitiveness of Thai export products and political
stability in the years to come.”
World Bank, East Asia Pacific Update, April 2015
will continue to be driven by exports, said Nuntawan
Sakuntanaga, director-general of the International
Trade Promotion Department in the Commerce
Ministry. However, members of the private sector
are less optimistic, believing that exports will slump
for a third straight year, dragging GDP down with
them. Many have noted that Thailand’s manu-
facturing industry is in need of an overhaul. To
remain competitive and to bolster a sluggish export
sector, Thailand’s manufacturers must update their
processes and technologies as well as their products.
Analysts estimate that a restructuring of Thailand’s
export industries may take three to 10 years. While
major structural changes take place, short-term
solutions include exporting more to local
markets, such as Cambodia and Myanmar, where
consumption is rising. Cleaning up labor practices
could also improve trade relations. In 2015, an EU
ban on Thai seafood threatened 30 billion baht in
exports. Eliminating trafficking is sure to decrease
reputational risk, putting Thailand in the good graces
of international trade partners once again.
133
PART II | ECONOMY TRADE
FURTHER READING
• Asia Development Outlook of 2014: Fiscal Policy for Inclusive Growth, pre-
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• Thailand: Economy and Politics, CZ
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Why Trade Matters to Sustainable Development http://eng.nesdb.go.th
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The China Factor

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all the other nations of Asia have
much of it driven by key sectors such industries require a significant labor (WTO) also increase its bargaining been pulled along in the slipstream
as automobiles and electronics. force and therefore provide employ- power in trade negotiations and created by her enormous economic
ment to millions of Thais in a variety geopolitical disputes. engines. Thailand is no exception. The
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Thailand is well placed to take the the demand for Thai goods. In 2014, for example, trade
between the two countries amounted
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percent over 2010, according to the
Thai Embassy’s Business Information
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS Center. In total, around 14 percent of
Thailand’s exports go to China, fol-
Challenges Facing Thai Trade lowed by Japan at 10 percent and the Boatload of Thai exports bound for China.
US at 9.7 percent. Some of Thailand’s
ASEAN trade hub The Thai disputes and streamlining bureau- key exports to China include com- Republic of China. Three years later two memorandums of understand-
government wants to make the cratic procedures to modernize the puters (8.8 percent), rubber (4.2 the countries signed their first trade ing, one to build a US$12 billion rail
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customs department and to provide percent), delivery trucks (3.5 percent) agreement. As an early part of the project and the other to purchase a
to capitalize on the formation of one-stop services. and refined petroleum (3.3 percent). ASEAN-China Free Trade Agreement, huge amount of agricultural goods.
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Conversely, China is the second- in 2003 Thailand and China signed The railway will link the Chinese city
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More R&D Thailand has several largest import partner for Thailand a pact that liberalized agricultural of Kunming with other Southeast
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public and private trade associa- with 22 percent of the kingdom’s markets and cut the tariffs on fruits Asian countries, while the agricul-
developing logistics and integrated tions that foster cooperation and goods coming from there. and vegetables. tural deal involves the purchase of
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mutually beneficial relationship as other by signing a five-year devel- The much-anticipated start of the
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help Thailand forecast market trading partners. Cultural links and opment plan in 2012 that set specific ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
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geographical proximity between the goals such as expanding trade and is good news for China and Thailand’s
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safety is of paramount importance. of emigration from China to Thailand raising bilateral trade to 15 percent nations hope to secure more invest-
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over hundreds of years. Today, the a year. “China and Thailand are one ments from the mainland and attract
companies need to cash in on Fair trade Thailand has legal vast majority of Thailand’s 50 richest family,” said the former Chinese more Chinese tourists. Developing
the boom in digital retail and the mechanisms and organizations to “Trade liberalization is businessmen are Thai-Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao during a meeting infrastructure projects is another
rise of mobile networks. To do so TVQQPSU
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vital to the process of Chinese). The Thai monarchy has his- Shinawatra, in Bangkok that year. a highway that connects southern
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widens consumers’ range of Thai-Chinese) merchant class who pending trade negotiations following For these reasons, Sino-Thai
modernize its e-commerce laws in effective choices and lowers have generally adopted Thailand as Thailand’s military coup in 2014, the observers forecast sunny days ahead
order to assure buyers and sellers that Unraveling red tape

#PPTUJOH
their homeland and assimilated well. government has made consolidating for relations between the two coun-
they are trading with fair regulations cross-border trade with Thailand’s the risk of conflict.” In 1975, Thailand established dip- its ties with China a top priority. More tries with trade hitting some US$120
and platforms. neighbors requires solving political James A. Dorn, Why Freedom Matters lomatic relations with the People’s recently, Premier Li Keqiang signed billion per year by 2016.

134 135
 TRANSPORTATION
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In Thailand, the automobile holds dominion over the according to the 10th National Economic and Social
roads, its dominance the result of two key drivers: Development Plan from 2007 to 2011.
the car as face-gaining status symbol and a transport
system that favors roads. And culturally, in general, These missing links in Thailand’s rail network were
Thais, like Americans, love their cars. long overdue. Although the State Railway of Thailand
has been operating for almost 120 years, so far it’s
When Thailand joined the only laid some 4,000 kilometers of tracks. Around 93
fast track to economic percent of them are single tracks and the railway has
“Developing countries have development in the 1960s become notorious for derailments in recent years.
been favoring roads over and 1970s, American aid
railways for the past 30 money built new roads over Meanwhile, the military-backed National Council
years. Sustainability must former canals and highways for Peace and Order resolved to work out a plan for
focus on railways as the through the northeast. As the development of national transport infrastruc-
auto prices fell, cars became ture projects. Deputy Transport Minister Arkhom
worldwide investment in a more affordable luxury Termpittayapaisith, who is also the secretary-
sustainable transportation item and a convenient mode general to the National Economic and Social
centers on them. In the of transportation. By the Development Board, said that Thailand needed
next 10 years, 80 percent 1990s, with Thailand gaining continuous investment to get these projects up and
of investments in public an international reputation running. The budget was set at almost two trillion
as the “Detroit of Asia” for baht (approximately US$60 billion). More than half
transport in Thailand will go its car manufacturing plants of that money will be allocated for railway construc-
to railways.” in the Eastern Seaboard, tion, but the total excludes the cost of double-track,
Pichet Kunadhamraks, senior civil the roads of Bangkok had standard-gauge railways and the expansion of
engineer at the Office of Transport and become infamously congested. Suvarnabhumi International Airport.
Traffic Policy and Planning under the Meanwhile, an aging railway
Ministry of Transport in a personal system failed to keep pace The plan consists of five main areas. The first one
interview with the author with the popularity of road deals with the improvement of existing interprovin-
transport. Roads became the cial railways, including the replacement of rolling
favorite mode of not only stock, the installation of modern signaling systems,
commuting but transporting goods, with 86 percent and the construction of double-track railways – both
of freight sent via these arteries, 12 percent shipped meter and standard gauge – to connect with China
by water and a fraction of a percentage point by air. via neighboring countries like Laos and Myanmar.
The second part consists of buying new buses for
However, in the 2000s, the transport network the Bangkok metropolitan area and its vicinity,
began to shift. First, Bangkok’s new, elevated improving roads and bridges, and adding mass
commuter rail, the Skytrain, provided downtown transit lines in and around the capital, which will
commuters an alternative to driving. The success expand the existing Skytrain and subway routes into
of the Skytrain encouraged the government to the neighboring provinces. By the time these new
green light plans for 10 more electric railways lines are up and running, between 2016 and 2022,
to encircle the greater Bangkok area, in addition the Bang Sue Station will be the hub connecting
to new commuter trains to be introduced to the them with high-speed railways and buses. With the
capital. The government also approved plans for addition of park-and-ride services, the authorities
double-track lines to be built on all the main routes hope that some 62 percent of commuters will be
connecting the different parts of the country, riding the mass transit system to work and to their
136
The BTS Skytrain has blazed a new trail for mass transit in Bangkok.
leisurely pursuits on weekends – a massive leap over system that emphasizes railways over roads, and
the 5 percent of commuters who use these services gives commuters better options, Thailand’s sustain-
at present. ability and competitiveness will be compromised –
and traffic will remain the number one grumble in
The aviation industry of ASEAN will expand rapidly the capital, as always.
as the market share of low-cost airlines exceeds 50
percent. The International Air Transport Association
predicts that air transportation in Asia and the
Pacific will grow faster than that in other regions
and 37 percent of worldwide air passengers will
be in this region in 2015. Therefore, the capacities
of Suvarnabhumi and Don Mueang international
airports must be further increased from serving 45
million passengers per year to 85 million and from
18.5 million to 30 million, respectively, by 2022.
The plan’s third pillar supports the building of better
highways that will form more efficient linkages
between urban warehouses and rural farmlands, and
facilitate transfers between tourism hotspots. It also
covers the construction of intermodal facilities such
as cargo terminals to improve the transport of goods
between roads and railways. The fourth and fifth parts
of the plan cover the improvement of waterways,
including piers and sea ports, while also promoting
regional airports and aviation-related industries.
These big ambitions are in danger of stalling by
political haggling, corruption and red tape. But
without a better and more cost-effective transport
137
PART II | ECONOMY TRANSPORTATION

R EA SONS
Why Transportation Matters to Sustainable Development Managing Chronic Traffic Jams
Hub of choices
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In 2013 the BBC gave Bangkok the the 20th century: around 16 kilome- traffic cops who let them off the hook
tourism requires an efficient and balanced transport a downtown where no cars are permitted makes two- first slot in its “Monster Traffic Jams” ters per hour. for small bribes.
network that provides commuters and businesses with a XIFFMFE
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any locals, expats or tourists. Traffic biles reflects the growing number cues from other countries which
also some well-coordinated land use planning. congestion has been a chronic com- of motorists with means – or at least have made traffic into a big issue.
Staying competitive Transport has a direct effect on plaint for decades. Every time the high access to credit – who see the car as The United States, for example, has
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yet more vehicles – as was the case some 57 percent are private vehicles, areas, by operating express buses and
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in 2011 when the administration 37 percent are motorcycles, 2 percent by promoting strategies to reduce
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air routes could help bridge the widening income gap a policy that spurred GDP but ran the late 1980s and early 1990s every other hand, operates an electronic
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1.45 million in 2012 and 1.33 million push the traffic issue to the forefront Japan, motorists must prove that they
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“The problem about mass transit

development in Thailand is that the
projects are planned separately without
a vision for connecting them with other
kinds of transportation such as passenger
buses and vans and motorcycle taxis. This
contributes to the escalating costs of urban
travel. The government must introduce
mass transit services that link with
different modes of transportation and they
may have to work out systematic subsidies
for such services. Such subsidies must
be funded with local taxes. Nationwide
During the morning rush hour in more expressways, more traffic cops they can apply for a driver’s license.
taxpayers should not be footing the bill for Bangkok, a city that can accommo- and the building of the Skytrain and Perhaps it’s time that the Thai gov-
free bus services in Bangkok.” date around two million vehicles in subway have not solved the dilemma. ernment thinks about implementing
Sumet Ongkittikul, research director for transportation transit, there are an estimated five The problem is exacerbated by a lack such measures aimed at changing
and logistics at the Thailand Development Research million vehicles plying the streets of private car parks and bad drivers the behavior and mindsets of auto-
Institute in an interview on February 23, 2015 at an average speed slower than a who do not respect the rules of the mobile drivers by taking aim at their
horse-drawn carriage at the turn of road in collusion with the corrupt most vulnerable parts: their wallets.

138 139
PART II | ECONOMY

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Speedy Trains on a Fast Track


A high-speed railway project that was
shelved during the political conflicts

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of recent years is back on track thanks
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passengers and freight from 250 to
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These six new routes, covering

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some 3,000 kilometers, will be the
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lines in Thailand. The wider gauge –
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safer roads.
140
Thai capital with the Malay border
town of Padang Besar, while the
fourth line will link the northwestern
province of Tak to Mukdahan prov-
ince via Phitsanulok. The fifth route
will be financed by the Japanese
as it links some of their produc-
tion bases in the industrial estate of
Laem Chabang in Chonburi province
with Bangkok and Kanchanaburi.
(The latter province is the gateway
to Myanmar, where a mega-project
involving the construction of a deep-
sea port in Dawei is currently under-
way.) Another important trade route
is the proposed 150-kilometer rail
line from the Pak Bara port in Satun
province to the Songkhla port on the
other side.
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speed trains will help connect more
remote parts of the country and
redistribute wealth to the prov-
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inces. The catch is that these new
routes might not attract many inves-
tors, aside from a few strategic lines
favored and backed by the Chinese
sualties. Educating drivers about road
and Japanese, nor much interest from
local commuters and travelers.
The Office of Transport and Traffic
Policy and Planning sounded out
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
operators about investing in these
projects only to find they had little
interest except in working as contrac-
tors. That’s why such projects can turn
into white elephants, as the govern-
ment of Taiwan discovered when it
had to take over high-speed train ser-
vices from the private sector.
In any case, neighboring coun-
tries are scrutinizing the situation in
Thailand very closely. Because it’s the
geographical center of the region,
Thailand’s rail links can determine
the future of projects in other ASEAN
countries, which means for Thailand,
the return on these astronomical
investments could be significant, as
it positions itself as the hub of ASEAN
and a transport bridge between its
neighbors and China.
Transport authorities said
high-speed trains will
help connect more remote
parts of the country and
redistribute wealth to the
provinces. The catch is that
these new routes might
not attract many investors
aside from a few strategic
lines favored by the Chinese
and Japanese...
FURTHER READING
Challenges Facing the Transport Sector
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but the bidding has not yet begun.
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area as well as standard gauge tracks
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TRANSPORTATION
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• Guidelines for Transport Development for Sustainable National Development
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• Railway Development in Greater Bangkok
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• Facilitating the International Railway Network to Promote Thailand as an Economic and Touristic
Hub of the Region
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services. Without such rules of the
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prohibit vehicles from Thailand to
pass through its territory to reach a
third-party country.
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responsible for making and regulating
transportation policies have yet to be
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tation networks with neighboring on drunk drivers will pave the way for
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141
 LABOR
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Since the implementation of the first National
Economic and Social Development Plan in 1961,
Thailand has banked on capitalism. Boosting
economic growth meant promoting industrial
development and exports, as well as attracting foreign
investors with a skilled yet affordable workforce.
3D jobs: As Thailand grew rapidly over the next few decades,
“Dirty, dangerous developing such labor-intensive industries as
and difficult” or textiles, garments, footwear and agricultural goods,
“dirty, dangerous there was no shortage of workers. Driving a mass
and demeaning” migration to the cities and their factories and
work, frequently construction sites were such rural woes as poverty,
undertaken by
migrant laborers urban encroachment, and a lack of opportunities
instead of the both fiscal and educational.
local population.
In the aftermath of the financial crisis in 1997 that
spread from its epicenter in Bangkok to cause
severe repercussions all across Asia, many financial
institutions collapsed, businesses went bust, and
the unemployment rate spiked, spurring a backlash
against migrant workers for supposedly stealing jobs.
Only then did Thailand see the need to climb the
142
value chain as it could no longer rely on labor-
intensive industries and a stable baht to boost
exports and economic growth.
Consequently, the Thai labor market experienced
a major structural shift on both the supply and
demand sides. The economic turmoil forced a great
number of factory workers to return to farming or
become self-employed. Meanwhile, entrepreneurs
also revised their business models, shifting toward
more sophisticated enterprises to cope with the
fiercer competition from regional peers bolstered
by cheaper wages. Thus, they needed better-trained
workers to occupy these new positions.
Given the need for new skill sets and the increasing
price of agricultural commodities, many workers
did not take up their old posts even as the economy
gradually recovered. The shortage of skilled workers
was compounded by the number of young college
or vocational students who, rather than fill these
positions, opted to pursue the possibilities of higher
education. This, in turn, caused an imbalance in
the workforce resulting in a dearth of semi-skilled
workers willing to toil for menial wages. The shortfall
has taken its toll on foreign investment and prevented
the Thai economy from growing to its full potential.
At the beginning of 2013, the Yingluck Shinawatra
administration implemented a minimum wage
hike to a flat rate of 300 baht per day nationwide, a
big leap from the previous 171–215 baht (a sliding
scale for workers in different parts of the country).
Although the controversial decision gave workers a
nominal boost in wages, it has failed to keep pace
with inflation, and because of a spike in the cost of
living workers may still be worse off than before the
pay raise. On the other hand, experts have noted that
the raise of wages has outpaced productivity, causing
a decline in Thailand’s global competitiveness.
Representing another populist policy, the boosting of
the starting salaries for civil servants with university
degrees to 15,000 baht (and encouraging the private
A group of migrant workers on the deck of a fishing boat in Phuket.
sector to do the same) has led students in secondary
and vocational schools to aim for bachelor degrees,
further adding to the shortage of blue-collar workers.
Another side effect of the minimum wage hike
has been the influx of laborers from neighboring
countries. Massive numbers of both legal and illegal
workers from Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos are
now predominantly employed in “3D” jobs that are
beneath the dignity of Thai workers. At present,
around 1.6 million migrant workers are registered
at the Office of Foreign Workers Administration,
but the government and labor experts expect the
actual figure, including illegal workers, is closer to 3.5
million, some 80 percent from Myanmar.
With increasing dependence on migrant workers
at home, and negative press about human rights
violations abroad, Thailand needs to carefully
calibrate policies to ensure that these foreign
workers are treated with dignity. Such safeguards
are necessary to avoid more dents in the kingdom’s
international image and to sustain the country’s
economic growth, which is already under threat
from a lower birth rate and an aging population that
may not have the means to retire as early as they had
in the past.
These question marks aside, Thailand has worked hard
to keep its people at work. As of 2013, the workforce
consisted of 39.4 million people, or almost 72
percent of the population. And the unemployment
rate has been on the decline over the past decade.
Between 2011 and 2013 it averaged 0.7 percent – the
second lowest rate in the region – thanks in no small
part to the massive informal sector.
The Informal Sector
A whopping 75 percent of Thai workers make ends
meet in the largely unregulated, untaxed and often
unaccounted-for informal sector, also referred to as the
“grey economy.” This is not the criminal underworld
but a critical source of jobs to the poor or less educated.
From street vendors to motorcycle taxi drivers to free-
lance creative and Internet entrepreneurs to small mom-
and-pop shophouse businesses – Thailand has one of
the largest informal economies in the world. In Asia
in general, the informal sector is estimated to account
for 60 percent of the workforce. Problems posed by the
informal sector is that its workers rarely receive security
or social benefits, and at worst, are exploited. The sector
is also difficult for governments to manage. Skills are not
enhanced and economic value is not maximized.
143
PART II | ECONOMY

TIME LI NE

The Long and

Arduous Struggle for
Equality and Fair Pay
Pre-1932 1997 2013
AD 1350– revolution The Asian Financial
Crisis leads to business
The government led
by Yingluck Shinawa-
The working class closures and a surge tra implements a
1767 becomes the backbone
of new, export-driven 1957
in the unemployment
rate.
minimum wage hike to
a flat rate of 300 baht
During the Ayudhya businesses, such as per day nationwide,
period, the sakdina First trade union forms
rubber, sugar, timber under 1956 Labor Act. a big leap from the
or feudal system is and electronics. previous minimum
established, meaning that applied to workers
slaves are consid-
1975
in different parts of the
ered the property of country.
royalty, aristocrats and
high-ranking officials.
Peasants also have
1919 The government
divides workers into
two groups by law. The
1957–1963
to spend six to eight Thailand becomes one
months per year work- of the 45 founding Labor Relations Act,
ing for feudal lords. members of the Inter- B.E. 2518, is imple-
Prisoners of war are The so-called “dark mented to govern
national Labor Organi-
2014
treated as the king’s age” of the labor workers in the private
zation after WWI.
property. movement during sector, while later in
Field Marshal Sarit 2000, the State Enter-
Thanarat’s administra- The US State Depart-
prises Labor Relations ment downgrades
tion, which imple- Act, B.E. 2543, governs
ments draconian Thailand to Tier 3, the
1905
the civil service. lowest ranking on its
measures against those
2014 Trafficking in
17th–19th
disrupting peace and
Rama V abolishes government orders. Persons (TIP) Report,
spurring the govern-
centuries
slavery in Siam as
part of an attempt to ment to look into the
issue more vigorously.
During the early
Rattanakosin period,
modernize the country
amid threats of 1973
colonization. Labor associations co-
the number of slaves
and peasants rises to a operate with farmers “No man needs sympathy
third of the population, and students to topple
the dictatorship of
because he has to work,
partly due to several
because he has a burden
decades of wars
against neighboring 1965 Field Marshal Thanom
Kittikachorn, inspiring
2030 to carry. Far and away the
empires to capture
enemy soldiers and
1855–1858 Department of Labor is
established under the
a pro-democracy
uprising that leads World Bank forecasts best prize that life offers is
convert them into slave The introduction of Ministry of Interior. to bloody clashes on demographic change the chance to work hard at
October 14 followed
labor. During the reign
of Rama III (1824-1851),
industrial rice mills
gives rise to the by more battles and
in Thailand that
will lead to a severe
work worth doing.”
for instance, there are working class in Siam. a right-wing backlash shortage of workers
on October 6, 1976, at THEODORE ROOSEVELT, 26th president of the
an estimated 46,000 The majority of these between the ages of 15
war slaves. Thammasat University. and 64. United States of America
workers are Chinese.

Laborers work high up on the scaffolding of one of Bangkok’s many construction sites.

144
PART II | ECONOMY LABOR
FURTHER READING
• Labor Force Survey in Thailand: 2013
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could cause the relocation of both in- and the absence of a social safety

The Impact of the ASEAN Economic Community

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since the majority of university concomitant loss of jobs in Thailand. Thailand was downgraded to Tier
graduates majored in social sciences. The key challenge is to combine 
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The much-anticipated establishment
Lackluster English skills Unlike of the ASEAN Economic Community,
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the intra-regional movement of spe-
to maintain its independence and cialists in certain fields. However,
sovereignty. The downside is that the regional integration should not
Thais have a comparative disad- bring about any drastic changes to
vantage over neighbors in speaking the Thai labor market in the foresee-
foreign languages. Throw in bad able future as not all types of workers
study habits as well as a rote learning will be able to move among member
system and the result is that Thai nations without restrictions. The
workers are considered to be among AEC blueprint is mainly intended to
the poorest English speakers in promote the free flow of goods and
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services in four different areas: trade
and commerce, services, investment
Double-edged sword The and capital. Labor is not a top priority.
“informal sector” comprising free- ASEAN members have signed
lancers and those working in small Mutual Recognition Arrangements
businesses of fewer than five workers (MRA) that will facilitate the move-
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for Tourism Professional (MRA-TP), to work anywhere in the region if they exploring more lucrative avenues in
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graduates with degrees in disciplines contentious area. Some locals will abroad anyway.
that possess few career prospects. education and skills development 64
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strategies that enhance productivity detailing abuses of human rights. The their jobs to foreigners with stronger
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on vocational and industry-specific engaged in almost all activities that to work beyond the traditional retire- It’s possible that some local spe-
skills is needed. require manual labor. With barely ment age. cialists may consider moving abroad

146 147
 COMPETITIVENESS
*2Ʉ#$')Ʉ( .0- .Ʉ0+Ʉ$)Ʉ/# Ʉ- "$*)Ʉ
and around the world

Middle income The epithet “Teflon Thailand” has long been used masking – and probably deepening – the country’s
trap: to describe the country’s ability to slide out of dire more endemic problems. These lie in the heart of
Some develop- situations. For decades its economy remained Thailand’s competitive health.
ment economists resilient through coups, floods and paralyzing
say most coun- protests. Perhaps those days are numbered. Thailand’s dream of the 1980s and early 1990s
tries hit a growth to become the fifth “Asian tiger” is now being
ceiling after a
few decades of In 2014, Asean Confidential, a Financial Times replaced by the dull reality of getting mired in the
rapid expansion research service, calculated that between 2001 and “middle income trap.” Having maximized the benefits
because they fail 2005, Thailand’s economy grew at an average of 6 of low-cost labor migration to industrial zones,
to move “up the percent a year. By contrast, over the next decade, Thailand looks ill-equipped for the next stage –
value chain.” This after divisive political protests and a military coup, it that of offering higher quality, more productive and
means they con- grew an average of 2.3 percent a year. Some of that innovative manufacturing and services. ASEAN Economic Community billboard on Sukhumvit Road in Bangkok.
tinue to compete
on low-cost labor deceleration had to do with the global economy
and low-quality slowing down and the floods of 2011, but most, During the high-growth period, foreign direct
goods rather than says Asean Confidential, resulted from politics. It investment (FDI) and low production costs were IT infrastructure. In short, it has to innovate. Yet the
improve the skills compared the superior performance of neighboring enough to underwrite the success story behind World Economic Forum’s Global Competitive Index
and productivity countries to clinch the argument. its Newly Industrialized Country (NIC) status. for 2014 shows that Thailand’s ranking for innovation
of the country’s Governments, including military ones, came and fell to 67 from 33 in 2007.
workforce and
infrastructure. But there is another way of looking at this. As went, but all embraced the expansionary policies
damaging as political turmoil is, it might just be of tax privileges and short-term growth. First came At the same time, the education system has failed
labor-intensive industries such as garments and to address Thailand’s poor showing in global
textiles. Soon afterwards a wave of auto industry performance tables, while the country’s need for
investments from Japan got the “Detroit of Asia” an infrastructure upgrade to meet the demands of
rolling. Electronic goods were not far behind and in ASEAN “connectivity” has been left unaddressed as
time Thailand won recognition as the single-biggest the political polarization of the last decade appears
producer of computer hard drives in the world. to have stalled moves to remedy these problems.

Not even the severe financial crisis of 1997 was
able to dent Thailand’s progress for long. A 20-plus
percent depreciation in the baht against the dollar
helped to drive double-digit export growth and
open a new chapter in the success story, with a
newly transformed and stable financial system
underpinned by prudent monetary policies.
But the country’s central bank, leading economists
and research institutions have been warning for years
that Thailand has to “move up the value chain,” or, in
other words, to start producing goods and services
of higher quality to replace the declining exports of
computer electronics that are fast giving way to the
components in smartphones and tablets. To do that,
they maintain, Thailand must upgrade its education
system, its research and development (R&D) and its
To make matters worse, the political turmoil has
caused incalculable “brand damage,” dramatically
advertising the country’s weaknesses, such as the
arbitrary exercise of power, institutional incompe- Connectivity:
tence, massive corruption and lax law enforcement. In economics this
refers to linking
Despite these challenges, there is no doubt that, supply chains
when it comes to doing business, Thailand trumps (the produc-
tion, shipment,
most of its neighbors. In the World Bank’s Ease of assembly and
Doing Business Survey 2015, Thailand ranked third distribution of
among ASEAN members, placing 26th with only various product
Singapore and Malaysia ahead of it. With an overall components)
ranking of 31 in the Global Competitive Index and through better
strong showings in some of the 12 categories, such as roads, rail, ports
and airports
“macroeconomic environment,” where Thailand was as well as more
number 19, and “goods market efficiency,” where it efficient customs
ranked 30th, there is room for cautious optimism. procedures.

148 149
PART II | ECONOMY COMPETITIVENESS

R EA SONS
Why Competitiveness Matters to Sustainable Development The Bank of Thailand: A Model Institution
Regional supply chains

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currency. The economy shrank by 10 from your mistakes. By the time the cal stress and volatility in the global
Defining Competitiveness
percent in 1998 as non-performing economy was back on its feet, the economy. The World Bank’s East
loans choked off investment and BOT had put into place procedures Asia Competitiveness study for 2013
consumption. not only for its own conduct, but for ranked Thailand 14th out of 60 coun-
“Ultimately competitiveness is about raising the prosperity of people, which can be defined as a mix
regulatory and supervisory reforms tries in the world for “resilience of the
of income, standard of living and quality of life,” says Professor Stéphane Garelli, who helps create the for the financial system as a whole. economy.”
annual World Competitiveness Yearbook published by the Swiss-based business school IMD (Interna- Growth bounced back and by In July 2014, two months after the
tional Institute for Management Development). In a modern economy, competitiveness does not simply
“If the country moves
2003 it peaked at over 7 percent. coup, former BOT governor Prasarn
ask “How fast can you grow?” toward modern farming And while politicians have made the Trairatvorakul told the Foreign
and knowledge-based, occasional barbed comment from Correspondents’ Club of Thailand
IMD formally defines competitiveness this way: high value-added service time to time, as they do elsewhere, that the independence of the bank’s
Competitiveness of Nations is a field of economic theory, which analyzes the facts and policies that industries, it will be able to they’ve kept their distance. The BOT monetary policy committee was the
shape the ability of a nation to create and maintain an environment that sustains more value creation escape the ‘middle income has achieved this despite the fact reason the bank has been able to
that it didn’t win independence on build up its credibility over the past
for its enterprises and more prosperity for its people. trap’ with sustainability. the execution of monetary policy decade.
The World Economic Forum, which publishes another annual flagship competitiveness report, defines it as:
Two factors really matter: until March 2008. Even after the “The institutional setup must con-
high quality people and coup in May 2014, when the military tinue to protect this independence,
The set of institutions, policies and factors that determine the level of productivity of a country. The level investment in research reshuffled dozens of officials and so that monetary policy can remain a
of productivity, in turn, sets the level of prosperity that can be earned by an economy. and development. The executives at the top of Thailand’s cornerstone of Thailand’s macroeco-
economy, the BOT’s distinction was nomic stability….The MPC [Monetary
In the end, competitiveness is about prosperity. But countries only get there through positive inter- government has to make preserved. Policy Committee) is aware that our
actions between different elements of their state and society. For the IMD, there are three key factors: these happen.” The result over the years has operational independence would
economic performance, government and business efficiency, and infrastructure. For the WEF, there are Somkiat Tangkitvanich, president been lower inflation, lower-than- mean little in the absence of public
12 pillars of competitiveness, including institutions, infrastructure, macroeconomic environment, health of Thailand Development average interest rates, a stable cur- trust…It is ultimately the very source
and education, efficient markets, technology and innovation. Research Institute rency and sound foreign exchange of our credibility,” he said.

150 151
PART II | ECONOMY
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poorly in global tables. Thailand’s

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Infrastructure Thailand needs
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the government approved a
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the north.
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scores quite high in competitive-
population through the promotion
shifts to economic
development” and “banking and
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goods aided by both
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development of job-generating small-
and medium-sized enterprises. The
COMPETITIVENESS
FURTHER READING
• World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015
TIME LI NE • i&OIBODJOH
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Pacific Update,
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• Thailand Economic Monitor,
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of Competition
• i5IF
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IMD World Competiveness Yearbook
1984
1961 The Thai baht,
pegged against the
Thailand’s first Eco- dollar since 1956, is de-
nomic Development valued from 23 against
Plan is drafted with the dollar to 27 baht
support from the
in order to address a
World Bank, like many serious current account
developing countries
1985
deficit problem which
during the 1960s. The carried on for more
plan identifies FDI as than two decades. The
the main engine to The world’s industrial
lower baht increases
drive the Thai econ- countries sign the
Thailand’s export
omy. Per capita gross Plaza Accord, forcing
competitiveness.
national incomes (GNI) yen appreciation. Thus
begins the golden era
is US$101 at the time.
for Thai FDI as Jap-
anese firms relocate
Early 1980s
to countries offering
cheaper production
1960s–
costs.
Thailand becomes
an industrial goods
1970s exporter. Under the “The faster Thailand upgrades
Late 1980s
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“National income per capita remains Thailand does well
administration of Prem its infrastructure, the better its
Tinsulanonda, the
ranking will be.”
MPX
investment volume. This reflects the
attracting FDI, mainly
through the Board of
government and pri-
vate sector work more
to 1996 Professor Arturo Bris, director of the IMD
majority of the population’s limited Investment (BOI), cre- closely together. A key All sectors boom, World Competitiveness Center
access to capital and capability of ated specifically for this private sector organi- from tourism to
purpose in July 1966. zation, the Joint Public property, exports and
income generation.”
A total of about six
billion baht pours into
and Private Committee,
is set up to convey to
the financial sector.
GDP growth averages
1997
The financial and
needs of businesses. Thailand aspires to currency crisis that
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to substitute locally become the fifth “tiger began in Thailand
people in the working-age group produced manufac- economy” of Asia after spreads to other Asian
will have to support at least four tured goods for some Japan, Korea, Taiwan countries. The Interna- 2005
elderly persons. This is what is known
as a higher dependency ratio. This
imports. Primary farm
exports contribute to 1970s– and Singapore. tional Monetary Fund
prescribes some bitter Political polarization
means the country will have to raise
the productivity of the working-age
economic growth.
1980s pills, so Thailand’s
economy shrinks by
for more than a de-
cade undermines the
Thailand gradually 10.2 percent in 1998, country’s competitive-
ness in many different
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but eventually it
ways.
growth based on the remedies those ills by
export of industrial strengthening private
sector competitive-
opportunities for the development global and local ness, particularly in the
sphere of finance.
particular health and medical care
services.
153
 CORRUPTION

Ʉ +Ɲ-**/ Ʉ( ) Ʉ/*Ʉ#$Ʉ.*$ /4ɄɄɄ
Whether it’s a bribe made to influence an
Environmental Impact Assessment, or a
facilitating payment accepted to push through a
mega-project that might have negative effects on
a local community, corruption is one of the biggest
impediments to sustainable development. Its
mercenary aim targets short-term gains that benefit
those in positions of power. In contrast, sustainable
development involves long-term strategies in the
interests of all stakeholders.
In Thailand, corruption comes in many forms with a
variety of consequences. There are the small bribes,
such as the traffic policeman accepting a couple
hundred baht in lieu of writing a ticket or a bureau-
crat’s “processing fee” to ensure certain documents
aren’t held up. These practices are widespread, deeply
entrenched in society and, in certain situations, a
necessity to get from Point A to B.
Their prevalence may also explain why many Thais
are outwardly tolerant of corruption, at least on
this small-scale level. Transparency International’s
2014 Corruption Perceptions Index said that 65
percent of those surveyed believe that corruption is
okay if they can reap some benefit for themselves.
These common transactions may also explain why
71 percent of Thais perceive the police as “corrupt
or extremely corrupt,” while 58 percent share that
view of public officials and civil servants. However,
according to a survey by Chulalongkorn University’s
Faculty of Economics, this sort of bribe-taking is
becoming less common. Thailand’s land offices,
Facilitating police stations and customs offices, previously
payment: considered the epicenters of such corruption, have
This kind of all seen declines in such behavior between 1999 and
payment, made 2014.
to a public
official with the What triggers public outcry and political instability
explicit intention in Thailand is the more lavish and infamous form
of speeding up of corruption commonly referred to as “money
an administra-
tive process, is a politics.” This conflict of interest takes place where
euphemism for a big money, government and politics intersect and
bribe. has seriously corroded policymaking, governance
154
and arguably the legitimacy of the entire political
establishment.
Reinforced by Thailand’s centuries-old patronage
system and network of cronyism and nepotism, this
corruption of the political establishment includes
vote-buying and the outright purchasing of posts
within the bureaucracy, impacts public procurement
projects, and sees kickbacks and bribes offered
to government officials in exchange for special
privileges in the form of concessions awarded to
particular private companies or criteria specifically
designed to favor particular bidders. The size of
the bribes paid by businessmen to state officials
and politicians account for anywhere from 5 to
15 percent of the project’s value, according to a
2014 survey by the University of the Thai Chamber
of Commerce (UTCC). The National Counter
Corruption Commission (now renamed the National
Anti-Corruption Commission) estimates that in
certain years up to 30 percent of the government
procurement budget has vanished due to corrupt
practices.
At its most systemic level, the intersection of politics
and business has seen what is known as wholesale
“policy corruption” implemented via legislation
usually branded as “populist.” These policies are
designed to benefit board members, politicians and
government officials or their families rather than the
general public. Numerous procurement and policy
scandals have rocked Thailand, involving everything
from the country’s infrastructure projects to the
purchase of rice, rubber and useless bomb detectors.
Just as prevalent are cases of politicians enriching
themselves through purchasing pieces of real estate
well below their market value. Not surprisingly,
according to Transparency International, political
parties are second only to the police in terms of
being perceived by the public as corrupt, and
Thailand ranks a middling 85th out of 175 countries
in its measurement of “the levels of public sector
corruption” as perceived by foreign businessmen.
Thai parliament during a no-confidence vote in Bangkok in 2008. In the past, allegations of corruption have frequently led to instability, coups and new elections.
In a survey of more than a thousand companies in and implement measures to ensure transparency
2013 for the Thai Institute of Directors (IOD), the of procurement projects while also raising public
study broke down the pernicious results of such awareness and promoting actions against corruption.
misconduct. The biggest impact , the respondents
said, was in weakening Thailand’s competitiveness in Average Thais also feel increasingly empowered
the region (21 percent believe this). That was followed to voice their dismay, with 72 percent, according
by a drop in ethics and morals (20 percent), tainting to Transparency International, believing that an
the country’s international image (14 percent), putting ordinary person can make a difference in combating
the brakes on economic growth (11 percent) and corruption. Over the next decade, all these stake-
posing a threat to good governance (9 percent). holders certainly have their work cut out for them
to establish a more efficient checks and balances
To tackle this multi-pronged vice, Thailand has system and the good governance essential for driving
set up a number of government and independent Thailand towards a clean and bribe-free society.
agencies, such as the Office of the National Anti-
Corruption Commission (NACC), the Office of the
Public Sector Anti-Corruption Commission (PACC),
the Anti-Money Laundering Office (AMLO), the
Office of the Auditor General (OAG) and the Office
of the Ombudsman Thailand. The Office Information
Act, seen as one of the key laws to help stop graft,
has also been enacted since 1997. Yet corruption in
Thailand remains endemic.
Evidently, the state alone cannot eliminate graft, so
the private sector and civil society have increasingly
taken on the cause. Fed up with bribery demands,
the private sector, for example, has initiated agencies
such as the Anti-Corruption Organization of Thailand
(ACT) and Thailand’s Private Sector Collective Action
Coalition against Corruption (CAC) to monitor
155
PART II | ECONOMY CORRUPTION

FURTHER READING
• Corruption and Democracy in Thailand, CZ
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1JSJZBSBOHTBO

• Thaksin: The Business of Politics in Thailand,
CZ
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How Corruption Impedes Sustainable Development • i8IZ
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Undermines public trust Endemic corruption causes The generals leading the dozen suc- bribes from citizens or companies. graft drives up overheads, lowers the
widespread skepticism about the integrity of politicians cessful coups carried out in Thailand In Thailand’s bureaucracy, with its country’s competitiveness levels and
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since 1932 have all said their actions piles of paperwork that require mul- deprives the needy of access to essen-
the general public to deal with them out of fear they will were motivated by the same culprit: tiple signatures and stamps, there are tial public services.
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corruption. So did the current junta ample opportunities for corruption To help remedy this chronic ill in
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the body politic, the government has
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initiated the Facilitation of Official
Permission Granting Act of 2015,
Scares off foreign investment The bribes necessary to which was published in the Royal
push a project through in Thailand can add another 5 to Gazette on January 22, 2015, and
15 percent or more of the total cost. To foreign investors made effective within 180 days. The
these kinds of kickbacks are also warning signs that the new law requires government offi-
rule of law means little in Thailand and business ethics are cials and agencies to give clear and
skewed. precise details regarding the neces-
sary procedures and documents, as
Downgrades standard of living "
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well as the specific timeframe, for
graft widens the income gap between the haves and the relevant agencies to consider appli-
have-nots. Those without means also find themselves with cations. By doing so, the law will
The Securities Exchange Commission protests the amnesty bill of 2013. limited access to public services or recourse to justice in streamline governmental work pro-
the courts. cesses and create a “service mind”
Unsustainable system

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students surveyed do not object to giving bribes or Department of Special Investigation officials show solidarity in the fight against corruption. agencies are obliged to inform cus-
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“The best suppression tool for corruption is prevention. cannot grant permission to fulfill the
It costs lives

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are key building blocks for a sustainable future. The saying ‘corruption in this life will be punished in the particular request. Government offi-
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against corruption.” tional documents only once to speed
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up the processing time and elimi-
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Wasan Phaileeklee, secretary of the Anti-Corruption Reform Panel of the nate kickbacks. If the officials fail to
National Reform Council, speaking on the “NRC Blueprint for Change”
may ultimately create a hazard that impacts the health or comply with the law, service users can
safety of community members. file a complaint against them.
that seized power in 2014 and now at every turn. Whenever someone The government is also planning
Heavy toll on the global economy

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rules the country under the National needs a new ID or driver’s license, to launch more one-stop service
the cost of corruption equals more than 5 percent of Council for Peace and Order (NCPO). to register a house or a business, to centers to provide the general public
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With a public outcry against cor- transfer a property or open a restau- with greater ease of access to a variety
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ruption reaching another peak, a new rant, the door of opportunity opens of services, while also giving out more
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law was passed in 2015 that makes the for graft to knock. Complicated and detailed information about the nec-
respectively. death penalty a possible punishment time-consuming, these processes can essary application procedures. Such
for corruption. In addition, the hope be streamlined by greasing the palms developments, if implemented, if fol-
Inefficient use of public resources

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is that a new law on public service of civil servants who, it should be lowed and subject to other ifs, should
allocated to sectors or areas that really need them but to will reduce red tape and the oppor- noted, are often paid a pittance and also aid the private sector by provid-
those that offer the best prospects for the personal gain of tunity for government officials to line expected to make up the shortfall by ing them with clear timeframes and
corrupt officials or politicians. Never completed, the Hopewell rail project was famously hopeless. their wallets and bank accounts with taking backhanders. In cases like this, costs.

156 157
THE THAI
SOCIETY
“The human environment and the
natural environment deteriorate
together; we cannot adequately
combat environmental degradation
unless we attend to causes related to
human and social degradation.”
Pope Francis

Education

Health

Family

Poverty and Income Inequality
Public Participation
Gender Equality
Conflict
Social issues are the most humane side
of sustainable development, since they
put real faces on woes like poverty,
disease, illiteracy and discrimination
that would otherwise remain faceless
statistics in reports.
Inevitably, as developing countries
like Thailand evolve, robust economic
growth will remain a key goal. However,
sustainable growth is not attainable
without proper attention paid to human
values, consumption and concerns. A
healthy, well-educated, highly skilled
and happy populace is needed to drive
the country’s progress.
In this respect, Thailand has
made tremendous strides. One of the
kingdom’s greatest achievements is
lifting the vast majority of its popu-
lation out of poverty and providing
them with electricity, clean water
and other basic life necessities. In
addition, it has developed a solid
healthcare system that is now vir-
tually free for all of its citizens. The
education sector has also advanced
so that every Thai youth of school
age enjoys the basic right of 12 years
of schooling, and higher education
is more readily available. That said,
dissenters claim that Thailand’s rote-
based system of learning has led to
a lack of critical thinking skills that
leaves potential untapped.
The family unit lies at the core of
any society. In Thailand, as lifestyles
change to embrace Western-style
consumerism, and as more mothers
and fathers leave children in the care of
grandparents to seek an income away
from home, the structure of the family
unit is changing. Thailand also has the
highest rate of teenage pregnancies in
Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, many Thai
families are menaced by debt, domestic
violence, drugs and alcoholism.
However, positive paradigm shifts
in gender roles are also being seen
here: more women have stepped up to
be the heads of households and
become their families’ breadwinners.
Thailand now boasts one of the highest
rates of women with jobs in ASEAN
and one of the highest rates of female
executives in the world. Whether
through circumstance or choice, women,
gays and lesbians are taking a more
active role in the national economy
and in public life, combating lingering
paternalism.
Returning peace and harmony to
the deep south and reconciling deep-
ly felt political differences across the
country are two of the most challeng-
ing issues Thailand faces. Finding a
sustainable solution to these ongoing
troubles will necessitate creating
more meaningful, less volatile forms
of public participation and dialogue.
If adopted, the mindset of modera-
tion and reasonableness advocated
by both the Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy and sustainable develop-
ment could help Thailand strengthen
its social fabric.
 EDUCATION
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Child-centered Thais believe school is a second home for their
learning: children. Many parents, however, think that this
The principle “home” is in need of some serious renovations.
of creating a Parents are not alone in their misgivings. Thailand
learning environ- does not receive high scores in global education
ment designed
to encourage rankings, and academic or research studies pinpoint
children to dis- the need for further reforms. Indeed, the country
cover new skills is in the middle of a second round of education
and knowledge, reforms that runs from 2009 to 2018. The first round
with teachers started in the late 1990s. It boosted enrollments in
facilitating rather both schools and universities and also guaranteed
than providing
front-of-the-class- an education for those suffering from disabilities
room teaching. or social deprivation. But that progress has not
assuaged fears that Thailand is failing its students.
According to the 2014 report of the Institute for
Management Development (IMD), the body that
monitors countries’ competitiveness, Thailand’s
education performance ranks 54th out of 60
countries, down from 52 the year before. In the
same year, the Global Competitiveness Report of
the World Economic Forum (WEF) ranked Thailand’s
primary education seventh out of the 10 member
countries of ASEAN and its higher education eighth
160
(by comparison Laos was sixth), though the results
are compiled from a survey of employers in each
country. In terms of English proficiency, Thailand
received the second-lowest grades in the survey.
In the latest ranking from 2012 of the Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), Thailand
placed 50th out of the 65 nations that participate
in this measure of the performance of 15 year olds
in reading, mathematics and science. In the Times
Higher Education University Rankings 2014, Thailand
had only two universities among the top 100 in
Asia, and just one (King Mongkut’s University of
Technology, Thonburi) in the top 50, the only one
to make it into the world’s top 400. These rankings
cannot be explained by a lack of financial resources.
Thailand has consistently allocated around 20 percent
of the national budget – about 4 percent of annual
output – to education, which is among the highest
totals in the world. Much of the increased spending
in the last decade has addressed the poor pay of
public school teachers, once regarded as the system’s
main drawback. In 2010, the salary of those with a
bachelor’s degree was raised from 15,000 baht in 2001
to 24,000–25,000 baht.
However, parents still feel that their children are not
getting enough out of their well-financed schooling
system. One obvious manifestation is the high sums
parents spend on some 5,000 “cram schools” across
the country that provide supplementary education
for all ages. Thai students spend as much as 1,000
hours each academic year in this kind of intensive,
supervised studying, among the highest in the world.
Some experts say this kind of cramming is indicative
of the main shortcoming in Thailand’s education
system – the lack of child-centered learning and
cramming for tests, a grinding and stultifying process
of memorizing (so-called “rote learning”) that leads
to passive students who have trouble competing in a
world where innovation and initiative matter most.
It’s not that the authorities are unaware of this issue.
As far back as 2000, the country officially adopted
Some 35,000 students sit for an exam hoping to gain admission to Srinakharinwirot University.
student-centred learning. The then-secretary-
general of the National Education Commission, Rung
Kaewdaeng, said, “Learning by rote will next year be
eliminated from all primary and secondary schools
and be replaced with student-centred learning.”
Any teachers unable to adapt to the new approach
“would be sent for intensive training.”
More than a decade later, student-centered learning
is still a rarity in Thailand’s schools. According
to Thitinan Pongsudhirak, a political scientist at
Chulalongkorn University, “The mindset is from the
nation-building and Cold War period to produce
obedient and nationalistic citizens, which does not fit
21st-century needs. It is hierarchical, top-down, with
a systematic lack of critical thinking.”
Related to this is the nation’s assessment system.
The multiple-choice ONET and ANET tests run by
the National Institute of Education Testing Services
(NIETS) have been roundly criticized, mostly because
they evaluate memory rather than thinking, but also
because of the narrow, parochial and moralistic
nature of some questions and the “correct” answers.
When examining the Thai education system, the
onus has often been on the teachers. In 2010, the
Office of the Basic Education Commission (OBEC)
conducted the first national exam to test secondary
teachers in their own subjects: 88 percent of
computer science teachers, 86 percent of math
teachers, 84 percent of physics teachers and 71
percent of chemistry teachers failed their subjects.
Thus, while the country has met the UN’s MDG goal
of universal primary education for all, the UNDP notes
“the greatest challenge lies in improving quality.”
With these challenges in mind – in particular the
chronic shortage of skilled workers – governments
over the past decade have tried to enhance and
expand vocational education and to encourage
more students to enroll in these classes. The current
government announced that the Office of the
Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) would 21st-century
have its budget increased by as much as a third in skills:
2015. The OVEC has developed a new curriculum at
A range of skills,
the higher-level certificate of vocational education knowledge, hab-
to teach more 21st-century skills and to try to meet its and character
the challenges of the ASEAN Economic Community traits necessary
(AEC) that will come into place at the end of 2015. to compete in the
modern world.
These are sound, reasonable efforts. So what They include
critical thinking,
more is to be done? As TDRI’s president Somkiat problem solving,
Tangkitvanich and Supanut Sasiwuttiwat argued: synthesizing
“Effective education reform must incorporate the information,
creation of an accountability system,” which they say research skills,
is vital to the success of other reforms. Such a system creativity, self-
should include improved, standardized tests and direction, innova-
tion, digital skills,
report cards, rewarding teachers and administrators financial literacy
according to student performance, and “demand- and civic/ethical
side” financing. literacy.
161
PART II | SOCIETY
The Elephant in the Classroom: Implementing Reform
Over a period of about 40 years the
king of Thailand has made hundreds
of speeches about education. A biog-
raphy called King Bhumibol Adulyadej:
A Life’s Work observed that the mon-
arch’s thinking on education included,
among others, the following themes:
knowledge from books must always
be tested by application; the ability to
analyze what has been learned and
relate it to reality is more important
than memorizing facts; education
must include ethics and mindful-
ness. Thailand has not put into place
an education system in line with His
Majesty’s views and the needs of a
modern, competitive economy.
This is not for want of loudly
declared intentions to reform the
education system. Governments and
political parties, leading civil ser-
vants, intellectuals and think tanks
have repeatedly trumpeted the need
for change. Right now Thailand is
in what is called the second decade
of education reform, which runs
162
“You should not think that you are studying in order to
pass an entrance exam, because our existence doesn’t
depend on whether you marked down the right multiple
choice answer on your exam. Our existence depends on
working and analyzing various problems.”
King Bhumibol Adulyadej
until 2018. The first began with the
National Education Act (NEA) in 1999,
which followed the financial crisis
and a new constitution. At the time,
a respected academic and member
of various education commissions, Dr
Prawase Wasi, maintained that con-
tinuing the traditions of Thai educa-
tion was “pushing the country into a
national disaster.”
Yet the consensus regarding the
past 15 years is that progress has
been slow – and the reality is in
keeping with the wider public view
that changes have largely failed to
fulfill the promise of the NEA. This is
borne out by the many measures –
both internal and global – that show
Thailand’s education system is per-
forming far down in the rankings, par-
ticularly in core subjects such as math,
the sciences and English.
On the plus side, there has been
considerable progress in efforts to
improve governance and decentral-
ization. The global Programme for
International Student Assessment
(PISA, 2012) found that Thai schools
were comparatively more responsi-
ble for curricula and assessments than
schools in other participating coun-
tries (Thailand ranked second out
of 64). The percentage of students
in schools whose principals and/or
teachers have considerable respon-
sibility in determining course content
was one of the highest (ranking
seventh out of 64).
EDUCATION
With the coming to power of the
National Council for Peace and Order Twelve Core Values
under General Prayuth Chan-ocha,
some educationalists are hoping Propagated by current Prime Minister Prayuth
that the heavy focus on reforming Chan-ocha after his coming to power in May 2014, the
all Thailand’s institutions might reju- following “core values” were disseminated throughout
venate the effort to transform the the Thai education system. [Unofficial translation.]
country’s education system. So far
the emphasis has been mostly on
the moral side.
In June 2014, in his nightly
address to the nation, the general
who became prime minister said the
Ministry of Education should include
in the curriculum subjects that
help reinforce the values of “Being
Thai”: national pride and uphold-
ing the institution of the monarchy.
“The purpose is to instill discipline,
strengthen the physical and mental
state, and reinforce conscience and
social responsibility,” he said.
In 2015, a new “super board” was
established to oversee reform of the
national education system. Then two
months later, Permanent Secretary 1. Loyalty to the nation, the religion and the monarchy
for Education Suthasri Wongsamarn 2. Honesty, sacrifice, endurance and noble ideology for
stated that national reconciliation was the greater good
an important mission of the Ministry
of Education. However, the effort 3. Gratitude to parents, guardians and teachers
must begin with unity in the family
before spreading to the community 4. Diligence in acquiring knowledge via school studies
and the nation. Members of society and other methods
should take pride in Thai culture and 5. Preserving Thai customs and tradition
history, she said. Additional curric-
ulum subjects would be introduced 6. Morality and goodwill toward others
in order to raise awareness about
the identity of the Thai people and
7. Correct understanding of democracy with the king as
nation, including history, civic duties Head of State
and moral education. 8. Discipline, respect for law and obedience to older
Amornwich Nakornthap, the citizens
spokesman of the National Reform
Council’s committee on education 9. Constant consciousness to practice good deeds all the
and human resource development, time, as taught by His Majesty the King
said the committee has been draft-
ing a law to decentralize power to 10. Practice of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy in
local authorities. That would help accordance with the teachings of His Majesty the King
schools and local authorities design
and manage the education that suits
11. Physical and mental strength; refusal to surrender to
their environment, including their religious sins
budgets. He emphasized that the 12. Uphold the interests of the nation over oneself
complete education system needs
an overhaul.
163
PART II | SOCIETY EDUCATION
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164 165
 HEALTH
- Ʉ*1 -" Ʉ"$1 .Ʉ# '/#- Ʉ.4./ (Ʉ
further booster shot
In 1930 the average life expectancy in Thailand was a
mere 31 years. By the 1950s it had risen by some two
decades, and as of 2015 it’s at 74 years. That leap in
longevity speaks volumes for the vast improvement
of the kingdom’s healthcare system.
Thailand had achieved most of its health-related
Millennium Development Goals by 2004, well in
advance of the 2015 deadline laid down by the
United Nations in 2000. Among these triumphs
is the elimination of malaria in all but the most
far-flung frontiers, and cutting new HIV infections
by more than 80 percent since the peak of the
pandemic in 1991. Furthermore, some 97 percent
of the populace now has access to clean water and
proper sanitation.
Such headway is not surprising given Thailand’s
long history of traditional medicine based on local
wisdom and raw materials and its more recent track
record of facing down threats and improving its
facilities, sanitation, water treatment and profes-
sional know-how. As far back as the 1800s, Thailand’s
kings were supportive of Christian missionary-led
health clinics and services, so much so that all
missionaries were referred to as “doctor.” In the
1900s, the royal family continued to support the
expansion of the medical system, with the current
king’s own father, Prince Mahidol, leading the way.
In the 20th century, as Thailand’s medical system
modernized and global breakthroughs in prevention
166
and treatment were adopted, outbreaks of polio,
smallpox, cholera, yaws and other deadly diseases,
as well as the scourge of malaria, were largely
eliminated as rural and urban menaces.
In addition, Thailand has become a global center of
wellness spas and holistic treatments, such as Thai
massage, and is increasingly investing in developing
its traditional practices as well as age-old under-
standing of herbal ingredients such as cumin into
modern products.
Still, the system is not immune to weakness. New
public health threats such as obesity have emerged.
Tens of thousands die on the roads annually, and
until the year 2000 almost one-third of all Thais
had no healthcare coverage. The lucky exceptions
were those employed by the government who were
covered by the Civil Servant Medical Benefit Scheme
(CSMBS) implemented in 1980 to provide medical
care for civil servants and their dependents, or the
disadvantaged covered by the Voluntary Health Card
Scheme, who were ineligible for the Low Income
Health Care Scheme (LIHC) plan first introduced in
1975. To provide care for private-sector employees
when sickness or calamity struck, the Social Security
Scheme (SSS) was launched in 1990.
In spite of such well-intentioned measures, these
policies were not panaceas. A survey in 2000
among 2,093 households in six provinces uncovered
corruption. Only 17 percent of the poor who
should have been covered by the LIHC plan had
actually used it, while a sample of another thousand
cardholders revealed that only one-third of them
were actually destitute.
Compounding these problems, at the bigger public
hospitals long queues were the norm, whereas the
private hospitals were too expensive for most –
and sometimes refused to admit sick patients who
could not produce a proper credit card. Clearly, the
system had some flaws. Enter Thaksin Shinawatra,
controversial telecommunications tycoon-turned-
Free daily aerobics programs at dusk, like this one in Yala, are part of a national health campaign.
prime minister. Of all the populist policies he put in In tandem with the UCS has come a new way of Universal
place to woo the poor voters of the north and the looking at health. The existing system is generally Coverage
northeast few elicited as much hype and hope as passive: when people get sick they go to the hospital. Scheme (UCS):
the Universal Coverage Scheme or UCS (popularly However, the new idea of promoting prevention This term is
known as “The 30 Baht Health Scheme”) that was entered the public discourse and the mindsets of used to define a
launched in 2002 under the National Health Security policy makers in the new millennium. healthcare sys-
Act. The new card consolidated the LIHC and the tem that ensures
all people obtain
Voluntary Health Card plans and incorporated 30 Since then, “health” has been redefined in a broader the treatments
percent of the uninsured into the UCS. context, covering physical, mental, social and and services they
even spiritual wellbeing. No longer just a matter need without
Since the plan was hatched, almost the entire for doctors and patients, health is starting to be suffering any
population has been covered by one of the three big recognized as an intrinsic part of human and social undue financial
health insurance policies: the CSMBS for civil servants development as well as a fundamental right. hardship to pay
for them.
(7.82 percent), the SSS for company employees (16.6
percent), and the UCS for the rest of the primarily
rural populace. The latter scheme also strove for a
more egalitarian approach to public health, serving
both the needs of the poor, who could not afford
treatments, and helping those with means with costly
treatments like chemotherapy for cancer.
One of the most severe side effects of the triple-
pronged plan is that the number of outpatient visits
has spiked, thereby putting strain on the system
that taxpayers must also shoulder. To cope with
that increase, the government has had to boost its
spending to support these programs from 56 percent
of total health expenditures in 2001 to 75 percent
in 2010.
167
PART II | SOCIETY HEALTH

TIME LI NE
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Thai Healthcare System
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES From Eradicating
■ Coordination between health-related agencies Smallpox to the Rise of
is still lacking. “Mister Condom”
■ There is inefficient management and integration
of medical information.
Mechanisms to promote the participation of
1835
■

all stakeholders in health policies and reforms

remain largely ineffective. American missionary
■ Research and development still lacks the effi- Dan Beach Bradley
arrives. He performs
1962 1973
cient tools or channels to translate the results the first surgery and Smallpox is eradicated
into policy development and practice. amputation in Siam after successful vacci- Doctors at Siriraj
and introduces a vac- nation campaigns. Hospital successfully
The late Princess Mother assists volunteer dentists. ■ There is a shortage and lack of even distribu- cine for smallpox. perform the first
■ Thailand already achieved most of its health- tion across different regions of health resources kidney transplant.
related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (such as hospital beds) and personnel (such as
nurses, dentists and pharmacists), especially in
by 2004, well in advance of the 2015 deadline. This
prompted the country to pursue an MDG-plus the more remote areas. 1888 1946
“Good physical health is a factor
strategy in recent years, with expanded targets A significant difference remains between the
Siriraj Hospital, the In the wake of Rama
like further reducing the rates of maternal mor-
■
kingdom’s first hospi- VIII’s still-unsolved supporting economic progress
services and equipment of expensive private tal, opens. death, Thai doctors and social security of the country
tality, HIV infections and malaria at regional hospitals and that of cheaper but overcrowded first experiment with
levels, especially among the northern hill tribes because it leads to good mental
public facilities. forensics.
and southern Muslim communities. health. Physical and mental
The UCS covers almost the entire population.
■ Tax may be a more progressive source of finance 1893 1987 fitness enable the individual to
■
because the rich pay more than the poor, but The Bangkok Nursing effectively serve the nation while
The first HIV/AIDS
overreliance on a tax-financed UCS runs a
■ Strong technical capacities ensure that health-
care workers are of a high standard. gauntlet of risks during times of economic
Hospital, the first
private facility and
1942 case is reported. As refraining from imposing burdens
a countermeasure, on the nation.”
stagnation. still operating today, is The Ministry of Public Mechai Viravaidya,
■ The National Health Assembly (NHA) is an ef- established. Health is established. or “Mister Condom,” King Bhumibol Adulyadej
fective platform for developing policies through ■ The discrepancy between the three schemes launches his safe-sex
the exchange of scientific data and knowledge (the CSMBS, SSS and UCS) is a major source of campaign by giving
transfers with different sectors. inequity. Moreover, the CSMBS is inefficient as
1914 away millions of con-

1929
it pays on a fees-for-service basis. The overuse doms while dissem-
■ The UCS also covers anti-retroviral treat- of medicine and diagnostics means that it costs Chulalongkorn inating information
about the pandemic to
2007
ments for people living with HIV/AIDS, and has four times more per capita than the UCS. Hospital is built with Prince Mahidol, who The endorsement of
2010
Thais and foreigners.
reduced the number of new HIV infections by donations from King obtained a medical the National Health
more than 80 percent. It also fully covers dialysis Vajiravudh, or Rama degree from Harvard Act marks a major
VI, and his brothers University, passes The National AIDS
and kidney transplants for patients with chronic and sisters, along with away.
turning point in the
healthcare system by Committee approves a
renal failure. funding from the Thai taking a multi-stake- harm reduction policy,

2002
Red Cross Society, in aiming to override the
■ Bangkok’s best private hospitals are so highly honor of his father.
holder approach that
stresses a more holistic hardline stance on
regarded and relatively affordable that they
receive so-called “medical tourists” from around 1927 The National Health
Insurance Bill is
approach under the
motto, “All for Health
drug users so they will
not be excluded from
the world. The first use of an endorsed, ushering in and Health for All.” treatments.
X-ray machine in
■ The monarchy has a long-standing tradition of Thailand.
the 30 baht healthcare
scheme.
promoting nutrition, developing health projects
and mobilizing funds to support public health. Oversized teeth help children learn to brush in Korat.

168 169
PART II | SOCIETY HEALTH

FURTHER READING
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Healing Inequalities in Health Security

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Pundits had long talked of a policy Even before that 2006 coup, R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
that would heal the rifts between however, to keep the system from
the haves and have-nots in health being overtaxed by hypochondriacs Challenges Facing the Healthcare System
security. But Thaksin Shinawatra, the or those with minor ailments, author-
former leader of the disbanded Thai ities instituted a series of checks and Teenage pregnancies Of every Bangkok magnet The concentra- CFGPSF
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reform of the health service system about 2.5 annual visits per person taking care of them. This puts an BGUFS
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the 30-baht card was so popular that illnesses have been steadily declining, sloth have become the prime culprits of smokers aged 15 and above  
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the following year the new military only 3.3 percent in 2009. That success ments like dialysis. lines – more than one-third of Thais
regime maintained the plan, even if came with a large price tag for the The plan is far from perfect. There aged above 15 are fighting obesity –
they did eliminate the gold card as state. For 2015, the total budget for is a disparity between the facili- leading to an upsurge in diabetes.
well as the 30 baht payment, so that the UCS amounts to almost 143 billion ties in metropolitan areas and the
patients could just use their ID cards. baht to cover around 49 million Thais, countryside, just as there is a gulf Social unrest The continuing
inclusive of anti-retroviral medicines between how the poor, the middle friction in Thailand between rival
class and the wealthy are treated by QPMJUJDBM
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famous economists. He has criticized and physical wellbeing.
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the medical staff who treat the poorer Food security

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patients with disrespect when they QPQVMBUJPO
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Millions of chickens were culled during the bird flu scare of 2004.
use the card. These staff, he said, such as the quality and quantity of
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behaving like CEOs; access to proper GPPE
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healthcare should be considered a resources and their long-term sus- someone stronger, richer, or able to take advantage of
universal human right, not a privi- UBJOBCJMJUZ
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others, but it requires people to unite, think and do good
lege for the moneyed few. Yet most agricultural sector and food produc- things together, for the benefit of society, others and
would agree that the UCS has given tion systems are needed to ensure
a much-needed and long-lasting shot food security remains a priority for themselves.”
Migrants living along the Thai-Myanmar border can access free healthcare services provided in the arm to improving public health future generations. Dr Amphol Jindawattana, Health Reform: Reform of Life and Society, Vol.1
under the universal health coverage scheme using their ID cards. standards in the kingdom.

170 171
 FAMILY
The most binding of social ties is
loosening with the times
Thai families are famously close-knit with an extended
family often living under the same roof or in the same
compound. As a matrilocal culture, this means that
the husband tends to live with his wife’s family. For a
daughter’s hand in marriage, a potential groom will
pay a dowry, which is sometimes but not always given
to the couple so they can begin their new life together.
These matriarchal aspects of traditional Thai culture
are counterbalanced against the burdens that women
must shoulder in terms of domestic chores, raising
children and tending to ailing parents.
Matrilocal: But the forces of globalization and consumer culture
Derived from have exerted a tremendous influence over Thai family
anthropology, the life in recent years, especially in rural areas. To make
term denotes a a living and escape the tedium of farming life, more
culture where the parents have been migrating to urban areas or moving
husband goes to abroad in search of well-paid jobs, leaving children
live with or near
the wife’s family. behind in the care of grandparents or other relatives.
This mass migration has resulted in a steadily rising
divorce rate in Thailand. According to the Ministry
of the Interior, the number of family members in a

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172
household has dropped from 5.2 in 1980 to 2.8 in
2012. Simultaneously, the number of nuclear families
living on their own has fallen from 70.6 percent in
1980 to 52.3 percent in 2010, as the rising cost of living
has caused young couples to live with their parents
whom they also look after.
However, these changes have also reduced domestic
friction. According to the Report on Gender-based
Violence against Women and Girls Indicators issued
in December 2011 by the Office of Women’s Affairs
and Family Development, the reported cases of
violence committed by a family member dropped
from 45 percent of all violent incidents reported in
2005 to 34 percent in 2009. The most recent figures
from the Thailand Domestic Violence Information
Center revealed that the reported incidents of
domestic violence have decreased from 1,076 in 2011
to 855 in 2013. (However, the number of unreported
altercations is thought to be much higher.)
Increasing teenage pregnancy in Thailand is another
issue affecting families. Some observers contend
that the rising teenage pregnancy rate is the result
of looser family ties, increased exposure to graphic
content through the Internet and media, and insuf-
ficient sex education. In 2012, for every 100 children
born, some 16.6 were the offspring of teenage
mothers. After Laos, Thailand has the highest rate of
teenage pregnancies in Southeast Asia.
The Ministry of Social Development and Human
Security has launched a number of campaigns
to discourage teenage pregnancies and support
single mothers. But the fissures run deeper than
that. They are symptomatic of a greater divide; in a
digital era defined by mass telecommunications the
distance between family members is at once closer
and farther than ever. How to get parents and their
children to spend more quality time together was the
quandary the government faced when developing
such campaigns as Krob Krua Ob Oon (“Family
Warmth”). In rural villages, all over the country, the
authorities have encouraged blood relations to
More women are heading single-parent families than ever before.
get together to participate in games designed to
promote family values and loving households.
For all these well-intentioned efforts, how much
can any government legislate what goes on in the
kitchens and living rooms of its citizens? Simply
put, the family traditions of yesterday cannot keep
pace with the high-speed world of today. The signs
of change are everywhere. More and more Thais
are delaying marriage and childbearing in favor of
pursuing their careers or exploring non-traditional
lifestyles, such as single-parenting, coupling without
children, or living a solitary life. Same-sex parents
rear adopted children or grandparents become
responsible for their own children’s brood. Even
in the more traditional family units a much higher
concentration of women is emerging as the head of
the household, from 16.5 percent in 1980 to nearly
one-third of all families in 2010.
Despite the upheaval of conventional values, the
birthrate has remained consistent. In 2013, Thai
mothers gave birth to some 782,000 children. That
figure has not altered much over the previous decade.
While in neighboring countries such as Singapore,
a precipitous decline in the number of babies has
jeopardized the country’s future development, the
devotion to family life, in whatever form, and rearing
children, with whatever arrangement of guardians,
remains an intrinsic element of Thai society.
R EA SONS
Why Family Matters
Loving care

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offspring of any other creature. They also require much more
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individuals and the last resort when plans go awry and emer-
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and belonging.
173
PART II | SOCIETY




FU
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When the Old Raise the Young







Since the dawn of the 1960s when
Thailand implemented the first
National Economic Development
Plan, a growing demand for labor
in the industrial sector has encour-
aged villagers, especially in the vast
and impoverished northeast region,
to migrate in search of more lucrative
opportunities.
This has led to a boost in the
household incomes of pastoral vil-
lages, but the downside has been the
slow disintegration of the family unit.
With more and more parents toiling
in industrial estates or in urban facto-
ries and construction sites, grandpar-
ents stay in the villages to take care of
the young.
As the Multiple Indicator Cluster
Survey (MICS) conducted in 2012 by
the National Statistical Office and
supported by the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) noted,
around 21 percent, or three million,
of the kingdom’s children do not live
with either of their parents due to
internal migration. In the northeast-
ern region of Isaan, that figure rises to
almost one-third of the young.
In such households, where both
parents are migrant laborers, some
85 percent of the children are looked
after by grandparents, while aunts,
siblings and other relatives account
for the other guardians. The average
age of the caregivers in these house-
holds is 58, while the oldest is 87,
according to a research paper on
“Children Living Apart from Parents
Due to Internal Migration” conducted
in 2012 by the Institute for Population
and Social Research at Mahidol
University.
One theoretical downside of this
upwardly mobile trend is that chil-
dren, who need consistency and
strong parental figures during their
formative years, are at a disadvan-
tage in their intellectual develop-
ment. The problem is exacerbated
174
“Families are earning more but living apart.”
Nipon Poapongsakorn, distinguished fellow at the TDRI
by the ebb and flow of money from
their parents, or so goes one theory.
But the truth and trouble are that
comprehensive studies tracking
these young people as they move
from childhood to adulthood are
almost nonexistent. In shorter-
term studies, however, examining
their health, academic performances
and overall life satisfaction, children
raised by relatives and those reared
by their real parents did not differ
significantly.
Just the same, one must also con-
sider the effects of parenting on aging
caregivers. Research papers published
by Khon Kaen University’s Graduate
School in 2008 and 2009 indicate that
child-rearing has become a burden
FAMILY
FURTHER READING
• Family Institution: Development and Changes,
CZ
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• The Family in Flux in Southeast Asia, CZ
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• Globalization and Families,
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• Parenting for the Digital Age,
CZ
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• Tech Savvy Parenting, CZ
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to Overextended Families
13th–19th
centuries
In agrarian societies
the basic social unit is
the extended family,
which also provides a
steady supply of field
hands.
20th 1935
century
The Family Registra-
tion Act is put into
effect. From this
Western concepts date forward, only
like the nuclear family registered marriages A family gathered beneath portraits of King Bhumibol.
are introduced into are recognized as legal
Thai society, as well as
Mid-20th
unions.
marriage registration
and the use of family
century
names derived from
the husband.
Laborers from up-
country villages begin
to migrate to industrial
on grandparents, who are often poor
in health and cash. So these seniors
areas causing the frag-
mentation of rural
2007 2010
– especially the widowers – tend to families. The Domestic Violence
Fathers in the civil
suffer a dramatic decrease in their Protection Act of 2007
service are now eligi-
goes into effect.
quality of life. ble to take 15 days for
Late 20th
The researchers also pointed out paternity leave.
that the older guardians have a ten-
dency to spoil their grandkids in
order to compensate for the lack of
century
parental contact or, stressed out by Nuclear families
become the norm.
2002
2013
money and health woes, take an iron-
Higher standards of The Ministry of Social
fisted approach to parenting. Another living demand that Development and
major concern, the papers noted, is both parents work, Human Security is The first public hearing
that with limited knowledge of the nannies take care of established to protect to draft a civil partner-
modern world, and with outdated the children, and the and nurture the insti- ship law for same-sex
methods of rearing the young, the “Do not rely on others outside of divorce rate spikes. tution of family. couples is held.
elderly may not be able to adequately
supervise or prepare their charges for oneself and one’s family.”
the future in a rapidly changing world. Traditional Thai saying
175
 POVERTY AND INCOME
INEQUALITY
#$' Ʉ*) Ʉ#.Ʉ#$./*-$''4Ʉ '$) ƇɄ/# Ʉ*/# -Ʉ-$. .ɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄ

Poverty: Poverty eradication has always been a key pillar of 2,572 baht per head per month (approximately
The definition of the sustainable development agenda, which is an US$2.50 per day). By this measurement, as of 2015,
poverty differs inclusive model of progress that seeks to improve an estimated 7.3 million live in poverty or about
from country the lives of everyone. Mired in the daily struggle of 11 percent of the population, a figure that is still
to country. relatively low compared to other upper-middle
According to making ends meet, the poor, in general, have less
the NESDB, access to healthcare and educational opportunities. income economies.
Thailand mea- They are the most vulnerable to natural disasters and
sures poverty their voices and needs are often ignored in the name Thailand has also drastically lowered its rates of
incidences of larger economic growth. maternal mortality and infant mortality, among
per household by other indicators of human development. A universal
comparing per health coverage policy has increased the afford-
capita household Fortunately, across the world, fewer and fewer
incomes against people are facing such extreme hardship. According ability of healthcare and more than 97 percent A homeless man has strung up a mosquito net around his sleeping space under a Bangkok bridge.
the poverty line. to widely disseminated World Bank measurements, of the population have access to clean water and
The poverty line only 17 percent of the population of the developing sanitation.
is defined by an world was living on less than US$1.25 per day (or
income that is about 40 baht per day) in 2013, down from 43 These facts and figures might indicate a rise in the 44.5 percent of the country’s destitute reside in the
sufficient for an standard of living for a majority of Thais; however, northeastern region, 24 percent are in the north,
individual to percent in 1990. Thailand is considered one of the
enjoy minimum world’s greatest success stories in this area, with only the term “standard of living” is often overused and and the rest live in the deep south. Almost half of
standards of 3 out of 1,000 people (or 0.3 percent of the national under-explained. The definition of “standard of these impoverished households are engaged in
living (such as population) currently living below this poverty line. living” provided by the World Bank is the “level of the agricultural sector. The rest of the poor are
food, shelter, etc.). well-being (of an individual, group or population part of Thailand’s so-called “informal workforce,”
If an individual While different measurements offer slightly of a country) as measured by the level of income comprising part-time employees, self-employed
earns less income (for example, GNI per capita) or by the quantity of householders, informal small- and medium-sized
than the poverty different pictures, all suggest Thailand has
line, he or she is drastically reduced poverty over the last few various goods and services consumed (for example, enterprises (SMEs) and landless laborers.
classified as poor. decades. An Asian Development Bank (ADB) report the number of cars per 1,000 people or the number
from 2011, for example, states that Thailand’s of television sets per capita).” By these materialis- In Thailand’s rural areas, residents may suffer from a
incidence of poverty has continuously declined tic standards, Thailand is also doing well. In urban “cycle of deprivation,” a theory that suggests that the
from around 34 percent in 1988 to a mere 9 percent areas, the signs of consumer culture are as bright key ingredients of poverty, such as bad housing and
30 years later. Meanwhile, Thailand’s Office of the as neon: shopping malls are filled to the brim with a lack of focus on or access to better educational and
National Economic and Social Development Board luxury brands, omnipresent billboards advertise employment opportunities, are transmitted through
(NESDB) defines poverty as living off less than glitzy condos and car showrooms gleam with the families over generations, ensuring that future
latest deluxe models. generations will remain in poverty.

“Poverty in Thailand is primarily a rural phenomenon,
with over 80 percent of the country’s 7.3 million poor
living in rural areas (as of 2013). Some regions – particu-
larly the North and Northeast – and some ethnic groups
lag greatly behind others, and the benefits of economic
success have not been shared equally, especially between
Bangkok...and the rest of the country.”
The World Bank
While this rise in the country’s consumerist fortunes
has been accompanied by a drop in the poverty
rate, in reality, these aggregate figures conceal
some hard truths. Household debt across Thailand,
for example, has been rising consistently. There are
also considerable and important differences in the
incidence of poverty across subnational regions
and demographic groups. For example, some 80
percent of the country’s downtrodden reside in
rural areas, a recent NESDB report noted. About
Despite Thailand’s remarkable progress in joining
the ranks of the upper-middle income economies in
a brief space of time, the income and opportunity
gaps between the haves and the have-nots persist.
How to bridge the urban–rural gulf through
decentralization or other means and divvy up the
spoils of Thailand’s larger economic success fairly
and equitably remain one of the country’s chronic
challenges as it pursues a path toward further
development.

176 177
PART II | SOCIETY POVERTY AND INCOME INEQUALITY

FURTHER READING
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Human Development Report 2014
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• Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2014, CZ
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Thailand No Exception to World Trend:

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The Rich Just Get Richer

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• Inequality and Injustice in Access to Resources and Fundamental Public Services in Thailand, edited
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Devised by the World Bank, the Gini concentrated in the capital and percent. This top tier also owns nearly • i"OBMZTJT
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index measures the extent to which urban centers, especially Bangkok. 80 percent of total land plots, giving BOE
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the distribution of income among
individuals or households within an
economy deviates from a perfectly
equal system distribution. A low Gini
coefficient indicates a more equal
distribution, with 0 corresponding
to complete equality, while a higher
coefficient indicates more income
disparity.
By this international standard,
Thailand’s level of income inequality
has fallen from 0.52 in 2000 to 0.47

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IBT
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IFME
JOPS-
in 2013. This figure, however, is still
higher than Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam
and Cambodia and means Thailand
has among the highest income

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inequality levels in Southeast Asia.
Despite government efforts to
decentralize economic develop-
ment and disperse investments and
essential services to the country’s
hinterlands, economic power and

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While a higher cost of living is one
reason for the disparity, urbanites
living in Bangkok and its three neigh-
boring provinces earned an average
of 43,058 baht per head per month –
more than double the 20,000 baht or
less per capita of those living in the
north and northeast.
Migrant laborers from rural
regions who flock to cities in search
of work and higher standards of living
frequently find themselves toiling in
access to better education will not
low-skill, high-pressure jobs and living
in shantytowns. For these laborers it’s
a vicious cycle. Without an education
they are trapped in a spiral of down-
ward mobility; however, if they stay
on their family farms they face a dif-
ferent form of inequality: according
to the NESDB, the richest 20 percent
of farmers own plots of land that are
a whopping 325.7 times bigger than
those belonging to the poorest 20
them extraordinary clout. Hobbled
by debts, many small-scale farmers
have to sell their land or go to work
for their more well-off countrymen.
The country’s top 10 percent of
earners account for some 40 percent
of the GDP, whereas the 10 percent
at the bottom of the food chain con-
tribute less than 2 percent. This is also
reflected in saving rates. According to
a 2014 report, only 1 in 1,000 Thais
possess over 10 million baht (or
roughly US$300,000) in their bank
accounts, accounting for up to 46.5
percent of all savings.
Hard facts and harsh truths like
these are the reason why the United
Nations Development Programme,
in an otherwise upbeat assessment
of Thailand’s progress in reducing
poverty, emphasizes that serious gaps
in opportunities and income persist
in the country.
R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
Challenges to Leveling the Playing Field
Primate city #FJOH
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Thailand’s political and business
culture as well as the largest market
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wealth creation. Decentralizing power
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and development to rural areas has
been much discussed though little
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called the “backbone of the country”
but they are not always highly
rewarded for their efforts. While over
one-third of Thais work in agricul-
ture-related business and their con-
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the wages received are lower than
other sectors and they remain vulner-
able every year to climate change and
uncertain weather patterns resulting
in poor output.
Educational opportunities Only
the rich can afford private education
at the nation’s best schools or have
the means to send their children
overseas for highly valued interna-
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only increase the skills of laborers
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wider access to better opportunities
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and background and social standing
over quality and merit. Workers
from poorer backgrounds face many
entrenched obstacles to moving up
the social hierarchy.

Social insecurity
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“Almost half of the
population of the world
lives in rural regions and

XIJDI

mostly in a state of poverty.
Such inequalities in human
development have been one
of the primary reasons for
unrest and, in some parts of


the world, even violence.”
At the Thai-Cambodian border, itinerant A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, former president

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traders pass by an ad for easy credit. of India
little social benefits from the state
and many resort to the informal
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vulnerable to falling into poverty.

178 179
 PUBLIC
PARTICIPATION
-$)"$)"Ʉ+*2 -Ʉ/*Ʉ/# Ʉ+ *+' Ʉ$)ɄŨ/.Ʉ)Ʉ./-/.ɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄ
The overall purpose of public participation is to
involve those who are affected by a decision in the
decision-making process. That decision could be as
small as the selection of a new school principal or
as momentous as a new constitution. According to
the International Association of Public Participation,
public participation is an active, dynamic process
with five key pillars: inform, consult, collaborate,
involve and empower. By involving the public, more
Citizen sustainable decisions are made.
journalism:
Citizens take Since Thailand’s transition from absolute to con-
on the role of stitutional monarchy in 1932, the country has had
journalists who 19 constitutions and charters. Despite the different
report, photo-
graph and socio-political contexts of each constitution’s design,
analyze the news. one principle that all 19 charters have in common is
The downside is that sovereignty belongs to the Thai people. But
that the quality until the 1997 constitution, known as the People’s
of these reports Charter, the role of Thai citizens in the decision-
can be shoddy, making process had been fairly limited, with the
while the facts
are flimsy. country not allowing its citizens to participate in the
political processes in ways other than through rep-
180
resentatives. During the 65 years from 1932 to 1997,
in which Thailand was ruled mostly by unelected
leaders, other mediums used by the Thai people to
participate in policymaking included street demon-
strations and grassroots movements, e.g., the peace
movement against Korean War in 1952, the Farmers
Federation of Thailand movement from 1974–1992,
the demonstrations against military dictatorship
in 1973, 1976, and 1992, and the Assembly of the
Poor movement advocating for equity and fairness,
popular participation, and self-determination for
all Thai people who were affected by large-scale
development projects.
But little real power was vested in the hands of the
people until the groundbreaking, citizen-led consti-
tution of 1997 enshrined this right. This constitution
contained a strong bill of rights and liberties with
support from a range of civil society groups. This
charter represented a significant shift toward a more
open and democratic society. It provided a legal
basis for increasing the individual’s degree of public
participation, from the right to access information
and protecting freedom of speech to influencing
public policy, local resource management, adminis-
trative decentralization and referendums.
It all looked good on paper. The reality was
something of a cautionary tale. A study conducted
by King Prajadhipok’s Institute (KPI), an independent
public organization under the supervision of the
National Assembly, discovered that of 16 legislative
proposals submitted by eligible voters in the period
from 1997 to 2006 none were approved by the
National Assembly. In environmental matters, the
civic groups fared better, stopping the construction
of Hin Krut Power Plant in 1998 due to concerns
about its environmental and health impacts. In
2005, a consumer rights group opposed the privat-
ization of the Electricity Generating Authority of
Thailand (EGAT). They took the case to the Supreme
Administrative Court, which granted an injunction to
stop the listing.
Anti-government protests gather steam during the “Bangkok Shutdown” street protests of early 2014 before the military takeover in May.
Successes like these have been few and far between.
For the majority of Thais, street protests are the
favorite form of public participation. When political
rivals reach a deadlock, the military steps in to
resolve the situation and seize power.
That was the case in 2006 when the military staged a
coup and abrogated the constitution. Despite criticism
of the drafting process for a new charter, it was the
first time the government organized a nationwide
referendum for the public to approve or deny the
entire draft. The turnout was nearly 58 percent.
The 2007 constitution sought to expand rights,
liberties, public participation and decentralization
with clear and specific provisions. Unfortunately, the
new constitution did little to bring about any political
reconciliation in a deeply divided land. The deeper
those cracks, the more voters demanded their say at
the ballot box. By the elections of 2011, three-
quarters of all Thais voted. The election for Bangkok’s
governor saw a similar surge of interest, peaking at
almost 64 percent of the electorate in 2013.
On a grassroots level, community groups are
mobilizing on a scale never seen before and
using citizen journalism and crowdsourcing to
make sure their voices are heard. The Community Crowdsourcing:
Organization Council Act of 2008 established a The practice
large number of community councils to promote of obtaining
networking among like-minded groups. For them, services, ideas,
content or finan-
the most important aspect of public participation
cial contributions
is decentralization. While the country’s national from a large
politics have been mired in a series of crises, civil group of people –
society, local government officials, and scholars at mostly online –
the provincial and district levels have tried to take a rather than
more direct role in local administration. However, in resorting to tradi-
2014, the military seized power again in a bloodless tional businesses
or governments
coup to end six months of political turmoil; it was the for funding.
nation’s 19th successful coup in 83 years.
In summary, while elections have been held for
decades and Thailand has long had an active media,
it has been about 20 years since true public partici-
pation has been introduced to the people. Time is
needed for both the authorities and Thai people
to learn how to constructively participate in public
policy formulation and the decision-making process.
All sectors in Thai society are still green, but keen to
learn how to implement the participation process
properly and effectively. The participation process
requires reciprocity, communication, conciliation,
and respect. This process, if implemented correctly,
might reduce any future conflicts.
181
PART II | SOCIETY
R EA SONS
Why Public Participation Matters
Empowering individuals to become active citizens
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the greater good by strengthening communities and
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the lèse majesté law, criminal defa-
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participation in the decision-making process is non-

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necessary for the state to maintain its legitimacy.
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well as apprising them of other alternatives in developing
projects or policies.
182
in this process: raising awareness by
providing objective reports. For any
and bowing to political and business
benefit their well-being.
Accountability and transparency The more active the
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media for crowdsourcing and submit-
efficiency.
Staff count votes during 2012 elections.
“…political and social participation
has intrinsic value for human life and
well-being. To be prevented from
participation in the political life of the
community is a major deprivation.”
Amartya Sen, economist and philosopher
Watchdogs Unleashed in Cyberspace
Only a well-informed people can
truly participate in public policy for-
mulation and making informed deci-
sions. The media plays a crucial part
Watch and iLaw, along with social
spotlighting important issues and
the media landscape has diver-
democracy a free and fair press is of
paramount importance.
The media in Thailand is strong
on technology but weak in terms of
objectivity; prejudice, self-censorship
important. These platforms encour- information to the public, includ-
influences have placed parameters
on what can be reported. In addi-
tion, there are legislative restrictions
on media.
Issues affecting press freedom
and freedom of expression, such as
rights activists consider the CCA to
mation, Computer Crime Act (CCA)
and the recent regulations imposed
ting petitions. A group of advocates
people opposed to the 10 digital
A new generation of tech-savvy activists are taking their causes to cyberspace.
by the junta, will continue to make a
serious dent in Thailand’s reputation
for having a free media environment.
In recent years, alternative media
sources have emerged and become
important sources of information for
people to share opinions and voice
their concerns to policy makers.
Through alternative media outlets
and blogs such as Isaranews, Siam
Intelligent Unit, Prachatai, Deep South
Thai people and a tool for greater
media like Facebook and Twitter,
policy decision-making, people have
sified dramatically. These outlets
allow common people to bypass
the gatekeepers of traditional, main-
stream media and share the informa-
tion and perspectives citizens deem
age a more open media environment
and provide channels for the public
to access information, express their
wishes and opinions, participate in
decision-making, exercise their right
of supervision, and make choices that
According to NECTEC’s Thailand
Internet Statistics 2013, Thailand has
26.1 million Internet users out of
a population of 65 million people.
A recent survey conducted by the
Electronic Transaction Development
Agency (ETDA) revealed that Thais
spend on average seven hours a day
chatting online, catching up on news,
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
watching shows, posting photos and
searching for information.
While online media has become
a key source of information for the
engagement of citizens in public
been left with an enormous task of
verifying information by themselves
from numerous forums and plat-
forms. Online media face a number
of obstacles to providing important
ing the CCA which is designed to
control online news portals. The CCA
allows the state to take action against
Internet users deemed to be sharing
information considered detrimen-
tal to national security. Many human
be a serious violation of freedom of
speech.
Thai netizens have also used social
from the Thai Netizen Network,
a nonprofit advocacy group pro-
moting online privacy and Internet
freedom, launched an online peti-
tion through the website Change.org,
submitting almost 21,000 names of
economy laws, some of which seek
to update existing laws like the CCA
of 2007.
Now, more than ever, the decision-
making process depends upon
two-way communication and infor-
mation disclosure. Where access to
information has been blocked, and
where information has proven unre-
liable or its release has been unnec-
essarily delayed, the risk of social con-
flict will grow.
Without more open information,
more responsive communications
through all available media, and more
meaningful public participation, any
development or reform cannot be
achieved and sustained.
183
 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
FURTHER READING
Democracy Monument in Bangkok commemorates the Thai constitution • The Public Participation Handbook: Making Better Decisions through Citizen Involvement, by
of 1932, which transformed Thailand from an absolute monarchy to +BNFT
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a constitutional democracy. • Participatory Democracy, CZ
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Global Journal of Human Social Science

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R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
Challenges Facing Public Participation
Perception of bias Television is
by far the most popular medium in
Thailand. The majority of Thais rely
on television as their primary source
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and Telecommunications
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“independent regulator”; the regulat-
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as major television stations and
radio frequencies are still owned and
controlled by the military and several
government agencies.

Democratic values

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say Thais possess only a partial
understanding of democracy and who make the big decisions about or business partners is common in
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public policies and infrastructure 5IBJ
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and responsibilities of citizens in a projects so crucial to the develop- might succeed through merit.
participatory democracy. Democracy ment of the provinces.
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ernment has attempted to educate political interference in decision- it has also created challenges for the
the general public on these matters making processes and to encourage traditional bureaucratic system. There
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Social status The traditional Thai had an uneasy relationship with information or access to the contracts
structure of society divides people GSFFEPN
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“Public participation is based ing military men and the wealthy common. The current military-dom-
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International Association for Public Participation

185
 GENDER
EQUALITY
# Ʉ'*)"Ʉ-*Ʉ/*ɄɄ!$- -Ʉ.*$ /4ɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄɄ
Equality between the sexes is a human right that two-thirds of the illiterate population were women.
the United Nations has highlighted as one of its Today, among 15 to 24 year olds, the rate of literacy
Eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). By is almost identical for both genders at around 98
achieving this equilibrium, the lives of half the world’s percent.
population, including more than 33 million women
and girls in Thailand, could be vastly improved. Over the years, the state has identified other
benchmarks of gender equality. As part of the
Once defined by the old proverb “the husband is the 10th National Economic and Social Development
forelegs of the elephant and the wife the hind legs,” Plan of 2007 to 2011, the Women’s Development
Gender
mainstreaming:
implying that men are leaders and women followers, Plan cemented five key pillars to promote the
Thai women have made enormous strides in the advancement of women and gender equality:
A public policy past few decades. Perhaps no other figure illustrates mobilizing all stakeholders to advocate gender
approach that
attempts to this as well as Thailand’s ranking in the world’s top equality; enhancing female participation in the policy-
10 countries with the highest number of female making process; improving healthcare services; A group of friends enjoy a meal together in Bangkok.
promote gender
equality by evalu- executives. Few other nations can also boast such a strengthening women’s rights to human security; and
ating the impacts high workforce participation rate for women: 61.5 fostering more economic participation.
that proposed percent of females aged 15 and above are employed. men, according to the Ministry of Pubic Health. The The protection of women’s rights and those of the
legislation and However, for all these policies and successes, the country has also become a dream destination for LGBTI community are deeply intertwined. Both
programs will gender reassignment surgery. This degree of Thai
have on both men In other crucial respects, Thai females enjoy quite a gender gap remains as deep-seated as any cultural remain vulnerable and marginalized. But with more
and women. few essential freedoms and protections that women prejudice. Still seen as caregivers in many ways, Thai tolerance, inspired in part by Buddhist compassion, female and LGBTI representation in the corridors
in many other developing countries can only dream women often bear a disproportionate amount of has also lent a veneer of acceptance to those in the of political power and less violence against them,
of. Married women are free to adopt titles or family the household chores, from cooking and cleaning to LGBTI community (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgen- the massive gains that Thai women have made in
names, according to their preference. The rights of child-rearing. Many shoulder these burdens while dered and intersex persons). fields like education and economics could be further
women to file for divorce and to gain custody of working full-time. Thai women, like those in other bolstered to bring about a much fairer society.
their children and assets have also been recognized. Asian countries, still earn less than men in every But for all the superficial tolerance, members of
major sector. Women are also far more likely to be the LGBTI community still face discrimination in With gender mainstreaming becoming the norm
However, without employed part-time or on a temporary basis. the workplace and are frequently depicted through among public policymakers, it is time to celebrate
adequate access to negative stereotypes in the media. Being accepted rather than bemoan the differences between the
decent education, these Nowhere is the disparity between the sexes revealed by their own flesh and blood is the biggest struggle sexes, bringing them closer together in a marriage of
other gains would not in more shocking fashion than in the statistics they face in this family-centric nation. equals who are allowed to express themselves freely.
add up to much. Thanks of sexual abuse and domestic violence. In 2013,
to the national policy almost 32,000 women and girls were battered and/
on eradicating gender or sexually assaulted, amounting to 87 cases per
disparity at all levels of day, according to the Public Health Ministry’s One
education, both girls Stop Crisis Center Report from that year. As a result,
and boys are entitled to Thailand was ranked 36th among 75 countries in
a 12-year compulsory acts of physical violence committed against females,
education as specified in and seventh out of 71 countries for sexual assault,
the National Education according to the Thailand Institute of Justice.
Act of 1999 and the
UN’s MDGs. In areas like On the other side of the gender gap, Thai society
increasing literacy these is famous for its acceptance of homosexuality and
policies have earned top gender diversity including kathoey (“transgen-
marks. In 1994, nearly dered”). Thailand has an estimated 600,000 gay

186 187
PART II | SOCIETY GENDER EQUALITY

R EA SONS
Why Gender Equality Matters to Sustainable Development The Rise of Female Executives
Productivity boost

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has contributed to the enactment of laws that provide Few figures illustrate the financial bet- leaders of Indonesia (41 percent) and in the workplace. This legislation, in
in the workplace can have a positive effect on productiv- them with some of the most comprehensive legal protec- terment of women’s lives in Thailand the Philippines with 40. tandem with a raft of governmen-
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percent in developing countries. Women also have an own companies, according to the not unusual for women to be in senior called one of the highest “labor force
Healthier children

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ecosystem management and contribution to environ- their own businesses for every 10
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can also provide insight into effective climate change a little in recent years, it remains
nutrition strongly affect the child’s physical and cognitive response. remarkably high, with Thai women
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Justice for all The protection of women’s rights and board members of companies regis-
Empowered voices

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human rights among individuals in marginal and vulnera- Women’s Day on March 8 every
as maids to stand up for their rights over the last 15 years ble communities. year, Grant Thornton, a London-
based professional service network,
releases its annual International
Business Report, which includes a
survey of women occupying exec-
utive roles. In 2014, Thailand came
Landmark Legal Moments for Gender Equality in Thailand in sixth with 38 percent, well above
Kamala Sukosol, center, and her daughters, Daranee, right, and Marissa, left, are high-flying
■ The 1974 constitution was the first to mention gender equality (Section 28). businesswomen.

■ Thailand ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women executive roles. Asia is a strongly
(CEDAW) in 1985 and its Optional Protocol in 2000. family-orientated society and the
female has always played a key role
■ Thailand’s maternity leave law, implemented in 1993 as part of the Labor Act, allows 90 days of leave. in the household, especially govern-
For the first half, mothers receive full salaries. For the last 45 days they receive half. Those working ing finances. Over time, as business
in the informal sector receive no such benefits. has grown, this has simply become
the norm for us in Thailand. This is
■ Thailand endorsed the Beijing Platform for Action in 1995 during the Fourth World Conference on evidenced by a continuing growth
Women. The declaration stated 12 key areas where urgent action was needed to ensure gender equality. trend of women in executive roles
here.” She added that the integration
■ In 2000, Thailand embraced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Significant efforts have been of the ASEAN Economic Community
made to integrate these international principles and instruments into policy and programing frame- means more golden opportunities for
works, as evidenced by the Constitution B.E. 2550 (AD 2007), which contains provisions for anti-sex dis- women to take on senior managerial
crimination and gender equality. The Protection of Domestic Violence Victim Act was also established. roles in the years to come.
In the domestic labor market,
■ The 2015 Gender Equality Act, aimed at eliminating discrimination among the sexes, is the first Thai
female participation has been on the
law to contain language mentioning the “third gender” and explicitly recognizing gender diversity. rise for many years, thanks in no small
According to Articles 5 and 13, a Committee on Gender Equality will promote parity and mediate on part to the enactment of the Labor
cases of discrimination among the sexes, including “any act or failure to act which segregates, ob- Protection Law of 1998. That law stip-
structs or limit any rights, whether directly or indirectly, without legitimacy because that person is Chadatip Chutrakul is the CEO of Siam Piwat Co.
ulated gender equality in employ-
male or is female or has a sexual expression different from that person’s original sex.” Offenders could the global average of 24 percent, ment, health security, work safety and
face a six-month jail term or a fine of up to 20,000 baht. and only a little behind the ASEAN the prohibition of sexual harassment
participation rates” for women in the
world: a little over 61 percent. Thai
females also account for about one-
third of the board members of com-
panies registered with the Ministry of
Commerce.
For Thailand and other nations,
the more balanced the work-
place and the executive boards are
between men and women, the more
well informed are the decisions that
form the axis upon which these busi-
nesses pivot. Francesca Lagerberg,
global leader for tax services at Grant
Thornton, said: “That greater diver-
sity in decision-making produces
better outcomes is no longer up for
debate. For businesses, better deci-
sions mean stronger growth, so it is
in their interests to facilitate the path
of women from the classroom to the
boardroom.”

188 189
 GENDER EQUALITY
FURTHER READING
• Power, Voice and Rights: A Turning Point for Gender Equality in Asia and the
A same-sex marriage in Khon Kaen province. Although not legally recognized, Pacific,
CZ
UIF
6/%1

same-sex marriages are widely accepted by Thai society.
• Being LGBT in Asia: Thailand Country Report, CZ
UIF
6/%1


• The World Survey on the Role of Women in Development on the Theme of
Gender Equality and Sustainable Development, CZ
UIF
6OJUFE
/BUJPOT


• Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A Companion to the
World Development Report, CZ
UIF
8PSME
#BOL


R EA LIT Y CH ECKS

Challenges to Reaching Gender Equality

Nong Toom is a famous transgendered boxer. A former anchor at a Channel 3 morning news show is attended to by a stylist.

Social stigma Discussions of 
UP

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191
 CONFLICT
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Red shirts: While some conflicts may ultimately give rise to kingdom has been convulsed by 12 successful coups
Broadly speak-
a brighter future for a country, violent unrest and and many more failed attempts. While the periods
ing, most red social turmoil are typically antithetical to sustainable of military rule that followed have brought stretches
shirts hail from development. Whether born from political or of development, security and peace to the country,
the north and religious divisions or another cause, the impacts they have also on occasion – in the 1970s, 1990s and
northeast. They are largely the same in any nation: physical loss of 2000s – led to violent unrest.
may be backers life and limb that destroys families and foments
of former prime distrust and hostility, environmental degradation, Currently Thailand suffers from two key conflicts:
minister Thaksin
Shinawatra or the devastation of communities, economic loss, one between political factions known as the red
spurred by their infrastructure damage and the derailment of shirts and yellow shirts, which has resulted in mass
perspectives on positive policy initiatives. Some conflicts feed off the street protests over the past 10 years that have
inequality or see environment itself, with groups pillaging property, paralyzed large sections of Bangkok and triggered
the movement such as antiquities, or plundering natural resources tense protests across the country. The other conflict
as a vehicle to in order to raise money or publicize their campaigns. consists of an insurgency in the three deep south
achieve other
objectives such provinces of Yala, Pattani and Narathiwat, where
as a redistribu- Although it has been hundreds of years since a large percentage of the region’s population is
tion of power or Thailand became truly engulfed in war, the kingdom of Malay descent and most residents from the
wealth. has not been immune to serious unrest. Since the older generation speak Pattani Malay as their first
abolishment of the absolute monarchy in 1932, the language.
The situation in the provinces of Thailand’s
deep south is a localized conflict which involves
operations of limited scale, but has claimed more
than 6,000 lives since the last flare up in 2004,
according to Deep South Watch, which is connected
to the Prince of Songkla University in the province
of Pattani. (Government statistics put the death
toll at around 4,000.) As historian and expert on
the issue Duncan McCargo notes, the causes of the
conflict are “complex and often opaque. Alternative
explanations include questions of identity, historical
injustice, economic inequality and discrimination,
unequal power relations, and networks of criminality
involving local politicians and members of the
security forces.”
Although both of these conflicts are generally
contained to small groups, they have impacted
Thailand’s image. The country ranked 126 out of
162 countries in the Global Peace Index report of
2015. This index gauges global peace through 26
qualitative and quantitative indicators under three
broad themes: the level of safety and security in
society, the extent of domestic and international
A Thai soldier helps children off a school bus in the deep south. Militants in the area have targeted schools, which they see as representative of the state.
conflict and the degree of militarization. Only policy and political continuity over the past decade
Myanmar, the Philippines and North Korea fared in particular may have created an era of lost oppor-
worse than Thailand in the Asia-Pacific region. This tunities for the country during a time of increasing
low ranking stemmed mostly from poor scores global competitiveness.
involving domestic issues such as “violent demon-
strations,” “terrorism impact,” and a high rate of Then there is the psychological toll. In any conflict,
“violent crime.” The report estimated the financial the number of bombings, injuries and casualties is Yellow shirts:
costs to Thailand at just over US$50 billion, which is much easier to gauge than the intangible cultural They tend to
$748 per Thai, or 5 percent of GDP. Worldwide, the and social effects wrought by such events. As be distrustful
impact of violence in 2014 was estimated at US$14.3 Deep South Watch noted in a report, “A common of Thaksin Shi-
trillion or 13.4 percent of global GDP, money which factor for all wars and conflicts studied is that nawatra and his
could have been earmarked for poverty alleviation the government side, and often the rebel side as network and the
aims of the red
or positive development. It is interesting to note that well, engaged in widespread abuses of the civilian shirt leaders; they
the 10 “most peaceful” countries, topped by Iceland, population, which accentuated the number of are generally
were all stable democracies. refugees, hardened the attitudes of survivors, and comprised of
created difficulties for former victims to reconcile supporters of the
While Thailand’s two key conflicts fill the newspapers with their opponents in cases where a settlement Democrat Party,
and can give the appearance of a country in constant has been reached.” royalists and the
Bangkok middle
turmoil, the kingdom has remained incredibly class. They
resilient in many respects. In 2013 it ranked as the In Thailand, conflict in the deep south and polar- may also have
world’s 10th-most-popular tourist destination, and ization between the so-called red shirts and yellow benign objectives
although no stranger to slumps, it has maintained shirts has led to a breakdown of trust and dialogue. such as rooting
its status as the region’s second-strongest economy. The ongoing cycle of unrest also means that Thai out corruption
The corrosive effects of Thailand’s conflicts are thus political institutions are forever channeling their and inequality,
which seemingly
slightly harder to identify and the greatest loss is energy into negotiating ways out of new crises, overlap with the
likely to be found in the unknown opportunity costs rather than into more long-term strategies of causes of the red
suffered over the long-term. In other words, a lack of development. shirts.

192 193
PART II | SOCIETY CONFLICT

R EA SONS R EA LIT Y CH ECKS

How Conflict Impedes Sustainable Development Keys to Bridging Divisions
Foreign investment

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194 195
PART II | SOCIETY

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The conflict between the red and
yellow shirts is often traced back to
2006 when Prime Minister Thaksin
Shinawatra was deposed in a coup.
His supporters, hailing largely from
the north and northeast of Thailand,
long-time underdogs in the political
arena, donned red and took to the
streets to protest his ousting. Their
rivals, dressed in yellow, the color
of royalty in Thailand, were seen by
the red shirts as aligned with the Thai
elite, which had once dominated the
government and fiercely opposed
Thaksin’s regime.
The events of 2006, with mass pro-
tests bringing Bangkok to a standstill,
were to play out time and again over
the coming years, with the yellow
shirts occupying Government House
for five months in 2008 and then trig-
gering the closure of Suvarnabhumi
International Airport for eight days by
staging protests there later that year.
In 2010, the red shirts resorted to
the same tactic, squatting in the area
around the Phan Fah Bridge before
moving to Lumphini Park and the
glitzy Ratchaprasong shopping dis-
trict of Siam Square, which they occu-
pied for months, closing down all the
malls and shops in the area. After the
Red shirts gather en masse for a rally.
196
“Yellow shirts” wave clappers during a 2008 demonstration in Bangkok.
ruling Democrat Party ordered the No matter which color-coded
army to storm the barricades, the red partisans started the protest, the
shirts responded by launching dozens results were often the same: shops
of arson attacks across the city. All in and schools closed en masse, nega-
all, 91 people lost their lives in the tive news reports circled the globe,
conflagrations of 2010 and many and tourist arrivals declined. The
more were injured. protesters’ penchant for targeting
Bangkok’s biggest thoroughfares and
busiest districts, to pressure parties
into making concessions so as not to
lose the support of business owners,
has worsened the economic damage.
The real costs of these conflicts in
terms of the country’s future develop-
ment and its international image are
rarely considered by the protesters,
who are largely focused on ousting
one party in favor of another.
Perhaps the word most reiterated
in political circles and the media in
recent years is reconciliation. The
meaning is clear enough, but how to
achieve such a truce without military
intervention or an authoritarian gov-
ernment remains an elusive goal.
FURTHER READING
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• Red vs Yellow: Volume 1: Thailand’s Crisis of Identity,
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Deep Trouble in the Deep South
The region often known as Pattani
had only a loose tributary rela-
tionship to Thai rulers until King
Chulalongkorn began to pacify the
outer-lying regions of his kingdom in
order to consolidate national borders.
Attempts to bring the provinces
under Bangkok rule during a time of
Western encroachment and impe-
rialism culminated with the Anglo-
Siamese Treaty of 1909, in which the
British recognized Siam’s sovereignty
over the area.
For the next few decades, the
population was mostly left alone
until 1934, when Field Marshal
Pibulsongkram instituted a process of
“Thaification” of the southern prov-
inces, forcing Malays to adopt the
customs and language of the dom-
inant Thai ethnic group, effectively
denying them any status as a sepa-
rate ethnic minority. Attempts by Haji
Sulong and other local leaders to gain
better treatment for the region after
World War II ended in failure and,
ultimately, Haji Sulong’s arrest and
disappearance.
But it was not until the late 1960s
that a more formal rebellion move-
ment was formed and flashpoints
lit up the south as the Patani United
Liberation Organization (PULO)
attacked state institutions with the
goal of secession.
The conflict periodically flared
up from the 1960s until 2001, when
shadowy insurgent groups, radical-
ized by hardline Islamic teachers,
began expanding their targets to
include attacks on police stations
and army barracks. The violence
escalated significantly on January 4,
2004, when rebels set fire to police
stations and schools and made off
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with weapons from a local army
arsenal.
The military exacted a harsh
revenge. After launching a series of
attacks in the three provinces that
left dozens of militants dead, 32 of
them, armed with only knives and
a single gun, holed up in the 18th-
century holy site of Krue Se Mosque
The ancient Krue Se Mosque in Pattani was the sight of a massacre in 2004.
in April 2004. After a seven-hour
standoff with the military, heavily
armed soldiers stormed in to shoot
all of them dead.
“The Tak Bai Massacre” followed
in October 2004. After demonstra-
tions outside the police station in the
town of Tak Bai in Narathiwat prov-
ince, hundreds of protesters, their
arms tied, were stacked on top of
each other in trucks. During the five-
hour ride to the army camp in Pattani
province, 78 of them died from suffo-
cation and other causes.
These incidents, as well as the
still-unsolved disappearance of the
Thai-Muslim lawyer and human rights
activist Somchai Neelaphajit also in
2004, triggered a dramatic upsurge
CONFLICT
in the violence and only further
entrenched distrust. Militants, some
of whom now proclaimed a radical
goal of Islamicization of the southern
provinces, began targeting any entity
deemed to be a collaborator with the
state: government officials, schools,
teachers, monks and the families of
teachers.
More than 4,000 people have
been killed since 2004, according
to government statistics, both from
insurgent attacks and as a result of
military responses to the violence and
unrest. No clear solution is in sight.
But it’s difficult to point fingers.
Both sides are guilty of committing
atrocities and the causes of the vio-
lence are varied and complicated. As
a statement released by the Thailand
arm of the international NGO Human
Rights Watch pointed out, “The cycle
of human rights abuses and impu-
nity contributes to an atmosphere in
which Thai security personnel show
little regard for human rights and
secessionist insurgents have commit-
ted numerous atrocities.”
197
THE THAI
CULTURE
Monarchy
Religion
Heritage
Although it is not one of the traditional
three pillars of sustainable develop-
ment, culture is increasingly seen as an
intrinsic part, since it forms – through
religion, history, heritage and more – the
psyche of any nation. And in Thailand,
so much of the country’s culture dove-
tails wonderfully with the principles of
sustainable development.
Ninety-five percent of Thais are ad-
herents of Buddhism, which encourages
compassion, holds nature sacred, and
illuminates its followers about cause
and effect, and the interdependence of
all living things. Buddhism also pro-
motes the philosophy of moderation, or
the “middle way,” which preceded the
Western-style consumerist culture that
has become more prevalent in Thailand.
The religion may yet serve as an anti-
dote to capitalism’s grosser excesses.
For centuries, Thailand’s other
cultural pillar, its monarchy, has steered
the kingdom’s development and united
the country. The current monarch,
King Bhumibol Adulyadej, has shown
his foresight by implementing many
royally initiated projects on everything
from farming and community develop-
ment to water management. Further-
more, the monarch’s formulation of the
Sufficiency Economy Philosophy offers
a homegrown spin on many of the
practices and values that form the basis
of sustainable development thinking
around the world.
Thailand also possesses a rich
history of cultural diversity and is
famous for successfully absorbing
outside influences and ideas as well as
peoples. Both Buddhism and the Thai
people are famous for such accom-
“Without memory, there is no culture.
Without memory, there would be no
civilization, no society, no future.”
Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize Winner from Romania
modation. All of these cultural traits
provide a platform for sustainable
development to thrive here.
The pillars of Thailand’s culture,
however, are not immune to change
and the traditional principles they
embody are perhaps no longer as
potent. While the grandiose temples at
the protected ancient cities of Ayud-
hya and Sukhothai may continue to
stand tall as tourist attractions and the
embodiment of national pride, Thai
culture itself has rapidly evolved to
include new global modes, technology
and values. With the pull of the future
as strong as the influence of the past,
tensions are appearing. How well Thai-
land’s past values and beliefs are recon-
ciled with new ideas will continue to
define Thailand’s future development
path and its identity.
 MONARCHY
An ancient institution navigates
the modern world

Thailand’s monarchy is one of the most enduring of
all monarchies in a region once full of them. From
the 13th century until 1932, when absolute monarchy
was replaced with constitutional monarchy, Siamese
kings ruled. And from 1932 until today, they have
continued to reign.
This span of more than 750 years, covering dynasties
both short-lived and legendary, is remarkable for not
only its length but also for its ongoing impact – few
countries in the world today remain so extraordi-
narily dedicated to and defined by their royalty.
Traditional systems of patronage and hierarchy
combined with Buddhist teachings of righteous
kingship mean the monarchy has long been
paramount in this largely Buddhist nation, not only
in terms of mystique and symbolic power, but also
in terms of leading and developing the nation.
The early kings of the current Chakri dynasty were

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civil order took form.”
stabilizing the kingdom they had based in Bangkok
after the Burmese sacked Ayudhya in 1776.
The fourth king, Mongkut (Rama IV), is credited
with beginning the modernization process taken
over by his son, Chulalongkorn (or Rama V), toward
the end of the 19th century. King Chulalongkorn
led a massive reformation and expansion of the
government bureaucracy sometimes known as the
“Revolution from Above.” Centralizing power in
Bangkok, he and his court formed the foundations of
the current nation-state: slavery was abolished, the
judiciary and legal code were modernized, roads and
railroads were built, a standing army was created,
borders were consolidated and revenue gathering
systems were streamlined.
The ninth king, the current monarch, King Bhumibol
Adulyadej (or Rama IX), provided the crown with
fresh relevance during the constitutional era. While
he recognized the importance of the monarchy’s
symbolism to the country’s identity and people,
he also transformed the monarchy into an agent
of development. Shocked by the hardships he
discovered among the people upcountry, the
king became passionate about his own brand of
sustainable development. His advice – on everything
from protecting forests and watersheds to improving
soil quality – as well as his localized approach, are
echoed by the development practices of the UN
today. Through NGO-style institutions such as his
Chaipattana Foundation and more than 4,000 royally
initiated projects, the king has circumvented red
tape in the name of more long-lasting solutions to
the social, economic and environmental problems
Thailand faces.
Today, however, in an age of new and interactive
media, and with the king nearing the 70th anniversary
of his reign, the future role of the monarchy has
become a question of increasing discussion. How will
it adapt – at what pace and to what degree – to the
new challenges facing Thailand?
King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit (center, seated) sit with their guests at the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall in Bangkok on June 12, 2006, before the royal
barge ceremony the next day to mark the king’s Diamond Jubilee. Monarchs and dignitaries from around the world joined this momentous occasion.
R EA SONS
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200 201
PART II | CULTURE MONARCHY

FURTHER READING
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Lanka and is embraced
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1932
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according to King Bhumibol Adulyadej:
international community frequent-
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17th country’s first consti-
tution is promulgated while in Europe and

centuries with the king remain- lives the rest of his life
A Life’s Work. This wealth is managed comments that would be protected there.
1851 2006
ing the head of state.
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The king and queen after marrying in 1950. his coronation, May 5, 1950

202 203
PART II | CULTURE
Sustainable Development in Words and Deeds
One of the central tenets of sus-
tainable development is the idea of
leaving the world a better place for
future generations. Achieving that
goal does not require the current
generation to sacrifice, but asks that
they should protect key resources and
create stronger systems that will lead
society toward future success. Thus,
at the heart of sustainable develop-
ment are public participation, careful
analyses of challenges, and long-term
planning and solutions.
In words and deeds, King
Bhumibol Adulyadej has embod-
ied these core values of sustainable
development since he began pursuing
his own development projects in the
1950s, long before the term “sustain-
able development” was coined. The
issues he tackled – water security and
management, soil quality, crop yields
and farming techniques, forest con-
servation, education and healthcare
– remain at the core of development
agendas today.
The king (left), officials and villagers at a
poppy field in the Golden Triangle.
204
The king briefs students on a project devoted to water management near Hua Hin.
Against the grain of large-scale
modernization, the king promoted
site-specific measures that were
sensitive to the environment and
the socio-economic conditions of
the people. Today, there are over
4,000 such royally initiated projects
throughout the country aimed at cre-
ating sustainable development.
The king once commented that
“our existence depends on working
and analyzing various problems.” For
a monarch who could have remained
removed from his people, he became
famous for his closeness to them.
Taking up their petitions and rather
than relying on the reports of gov-
ernment officials, he preferred to per-
sonally study the issue by poring over
research materials and then going on
a field visit. Often driving himself to
the location in question, once he
arrived he would walk through the
site to get a feel for the place and also
to show moral support to the locals,
whose spirits were often lifted by the
interest he showed in their problems.
A team that accompanied the king
would collect information at the site
and also help assess the problem. The
king then held a public hearing on the
spot – an approach which came to be
known as “rapid rural appraisal.”
Once an agreement with the vil-
lagers and local officials was reached
on a course of action, the king would
fund the development project
through his Chaipattana Foundation,
which means “ Victor y through
Development.”
By the time of an interview with
BBC correspondent David Lomax
during the making of the documen-
tary Soul of a Nation in 1979, many of
the king’s projects were meeting with
success, most famously his opium
eradication scheme in the so-called
“Golden Triangle.” But the king said
MONARCHY
the job was far from over. Instead, he for many hundred years. By that time source of protein. After his visit
predicted it would take three decades our descendants might be think- to a Danish milk plant in 1960, the
to eradicate opium from Thailand. ing of some new ways to solve the monarch returned to Thailand and
Moreover, he recognized that the problems.” When the king speaks helped introduce more dairy into the
elimination of the opium trade was about education, he describes it as diet of Thais by opening a dairy plant.
in itself not the goal. “The other task “a never-ending process.” One of his The king’s experiences and ideas
is to give these people a better way most ambitious educational proj- were ultimately formalized in the
of life,” he told Lomax. “So this will ects, a massive Thai-language ency- late 1990s into the king’s own devel-
continue even if – and I don’t think clopedia for students, was intended opment philosophy known as the
it is in the very near future – opium to “transfer knowledge, culture and “Sufficiency Economy Philosophy.”
is eradicated like smallpox has been. ethics for the next generation.”
We have to continue the program for When he considered the health
a very long time, so that we will give of his people, he did not offer short-
these people a better life and also so term remedies and cure-alls. Instead, “The kings of prior reigns
that everyone will benefit from it.” he looked for practical solutions. The had ruled the land. But
The words were typical of the Japanese emperor Akihito, when he
king’s approach. On another occa- was crown prince, offered the king a HM the King of this present
sion, regarding the country’s trouble species of freshwater fish known as reign has ruled the hearts of
in managing its water resources, he Tilapia nilotica. The king bred it under the people…”
observed: “If we take proper care of the Thai name pla nil and introduced M.R. Kukrit Pramoj, 13th prime
the environment, there will be water it to the country as a popular, new minister of Thailand
When the UN Honored the King
In May 2006, the UN presented its first UNDP Human De-
velopment Lifetime Achievement Award to the king. UN
Secretary-General Kofi Annan traveled to Klai Kangwon
Palace in Hua Hin, where the king was staying, to make the
presentation. The award was timed to mark the 60th anni-
versary of the king’s accession to the throne, and honored
his Sufficiency Economy Philosophy and his promotion
of sustainable production and consumption. “As a vision-
ary thinker, Your Majesty has played an invaluable role in
shaping the global development dialogue,” Annan said at
the presentation. “Your Majesty’s Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy, emphasizing moderation, responsible con-
sumption, and resilience to external shocks, is of great
relevance worldwide during these times of rapid globalization. It reinforces the United Nations’ efforts
to promote a people-centered and sustainable path of development.”
In the International Herald Tribune, former prime minister Anand Panyarachun wrote at the time of
the award, “We are in desperate need of technological solutions to our energy problems, a more equita-
ble distribution of wealth, a level playing field for international trade and more generous development
aid to poor countries. But this will not be enough. A more profound transformation of our societies, our
values and the way we consume is needed. The king’s philosophy of “Sufficiency Economy” offers just
that – a more balanced, holistic and sustainable path of development and an alternative to the clearly
unsustainable road the world is currently traveling down.”
205
 RELIGION
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On the tricolored Thai flag of red, white and blue,
where red represents the nation and blue the
monarchy, Buddhism’s purity is symbolized by the
color white. Long before a national consciousness
even existed, the religion helped form the values,
heart and soul of Thai communities. For centuries,
monks were among the most respected leaders
and most well-educated people, especially in the
countryside, where they exerted an enormous
influence in their villages. The precepts of karma
and compassion and observing the eightfold path
of virtues have long served as a moral compass for
most Thais.
But Buddhism has two distinct components in
Thailand: as it is practiced by monks, who follow
myriad rules, and as it is practiced by laypeople,
who are not required to follow as many of those
tenets. For monks, by immersing
themselves in the dharma, or
teachings of the Buddha, they
hope to attain a greater sense
of enlightenment and ethical
behavior. Oftentimes they take
on professorial roles in their
communities, spreading the
wisdom of the Lord Buddha to
the devout while also serving
as advisors to them in many
different capacities.
For laypeople, from the cradle
to the crematorium, Buddhism
“The way to extinguish desire is to become a
giver. Give regularly. The act of giving and the
extinguishing of desire: they always happen
simultaneously. Giving is for reducing greed
in one’s mind, without hoping for any better
thing in return.”
Somdet Phra Nyanasamvara, the late Supreme Patriarch
206
is an integral part of their lives easily observed in
everything from giving alms to monks during their
daily rounds or having saffron-robed holy men chant
at weddings and funerals. The religion also plays a
significant role in Thai culture. On the calendar are
national holidays like Visakha Bucha Day, which
commemorates the birth, enlightenment and death
of the Buddha. Many parts of the country also
celebrate Buddhist Lent, which marks the Buddha’s
first sermon and the annual three-month retreat
for monks during the rainy season, in spectacularly
different ways and add Buddhist touches to their
own provincial festivals.
The compassion and tolerance that the Buddha
exuded is evident in the fact that Thais, and all
foreign residents in the kingdom, are free to choose
any faith they wish to follow. There is no official
state religion, though some 95 percent of Thais
still identify themselves as Buddhists. The other
5 percent are made up of Muslims, mostly in the
southern provinces of Yala, Pattani and Narathiwat,
with scatterings of Christians across the central
region and animists in the hill tribes up north.
Though Buddhism in Southeast Asia is mostly of the
Theravada school (a fundamentalist interpretation of
the original teachings), the Thai strain has evolved to
include parts of different creeds. A widespread belief
in spirits comes from animism. Some of the different
deities like Brahma (the god of creation) and Ganesha
(the elephant-headed god of knowledge) and that
bird-like symbol of Thai royalty, the Garuda, are from
Hinduism, which came to Thailand via the Khmer
empire. Chinese deities like Guan Yin, the Goddess
of Mercy, are also worshipped, and the yin/yang
symbol of Taoism is a common sight.
According to the website Buddhanet, there are
more than 29,000 Buddhist temples and somewhere
around 200,000 monks and 85,000 novice monks.
During the three-month rainy season retreat known
as Buddhist Lent, these numbers swell to 300,000
monks and 100,000 novices. Boys can become
Monks pray before morning meal at Maha Chulalongkorn’s Buddhist University‘s Nong Khai campus.
novices from the age of 7, but men must wait until emphasize the interdependence of all life, the forests Mindfulness:
they turn 20 to ordain as monks. Then they are and oceans, the animals and people, to produce The state of
bound to follow 227 precepts, whereas laypeople a body of teachings, ethics and practices that active, open
only have to refrain from such things as lying, encouraged mindfulness, which remains at the roots attention on the
stealing, cheating and drunkenness. of ethical behavior in Thailand. present. When
you’re mindful,
you observe your
In Sanskrit, Buddha means “awakened.” By that he thoughts and
meant awakened to reality as it is – not the delusions feelings from a
of ego, anger and lust which are mental constructs distance, without
but the ephemeral nature of feelings and the judging them
inescapable life cycle of all sentient beings: birth, good or bad.
Instead of letting
old age, suffering and death (valuable lessons that your life pass you
every Thai schoolchild must still learn by heart). by, mindfulness
These are also the cycles of nature. Throughout means living in
the Buddha’s teachings, the natural world is of the moment and
primary importance; it’s often used as a metaphor awakening to
or touchstone. In one famous sermon, the Buddha experience.
simply sat and held up a lotus blossom until it
whithered to demonstrate life’s impermanence.
Because of such associations, the flower is used in
religious rituals and has a host of different meanings
for Thai people, some secular and some spiritual.
By respecting nature and all sentient beings, no
matter how minuscule, the Buddha also sought to
207
PART II | CULTURE RELIGION
FURTHER READING
• Handbook for Humankind,
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Why Buddhism Matters to Sustainable Development
Rises to Prominence,
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www.buddhanet.net
Interdependence and deep ecology

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belief in cause and effect and the interdependence of all
Sense of place

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karma help Thais make sense of the world and their place Falls from Grace and • Socially Engaged Buddhism,
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• Transforming Thai Culture: From Temple Drums to Mobile Phones, by William
human beings with nature speaks to the most vital prin-
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be rewarded now and then.
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228 BC 1767 1782
1994
Key principles

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can act as a healthy check on unbridled consumption and
home and in the temple to festivals and weddings
to the daily alms collections across the country
agator in India was
King Ashoka the Great.
burning of Ayudhya
by the Burmese many
still-reigning Chakri
Dynasty in the new 1975 Phra Yantra, who
Once a barbaric war- invaluable, palm- capital of Bangkok. One of Ajarn Mun’s
create a mindset compatible with the goals of sustain- FBDI
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most devoted disciples, Khan in a previous life,
to the Buddha’s brand Buddhist teachings are of the Tipitaka (Bud- Ajarn Chah, also
compass of the vast majority of Thai people. Through Higher learning

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grounds would never have a chance to attend institutions for a variety of offens-
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in India, while building Buddha images, not a council tasked with year he founds a forest one of many scandals
84,000 stupas and only to loot the heads, the feat of standardiz- temple called Wat Pah to rock the Thai monk-
encouraging Buddhist but to crush the spirit ing the Thai translation Nanachat. That monas- hood in the 1990s.
missionaries to dis- of the Siamese. before sending them to tery has now sprouted
seminate the teachings temples in the country. 10 other branches in
across Southeast Asia, England, Australia and
so it reached pres-
ent-day Thailand in 16th Europe. Late 1990s
century
228 BC. Asoke Road BuddhaNet and many
in Bangkok is named other websites devoted
after him. to the teachings of
The Portuguese, the
the Lord Buddha go
1900
first Westerners to
live in Ayudhya, build online in addition to
Catholic churches. digital versions of the

AD 1238
The Dhammayut sect scriptures.
produces two widely
revered monks, Ajarn
AD 1351
After the first Siamese
Mun and Ajarn Sao,
2003
kingdom of Sukhothai
who revive the forest
(“Dawn of Happi-
After the founding of meditation tradition.
ness”) is established,
the Ayudhya king- The ongoing conflict
Theravada Buddhism
dom, the monarchs of in Thailand’s deep
becomes the state re-
this dynasty become south flares up again,
ligion. Buddha images
crafted in this style are renowned as tem-
ple-builders, so much 1833 in general pitting Mus-
lims against Buddhists.
Facts You Need to Know about Religion in Thailand commonly regarded as
superior in beauty and so that foreign visitors Prince Mongkut, a Many monks have

■ Ever since the days of the Ayudhya kingdom, circa the 16th century, both Thais and foreigners have workmanship. call the capital a “city
of gold” that makes
monk for 27 years be-
fore he was crowned as
1878 been killed.

been free to practice their own religions. Paris and London look King Mongkut, found- King Chulalongkorn
■ The cornerstone of Buddhism is self-reliance, as denoted by the Buddha’s famous last words to his
drab by comparison. ed the Dhammayut
Sect, to reform Bud-
(Rama V) issues The
Edict of Religious Tol-
2008
disciples, “Work out your own salvation with diligence and heedfulness.” dhism in accordance eration, which affirms In spite of monks pro-
with its Pali roots. But the right of Christians testing once again –
■ The hill tribes of the north live in harmony with nature as they worship her healing and life-giving this move also results or any religious adher- and even sleeping in
properties in the form of spirits which dwell in trees, fields and rivers. in a Bangkok-centered ents to practice their coffins outside the
sangha (monkhood) faith in the kingdom. parliament buildings –
■ All the great religions preach that life is full of suffering. Only the Buddha taught how to eliminate that usurps power to make Buddhism the
that suffering through the doctrine of non-attachment to delusions like the ego and the removing of from village temples. country’s official reli-
constantly shifting cravings through meditation and contemplation. gion, the push fails.

208 209
PART II | CULTURE RELIGION

R EA LIT Y CH ECKS

Challenges Facing Buddhism in the Material World Forest Tradition Takes Root
abbots have taken leading roles in fortitude. They practiced modera- environment. Likewise, they have
political protests when critics say they tion, and learned to exist in harmony been integral in the replanting of
should not intervene in state politics. with the ecosystems in which they woodland areas and are credited
lived. The emphasis was always on with the resurgence of forests in areas
The business of Buddhism

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Chah, “Mindfulness is life. Whenever tuaries.
is little transparency or oversight we don’t have mindfulness, when we In 1967, Ajahn Chah took on his
regarding temple assets. This has led are heedless, it’s as if we are dead.” first Western disciple, an American
many to worry that some temples His followers were expected to monk named Venerable Sumedho
and monks are acting at odds with maintain disciplined observance of who had been practicing intensive
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Ajahn Chah practices meditation in the forest. the Vinaya, the rules of the sangha. meditation near the Lao border.
The Forest Tradition is particularly Over the next few years Wat Nong
Socially disengaged

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observers recommend that nowned for establishing Wat Nong observe the “one eaters practice”, In 1975, in an unprecedented move,
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Pah Pong in northeastern Thailand whereby they consume only one Ajahn Chah founded Wat Pah
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on an international level, as a young sizes the realization of enlightenment the International Forest Monastery,
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apply Buddhist teachings on morality, the concept of sustainability. During Thailand with the aim of training
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return to his home village in Ubon
Ratchathani province. Nearby, under
a canopy of thick forest, he estab-
lished Wat Nong Pah Pong. In this A small house for studying Dhamma inside Wat Pah Nanachat in Ubon Ratchathani province.
quiet spot, rumored to be inhabited
“Religion is at the only by cobras, tigers and ghosts, dis- Thailand’s rainforests. Due to the Today Wat Nong Pah Pong has
heart of social ciples flocked to Ajahn Chah despite location of their forest monasteries, more than 250 branches across
change, and hardships such as malaria and a lack Ajahn Chah’s disciples frequently Thailand, and more than 15 associ-
social change is of shelter. As the years passed, he found themselves on the frontlines ated monasteries and 10 lay practice
gained notoriety as an influential in the battle against timber compa- centers around the globe including
the essence of teacher in the Forest Tradition. nies and plantations. As the forest is the Abhayagiri monastery (Fearless
religion.” The tutelage of Ajahn Chah was a crucial factor in allowing devoted Mountain) in northern California
Sulak Sivaraksa, Seeds of said to be harsh and challenging, adherents to follow in the footsteps and the Cittaviveka monastery in the
Peace: A Buddhist Vision with the aim of pushing monks to of Buddha, monks of the Forest United Kingdom, the latter of which
for Reforming Society: test the limits of their endurance so Tradition and local lay people work was the first Ajahn Chah monastery
Collected Articles they would develop patience and tirelessly to preserve their natural to be established outside of Thailand.

210 211
 HERITAGE
Cultural achievements with lasting value

Tangible and Thailand, with a more than 700-year-old history that Thailand’s heritage can appear complex, deep
intangible played out between great empires and spanning and downright confounding.
cultural a succession of royal dynasties, has produced one
heritage:
of the world’s richest and most varied cultures. The remnants of this past are not simply experienced
According to Extending from the former Lanna kingdom of the through the beautiful Buddha images and temples
UNESCO’s defi- north through the ancient capitals of Sukhothai that attract tourists today, but can also be witnessed
nition, the former
is no longer and Ayudhya to the Khmer-style temples of Lop in the rituals maintained by its monarchy, heard in
limited to monu- Buri and the northeast and down to southern lands the songs of its musical forms, or literally tasted in
ments and iconic once ruled by rajahs lies a still very visible layer of the contrasting flavors of a curry from one of the
archaeological Thailand’s ancient past. world’s most beloved cuisines.
sites, but also
encompasses an To preserve such heritage in the face of globaliza-
array of cultur- A mural from the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok’s Grand Palace. It depicts Hanuman, a key character from the national epic, 3BNBLJFO.
tion can be a matter of both angst and debate in
ally significant “Historical sites are our nation’s prestige. Thailand, and a matter of complexity beyond any
places, such as Even a single block of old bricks is
historic cities, single body. It is, indeed, a paradox of sorts since Government policies have helped. In a landmark
living rural areas valuable to preserve. With no Sukhothai, Thailand’s heritage itself was born out of change, case, the Fine Arts Department designated 20 R EA SONS
and seascapes, Ayudhya and Bangkok, Thailand is and an acceptance of it. In all likelihood, Thailand’s percent of the island on which the historic old city
gardens or tangible cultural heritage and intangible cultural of Ayudhya is situated as a National Historical Park Why Heritage Matters
sacred forests meaningless.”
and mountains, King Bhumibol Adulyadej
heritage will face continued pressure, if not from a in 1976. Recognition from international bodies such
industrial areas, new generation arguably less interested in the past, as UNESCO has also helped keep major cultural Culture leads to innovation

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associated with Then add on centuries of openness to trade and historic districts in favor of generic malls, condos the local level people have banded together to use BOE
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and war. Intan- by revolution and hardship to Thailand’s plains, development, in a country where old can be seen as their voices are heard. This is increasing awareness
gible cultural,
meanwhile, refers ports and cities to the steady stream of Western and old-fashioned and new as synonymous with better, around the need for more people-centered Economic value Thailand’s rich heritage is one of the main drivers
to traditions and Asian capitalists, soldiers, traders, speculators and locals have had to fight to preserve their districts development that also respects cultural heritage. PG
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practices. wanderers. With so many influences, it is no wonder whether in cities or the countryside. *O
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development? In 2013, UNESCO released a report on the community and long-term durability are given precedence.
why cultural heritage should form a key component
of the UN’s post-2015 development agenda. One of Unity through understanding

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the main arguments was that activities and output Thailand’s different regions could help defuse potential tensions by
related to culture are “green by design,” as they have fostering tolerance and respect among communities.
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important factor in maintaining cultural diversity in a collective memory that binds people together. These are eco-
the face of growing globalization, an understand- systems of the spirit that add value to people’s lives and cannot be
ing of the intangible cultural heritage of different assessed in monetary terms.
communities helps with intercultural dialogue, and
encourages mutual respect for other ways of life.”

212 213
PART II | CULTURE HERITAGE

TIME LI NE
1976 2000
Evolve or Perish Movements in the Arts, The Fine Arts Depart- Montien Boonma dies
“I don’t see the point of preserving always been its ability to adapt and tance of foreign cultures. Very little of Landmarks in Heritage ment, spurred by the
activism of Sumet
prematurely of cancer
at the age of 47 only
something so that it becomes dead. assimilate outside influences. Thai culture today is our own, except Jumsai, designates 20 a few years after his
If it must evolve, we must allow “I have no fear for Thai culture one might say the language, but even percent of the island wife succumbed to
it to evolve,” said M.R. Chakrarot because if you study and under- with that there were influences,” he on which the historic the same illness. His
Chitrabongs. stand Thai culture, it is a culture that explained. “Many of our customs can
1495 BC to 1926 1943 old city of Ayudhya is
situated to be protect-
installation works, such
as “Lotus Sound” and
900 BC 
It’s perhaps a surprising sentiment has evolved from centuries of accep- have their origins traced to ethnic
to hear from not only the former minorities in the land or sometimes The National Museum Italian sculptor Silpa ed as National Histor- “Sala of the Mind,” re-
opens with Prince Bhirasri (1883–1962), ical Park land, ending flect his deep Buddhist
secretary general of the National way outside of the land.” Though the date range Damrong classifying born Corrado Feroci, decades of plunder- beliefs and incorporate
Culture Commission and permanent In this respect, he echoed the of the Bronze Age site, ing. In 1988, another
the stylistic periods for founds Silpakorn Uni- Thai materials such as
secretary of the Ministry of Culture opinions of his grandfather, Prince Ban Chiang, in Udon conservation victory is rice sacks, herbs and
religious architecture, versity, the country’s
but also a man with a pedigree that Damrong, who said: “When [Thais] Thani province, is still along with ceramics primary art school. His scored when the “Phra buffalo horns. In death
could justify his claim that he has saw some good feature in the culture in dispute, the area and sculptures, into arrival in 1923 at the Narai Lintel,” which he has experienced a
Thailand’s heritage “in his veins.” of other people, if it was not in con- contains evidence of had gone missing in the massive renaissance
eight stylistic periods invitation of Rama VI
Both of M.R. Chakrarot’s grandfathers flict with their own interests, they did one of the most im- 1960s before turning with retrospectives of
in a chronological reflects an embrace
are legendary figures in Thailand: not hesitate to borrow it and adapt it portant and advanced up at an American mu- his work held all over
sequence named of Western styles
prehistoric settlements seum a decade later, is the world.
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab (1862– to their own requirements.” after historic polities: as well as increased
1943), often called the “Father of
“I have no fear for Thai M.R. Chakrarot said that while
discovered in South- Dvaravati, Srivijaya, patronage in the arts. returned to Phanom
culture because if you east Asia. Rung Historical Park in
Thai History,” and Prince Narisara change is inevitable and outside Lopburi, Chiang Saen, Bhirasri’s sculptures
Buriram province.
study and understand Thai
2013
Nuvadtivongs (1863–1947), renowned influences are constant, for culture it Sukhothai, Uthong, such as Bangkok’s De-
Ayudhya and Rattana- mocracy Monument
for his contributions to Thai arts. culture, it is a culture that is important that a balance be main-
kosin (Bangkok). remain iconic.
However, despite such roots, has evolved from centuries tained between humanity’s three Bangkok’s Wat Prayoon
M.R. Chakrarot does not hold tradi-
tional Thai culture to be sacrosanct of acceptance of foreign
main spheres of influence: material-
ism, society and nature. By striking 1249–1767 1954 wins the Award of Ex-
cellence in UNESCO’s
and to be preserved at all costs. For cultures.” this balance, culture can grow out of Regarded as the cradle Late 1700s Suraphol Som-
batcharoen (1930–
Asia-Pacific Awards
for Cultural Heritage
him, culture should remain relevant M.R. Chakrarot Chitrabongs, the rich heritage of the past yet be of Thai civilization, the
Thai culture rises from 1968) releases Nam Ta Conservation, marking
1952
and the primary defining trait of Thai permanent secretary of the Ministry redefined and modernized by future Sukhothai kingdom,
the first time Thai-
which lasted from the ashes of Ayudhya Lao Vieng, one of the
culture, M.R. Chakrarot said, has of Culture generations. as a new dynasty land has received the
1249 to 1378, is famous first hits in a musical
begins. Many pillars of Prime Minister Plaek genre that would highest honor in this
for its ceramics and
the country’s cultural Pibulsongkram es- come to be known regional competition.
Buddha images. King
legacy date to this tablishes the Ministry as luk thung (literally, The award recognized
Ramkhamhaeng is
time: the construction of Culture. From this “children of the fields”) a six-year project to
credited with develop-
of Wat Arun as well point on there will al- in the 1960s. The restore the temple for
ing the Thai alphabet
as the Grand Palace ways be a government melancholic tales of its technical excellence
based on Khmer-San-
and the Temple of institution charged displaced country folk and how it benefited
skrit models, and The
the Emerald Buddha; with overseeing Thai- battling big city ills all stakeholders, from
Story of the Three Planes
the adaptation of the land’s cultural policies. continue to resonate. Buddhist monks to
of Existence, a Buddhist
Cosmology, remains the Ramakien as Thailand’s community members
oldest surviving work national epic; and the as well as the public
of Thai literature. Indic epic poems of Sun- and private sectors.
and Khmer traditions thorn Phu (1786–1855).
from the Angkor
Empire informed the
court arts and tradi-
tions of the Ayudhya
kingdom that followed
Sukhothai. In 1767, it is
sacked by the Burmese,
and many cultural trea-
sures are destroyed.

Dancers with the Thai country music superstar Nok Noi Urai Phon exit a stage in Bangkok.

214 215
 HERITAGE

FURTHER READING
• A History of Thailand, CZ
$ISJT
#BLFS
BOE
1BTVL
1IPOHQBJDIJU

• Thailand: The Worldly Kingdom, CZ
.BVSJ[JP
1FMFHHJ

• Bangkok: A Cultural History, CZ
.BSZWFMNB
0/FJM

• Introducing Cultural Heritage into the Sustainable Development Agenda, 6/&4$0
SFQPSU


R EA LIT Y CH ECKS
Threats to Thai Heritage
Definitions

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discourse is often skewed to favor
traditional institutions and conserva-
tive instincts.

Wrecking ball Long-established

communities and buildings in the
historic districts of major urban
centers are increasingly falling prey to
development’s relentless onslaught.
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ed and fail to recognize that once a
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disrupting the communities them-
selves. “One day the greatness of politicians or important people
will disappear. The only thing that will remain is art.”
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located in a sub-region that is a
hub for the illegal trafficking of
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Shadow plays are a dying art in Thailand.

217
PART 3
IDEAS AND
INSPIRATION
Here we showcase the innovative
practices, trends, solutions and people
across Thailand that are making
sustainable development a reality.
The 32 topics are organized
around the four key audiences or
stakeholders who can make an impact:
the individual, the community, and the
private and public sectors.
Numerous case studies, entitled
pioneers, highlight projects focused
on alternative energy, environmental
protection, green manufacturing and
much more. The interviews and
profiles, called groundbreakers, sound
out the opinions of various experts,
which often are just as revealing. We
also highlight positive examples of
sustainability from around the world
and the eye-opening literature and
films inspiring urgency and action.
We were unable to include all the
worthy contributions within the limited
space of this book. Those featured here
are just a sample, selected for their
considerable legacies, the influence
they have exerted in their fields and
their overall creativity.
THE POWER OF THE
INDIVIDUAL
Green Homes
Consumer Choices
Commuting
Personal Participation
& Awareness
So many dilemmas related to the
environment and society – such as
pollution, climate change, excessive
consumption and corruption – seem
so vast and insurmountable as to be
completely beyond our influence.
But that’s not true. Through aware-
ness and moderation of our own per-
sonal consumption, the individual can
always make a difference.
In fact, consumers today have never
had so much power at their disposal.
Never has voting with your wallet and
conscience been as popular, or as effec-
tive with brands both big and small. Every
consumer choice we make – from what
type of disinfectant we use to what light
bulb we purchase – has an effect on both
the environment and the bottom line of
the firms who produce these products.
Even in our daily lives, whether or
not we take public transport to work,
can save fossil fuels or add more green-
house gas emissions to the toxic mix.
On the home front we can also make
a small difference in the big picture
through changes in our habits that cost
a little but mean a lot.
In mobilizing bigger efforts there
have been some encouraging signs
that like-minded individuals are band-
ing together to come up with cut-
ting-edge projects, like developing an
app with the best crowd-sourced bike
routes to navigate the capital.
Such movements can only grow if
“You must be the change you wish to
see in the world.”
Mahatma Gandhi
they have a mouthpiece to reach other
concerned citizens. The new genera-
tion has largely forsaken traditional
media outlets and forums in favor of
social media and online platforms.
There is both strength and safety in
these kinds of numbers.
In cyberspace, many individuals are
pushing the envelope of sustainability
issues by creating dialogues that ques-
tion unsustainable business practices or
challenge the country’s traditional power
structures. For true social inclusion to
take place, where every key stakeholder
has a voice, public participation, without
fear of attacks or reprisals, must become
a cornerstone of Thailand’s quest for
sustainable development.
 THE THAI VERNACULAR HOME

GREEN HOMES Vernacular architecture reflects practical know-how at

its best, showing you the most suitable home designs for
local climates before air-conditioning and concrete took
At home is where a sustainable over building designs.

'$! ./4' Ʉ "$).

The home is a perfect platform for applying the

adage “Think globally, act locally.” Luckily, the incen-
tives to “go green” at home are numerous. Whether
living in an apartment, condominium or house,
either in an urban jungle or in a remote village,
“greening” your household can result in cost savings,
increased comfort and health benefits.

Although there is no single definition of a “green

home,” there are key criteria that make a house envi-
ronmentally friendly: energy-and-water efficiency;
locally sourced, recycled or biodegradable building
materials; minimized waste; and indoor environmen- • Traditional Thai houses are typically made entirely of
tal quality, such as air quality and temperature. locally sourced wood. Sometimes thatch or ceramic
A house in King Rama II Memorial Park in Samut Songkhram.
roof coverings are used.
Most cultures around the world understood these
concepts because they had no choice but to plan Recently, however, efforts to create more sustain- ronment. The sturdy earthen walls absorb heat, • Their design is brilliantly functional and suitable for
Passive cooling their abodes to accommodate the environment. By able living spaces are on the rise again worldwide. cooling the structure in the daytime and keeping it the local climate and seasons. For example, they are
systems: necessity, they also effectively used local resources. According to economists in California, for example, warm at night, eliminating electricity expended on built with an elevated floor mounted on stilts to
A way to design In other words, we were all “green” to begin with. the share of new, green, single-family homes in the temperature control. prevent flooding during the monsoon season. Raised
a building so that “When you are looking to understand how to make state rose from 2 percent in 2005 to 23 percent in platforms also protect against dirt and pests.
it remains cool a sustainable home, the best place to look is the ver- 2013. In addition, more people are rejecting the idea Alternatively, simple upgrades to insulation, such as
without external
energy inputs. nacular house of a country,” says Malina Palasathira, that “bigger is better,” opting to buy, rent, or build sealing leaks around windows and doors, or install- • The ground-level space underneath serves as multi-
Passive cooling a Thai-Italian urban planner who co-runs Design smaller homes to minimize waste and overconsump- ing energy-efficient or dimming windows, can dras- purpose living, dining, storage or barnyard areas, and
designs involve Qua Ltd, a Bangkok-based sustainable building tion. Residents are planting more gardens to improve tically boost energy efficiency and create a more is shielded from the fierce midday sun.
using cooling design studio. “The way it used to be done was likely air quality and increase green space, using energy- climate-appropriate home. Another easily attainable
materials, venti- more green than how it is done today.” efficient LED bulbs, and practicing energy-and-water green-home upgrade gaining popularity is investing • Wood, bamboo and other locally sourced lightweight
lation and efficient behavior in their homes. In Thailand, inno- in solar panels, which start at about 40,000 baht for materials cool easily after sunset.
orienting the
home away from Later, in the age of globalization, modern technolo- vators are trying to create homes that can survive an all-inclusive rooftop solar installation. Residential
the sun to en- gies such as air-conditioning and prefabricated and floods or other natural disasters. solar systems can result in major long-term cost • Wide windows and large air vents on all four sides
hance a house’s manufactured housing materials came into vogue savings by allowing a household to produce its own offer better ventilation and natural indoor lighting.
cooling effects. worldwide. “In Thailand, after the advent of air- Energy efficiency is perhaps the biggest environ- free, renewable energy. (For more ideas, see the
conditioning, developers were mental hurdle in conventional homes. Cooling and “Going Green at Home” sidebar.) • High-pitched, elegantly tapering, outwardly curving
able to build houses in all sorts heating account for about 50 percent of an average roofs channel rainwater away from the house and
of unsustainable ways and home’s energy consumption. However, thoughtful Today, environmental home projects are becoming please the eye with finials and symbolic decorations.
“When you are looking disregard methods that were home designs such as passive cooling systems that more financially feasible due to new technologies
to understand how to make previously essential to cool take a cue from traditional Thai homes can help and increased financial options. Whether retrofitting • Classic Thai houses are made to expand easily;
a sustainable home, the best or maintain a house,” Malina control temperature and drastically cut down on or building from scratch, greening your home is now standardized, pre-assembled walls and panels
place to look is the vernacular explains. “People could simply energy waste. For example, workshops at Maejo incentivized through banks that offer special “green can be used to turn a single family home into a
build a glass box or whatever Baan Din, the so-called “Earth Home Village” in home” loans and “green mortgages” at low interest larger compound.
house of a country.” they dreamed up without northern Thailand, teach people how dwellings rates. Now, eco-conscious homeowners can “go
Malina Palasathira, Design Qua Ltd regard for the heat.” made of mud bricks naturally cool the indoor envi- green” with less financial burden than ever before.

222 223
PART III | INDIVIDUAL GREEN HOMES

“thermal mass” absorbs outdoor tem-

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224 225
PART III | INDIVIDUAL
Going Green at Home
Respecting the environment begins at home. In
addition to having a greener abode, you can add
significant cost savings and a healthier lifestyle.
■ Indoor plants can serve as natural air filters.
Some species are also effective absorbers of
harmful pollutants emitted by electrical appli-
ances, carpets and furniture. Meanwhile, organic
vegetable gardens grown outdoors can further
reduce air pollution around the home while also
serving as good sources of healthy foods.
■ LED light bulbs and energy-efficient appliances
save electricity and money.


■ To save more electricity, you should unplug TV

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sets and computers when they are not in use.
When washing or drying clothes use full loads
instead of doing the washing and drying piece-
meal.
■ For those with deeper pockets, home automa-
tion systems can reduce electricity usage signifi-

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cantly. Smart thermostats and lighting controls,
operated with timers and sensors, can monitor
indoor temperatures and natural lighting levels
to keep them ambient without the need for extra
air-conditioning and lighting during certain
periods.
■ Surrounding the house with shady trees and
plants will keep it cooler and reduce the need
for air-conditioning.

XIJDI
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is most important? Mindset?
■ Eco-friendly, biodegradable cleaners are good
alternatives to chemical, often toxic varieties.
226
GREEN HOMES
Baking soda, for instance, is an effective all-pur-
pose cleaner. White vinegar and borax are good
cleaning agents while citrus and tea tree oils
serve as natural disinfectants. Meanwhile, damp
microfiber cloths, which attract dirt, can do
wonders even without any cleaning agents.
■ Instead of disposing of organic waste, compost
it. Fruit and vegetable peelings, tea leaves and
eggshells can become excellent soil enhancers.
Likewise, grass cuttings on freshly mown lawns,
if left there to decompose, work as natural fertil-
izer for new grass.
■ Ditch single-use paper and plastic products in
favor of durable goods like ceramics to reduce
unnecessary waste. Likewise, choose recycled
products when it comes to items like stationery Rai Mae Fah Luang, a cultural center and museum built in Chiang Rai by the Mae Fah Luang Foundation, uses verdant landscaping and local plants.
and toilet paper. Instead of dumping old cloths,
books and toys, thereby ensuring they end up
in a landfill somewhere, donate them to needy
children, thereby turning trash into treasure.
CHULAPORN NANTAPANICH is the director of North Forest Studio, an architectural design firm in Chiang Mai, and a
lecturer at the Faculty of Architecture at Chiang Mai University. He helped design the landscaping at U-Delight-
Ratchavipha condominium in Bangkok using native Thai plants. An expert in environmental-footprint architecture, he
has been at the forefront of the green design movement in Thailand.
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them out in the garbage. Oftentimes they will be the endless consumption of natural Money? Discipline? What is the share knowledge on how to create a
picked up by scavengers. resources. key challenge?

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greener home.
227
 Resources to Green Your Lifestyle

CONSUMER ■ DISCOVER WHAT HIDES BEHIND YOUR

STUFF: Ethical Consumer has been research-

CHOICES
How the individual can make
a substantial difference
Today, humanity is living way beyond the earth’s
means, using up 1.5 times more resources than the
planet can replenish in a year, as compared to only
five decades ago when we were consuming only a
third of that figure.
In the decades to come, Asia will be at the center of
this shopping spree. It is already home to 40 percent
of the so-called “consumer class,” or around 1.7
billion people with disposable incomes. Thailand has
also joined the Western-inspired rush. Malls with
brand names, car dealerships with the latest models,
and shops laden with high-tech gizmos are abundant
throughout the country. Modern, materialistic life
revolves around them and a consumerist ethos has
Upcycling: become pervasive. In ASEAN, for example, Thailand
The reuse of was second only to Indonesia in the number of
discarded objects new motor vehicles sold per capita in 2014. As this
or materials to trend continues, your mindset toward consumption
create a product
of a higher qual- and your consumer choices – including choosing to
ity or value than reduce your consumption all together – can play a
the original. crucial role in protecting the planet.
Yes, your choices do make a difference, because
every choice you make is a contribution to the big
picture created. Consumer preferences and demands
can have a direct impact on
the dialogue inside board-
rooms and government
ministries, especially in the
new media age, leading to
new products, innovations
and policies that support the
sustainable development
agenda.
Indeed, different firms
“Earth has enough for every and government agencies
man’s need, but not for every are increasingly respon-
sive, helping people open
man’s greed.” their minds, as well as their
Mahatma Gandhi wallets, to consume in
A supermarket aisle in Thailand featuring modern packaging.
more responsible ways. For the past two decades,
the government, for example, has been promoting
sustainable consumption and products via various
labeling and certification schemes. Green Label
Thailand, based on the trailblazing German label
Blue Angel, was formally launched in 1994 by the
Thailand Environment Institute (TEI) and the Thailand
Industrial Standards Institute (TISI) under the
Ministry of Industry. Its 73 criteria are designed to
distinguish the products that cause the lowest envi-
ronmental impacts in their sectors. As of July 2013,
the list included 622 products in 23 categories from
67 companies.
Meanwhile, other labeling schemes like the energy-
efficiency labels for home appliances and Green Leaf
for hotels are pushing both consumers and busi-
nesses to think beyond price tags and profits. The
most advanced scheme is the Green Industry Mark,
which focuses on greening the entire value chain
step by step, creating networks of eco-savvy manu-
facturers in Thailand.
But these initiatives would be for naught without a
growing movement of concerned individuals well
aware that their purchasing power can make a huge
■ FIND SUSTAINABLY PRODUCED GOODS IN
■ SHOP ONLINE FOR GREEN GOODS: Looking
■ PICK THE GREENER OPTION: Choose LED light
difference. For the most part, these are grassroots
movements rooted in the bigger urban areas. One
such outgrowth is the markets where farmers and
other small-scale entrepreneurs can sell their organic
fare or green products straight to the consumer.
From there, this revolution is branching out in many
different directions, such as the 2013 Eco Design
Fair, which showcased over 30 designers who are
upcycling old tires and other kinds of “waste” into
creative and fashionable products. Online platforms
are proving popular with the masses. To single out
one, the website Bangkok Greenie provides reviews
of restaurants and farmers’ markets and green
hotels, while dispensing tips on how to dispose of old
batteries and other unwanted products.
■ CONSUME LESS: To really downsize your carbon
Much more than just marketing channels, these ini-
tiatives are building a vibrant community based on
the values of sustainability. They provide workshops
on everything from urban gardening to composting
and greening your lifestyle. Young and cosmopoli-
tan, these like-minded entrepreneurs, farmers and
consumers are catalysts for change who are reimag-
ining conspicuous consumption in novel and sustain-
able ways.
ing products and companies for over 20 years,
with a mission to make global business more sus-
tainable through consumer pressure. Check out
their website, which boasts more than 200 ethical
product guides. (www.ethicalconsumer.org)
BANGKOK AND BEYOND: The website Bangkok
Greenie (www.bkkgreenie.com) gives plenty of
hard facts and tips on free range organic eggs,
restaurants known for organic and healthy food,
markets and specialty shops, green travel, recy-
cling guides and other local organizations.
for eco-friendly options while shopping online?
Try Green Shop Café (www.greenshopcafe.com),
which provides an array of local and imported
environmentally friendly products, from natural
skin care lines to organic rice and more.
bulbs over incandescent or even CFLs. When pur-
chasing electrical appliances, select those that
have a level 5 energy efficiency certification. Buy
products that come in biodegradable packaging
or natural packages with banana leaves. Say no
to plastic bags, straws and spoons. On weekends,
visit one of the many flea markets, both the fash-
ionable ones and the more traditional bazaars to
buy second-hand or home-made artisanal goods.
Donate your old laptops, phones and TVs. Thai
Eco Trade will pick them up, dispose of them
safely, and even donate the proceeds to partner
NGOs (http://www.thaiecotrade.com/en). You could
also buy from an OTOP shop or purchase fair-
trade goods and organic produce with the royal
projects label.
footprint, spend a day at home and avoid all the
malls and markets and restaurants. Read an old
book. Don’t eat any meat or fish for a day. Take
your family for a bike ride and bring a picnic
basket or get inventive with some leftovers at
home.

228 229
PART III | INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER CHOICES

sible alternative. These eco-products

Biodegradable are superior in almost every way. They There is no need to rely on Socialgiver.com
packaging are safe to use in microwaves and ovens.
such outdated packaging History: Founded in 2012
They biodegrade in less than two months.
Producers: Biodegradable Pack- when bio-plastics have Location: Online platform based
They can be used as animal feed or mulch in Bangkok
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They pile up in landfills, clog up drains, cause floods and kill marine life (sea turtles often mistake
them for their staple food jellyfish). The World Wildlife Fund estimates that every year more
than 100,000 turtles, birds, whales and other sea creatures perish by eating this inedible refuse.
Now, a global movement is pushing to reduce or eliminate them. One approach is to replace the
high-density polyethylene with a biodegradable alternative like cornstarch. However, the more
popular approach is to introduce surcharges or outright bans on plastic bags. In 2002 Ireland
implemented the first such surcharge for the consumer, a hefty .15
Euro fee. Within five months the usage of plastic bags declined by
90 percent.
Thailand has been slow to get in sync with these programs. Consum-
ers are still given plastic bags and straws with almost every purchase.
Yet, there are signs of progress. Several supermarkets offer biode-
gradable plastic bags, and 7-Eleven ran a highly publicized awareness
campaign to encourage customers to refuse plastic bags.
Co-founder Arch Wongchindawest. A Socialgiver partner focuses on disabled kids. Co-founder Aliza Napartivaumnuay.

230 231
PART III | INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER CHOICES

A MAP TO NAVIGATING A SEA OF LABELS The Trickle Down Effect: Green Public Procurement Power
Labels help companies build a positive brand image and differentiate themselves from their competitors. Most When it comes to pur-
labels, like Fairtrade, are voluntary, meaning that manufacturers willfully seek to fulfill the criteria and receive the c has i ng p owe r, t he
recognition. Others are mandatory and used by government to push for certain minimum standards. individual wields con-
Traditional labeling schemes are based on a set of consensus-determined standards, which are verified by an in- siderable clout, but so
dependent auditing body to help consumers make environmentally informed choices. The criteria can be very specific, do those we elect to rep-
like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) testifying that the timber and pulp did not come from a virgin tropical rainfor- resent us in government.
est. Others, like the EU Eco Label, cover a wide range of environmental issues such as water and energy use. The world’s The procurement orders
first eco-label was established in Germany in 1978. Today, the Blue Angel graces the packaging of approximately 12,000 placed by government
products from 80 categories. Over 1,500 companies have adjusted their production processes and successfully obtained departments, authorities
this seal of approval. and state-owned enter-
Despite strong growth in the past decades, there is still substantial room for improvement. According to the Natural prises make up some-
Marketing Institute, less than 20 percent of the commodities on the market today have one or more eco-certificates. where between 15 percent and 30 percent of the
Since there are some 458 sustainability labeling schemes used in 197 countries, however, the consumer may now be national GDP in bigger countries and around
bewildered by them. As the many labels and their complex technical details can be confusing her e is a guide to navi- half of the total GDP in some developing nations.
gating these murky waters.
The public sector is an important client because
it places large-volume orders at regular inter-
COMPREHEN- ISSUE SPECIFIC indicate the specific energy use of vals. Moreover, public expenditures incentivize
SIVE ECO LABELS There is a wide array the item. To sell their products on a innovations and investments by creating strong
These are the cream of of labels and organi- particular market, the company’s demand in a specific sector. Companies see such
the green crop. Devel- zations that focus on products have to meet or surpass the developments as stable business opportunities
oped as a joint effort advancing sustainabil- minimum standards. Energy Star in and, with adequate financial support, make the
by regulatory agencies, ity in a specific area. the US and the Thai Energy Efficiency required long-term investments for research and
consumer and other associations as Examples include the label are two such paragons. development.
well as key private sector actors and protection of wildlife (dolphin-friendly
companies, they set the standard for tuna or bird-friendly coffee), bio-di- COMPANY By the time economies of scale are achieved, the LED lighting is one of many products the government promotes.
sustainable, environmentally conscious versity (Rainforest Alliance), forests eco-friendly products (like chlorine-free paper
products by recognizing those with the (FSC), and eco-hotels (Green Leaf).
SPECIFIC or LED light bulbs) also become available to indi- demonstrate their commitment to promoting sus-
lowest impacts. Examples are the Blue Individual corpora- vidual consumers and a national market emerges. tainable production and consumption.
Angel, EU Flower, Nordic Swan, Green COMBINED ENVI- tions develop their Green Public Procurement (GPP) plans also send
Label Thailand and others. RONMENTAL AND own unique stan- a clear political message. By spending state funds Thailand’s Pollution Control Department
dards to distinguish their brands in in line with declared policy goals, governments (PCD) has been implementing a GPP since
SOCIAL IMPACTS the cluttered marketplace. Usually 2005. The first such plan, focusing on central
ORGANIC These labels take a more these are determined and verified government and administration bodies, is es-
This is the highest comprehensive look at by them, so it’s not really possible timated to have delivered reductions up to
assurance of healthy the entire production and distribution to easily assess the ecological cre- 25,000 tons of CO 2 with the PCD spending
nutrition and low en- value chain. Along with environmen- dentials or compare them with some 62 percent of its budget on eco-friendly
vironmental impacts. tal safeguards they also place a special their competitors’ claims. Starbucks products.
A third party certifies focus on ensuring economic benefits C.A.F.E. Practices and SCG’s green
that these products comply with a set for producers, farmers and workers. In product line are two such cases. In Thailand, the business sector respond-
of stringent standards for growing, Thailand, the royal projects and OTOP ed quickly to the introduction of GPP, with
processing, transport and market- would fall under this category. NICE WORDS BUT NO the number of certified Green Label products
ing food. Commonly these include CERTIFICATION SEAL jumping from 191 in 2008 to 622 in 2013. Those
avoiding pesticides, fertilizers and ELECTRICITY figures are sure to increase in the years to come
genetically modified crops (GMCs), EFFICIENCY Some products will be littered with su- as the government expands its list to 17 product
while using sustainable farming perlatives that sing their praises. Be wary categories, including fluorescent lamps, steel
practices. Local examples include As straightforward as of products featuring such claims as furniture and commercial paint, as well as five
Organic Thailand, which is a national the name suggests, “natural,” “cruelty free,” “no additives,” services, such as office cleaning, oil changes
standard, and Organic Agricultural these labels guarantee “non-toxic,” “green,” “earth-friendly” and and automobile repairs with more than 2,000
Certification Thailand (ACT), which minimum performance other examples of marketing jargon agencies, both at national and municipal levels,
meets typical international criteria. standards for electrical appliances or that could be “greenwashing.” Idea paper brand from SCG, which uses EcoFiber as a raw material. participating.

232 233

COMMUTING
Taking back the streets from
/# Ʉ0/*(*$' Ʉ$.Ʉ)Ʉ0+#$''Ʉ%*0-) 4
Bangkok’s reputation for traffic gridlocks and chaotic
streets is well deserved. Indeed, a 2015 report by the
British motor oil company Castrol ranked Thailand’s
capital the eighth worst in the world for traffic, with
more than 36 percent of a driver’s travel time spent
idling.
That makes commuting in this sprawling city as much
a science as it is a form of transport. The secret to
maximizing the usefulness of the system is to treat
its parts like a jigsaw puzzle that you snap together
depending on the time of day, whether you’re in a
hurry or not and what the weather is like. You might
take a motorcycle taxi to the Skytrain, or maybe
jump on a river or canal boat and hail a taxi when
you jump off. Or you may get off the bus and grab a
tuk-tuk to a subway station. Got time but no money?
Take the bus. If you have both time and money at
your disposal, order an Uber taxi on your cell phone.
The permutations are endless.
But the most powerful force shaping Bangkok’s
transportation DNA is that Thais simply love their
cars; some nine million are registered in Bangkok,
approximately one per person. They are not only
status symbols, but powerful emblems of indepen-
dence in a culture where many people live at home
until well into their twenties. For many who dwell
234
Chong Nonsi pedestrian bridge in Bangkok.
in the suburbs, far from the outer reaches of mass
transit lines, automobiles are also the most conve-
nient form of transport.
As the city rushes headlong into the 21st century,
one of its biggest challenges is maintaining and
expanding its public transportation network.
Hobbled by red tape and political uncertainties,
projects large and small consistently face delays or
hit a dead end and get shelved. Mass transit projects
proceed slowly. Bike lanes are used as parking spots
or run down the middle of busy sidewalks.
But there is hope.
In recent years, a young and increasingly organized
population interested in healthy lifestyles or inspired
by what they have seen overseas has spearheaded
projects that could rejuvenate the capital’s infra-
structure. For one, Bangkok Sabai Walk is working
with officials to tame the city’s notoriously unruly
sidewalks and get people interested in walking again.
The Green World Foundation has crowdsourced bike
routes throughout the city and put them in a slick
little book and smartphone app in development. On
the far side of the Chao Phraya River, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) has
based much of its campus infrastructure on eco-
friendly policies like cycling from place to place.
All of this is not to say the powers-that-be aren’t at
least trying to play catch up with new mass transit
lines in the works. Near Suvarnabhumi International
Airport is a new cycling park. There is now an
8-kilometer bike path around the capital’s most
historic district of Rattanakosin, while plans are afoot
to add another 10 kilometers of routes by the end
of 2015, and extensions to the mass transit lines are
being constructed. Perhaps these initiatives will get
Bangkok more on the go.
As the city rushes headlong into
the 21st century, one of its biggest
challenges is maintaining and
expanding its public transportation
network. Hobbled by red tape and
political uncertainties, projects large
and small consistently face delays
or hit dead ends and get shelved.
Retaking the Sidewalks
Bangkok Sabai Walk (sabai means “convenient” or
“stress-free” in Thai), or BSW, began in 2010 with
the mission to make Bangkok’s sidewalks safe, ac-
cessible, and pleasant for all city residents. Known
for their unpredictable and often dramatic bumps,
potholes and obstructions, the city’s walkways
present a challenge to even the most nimble walker.
“Our benchmark is to make the sidewalks usable by
those in wheelchairs,” said Santi Opaspakornkij, the
group’s coordinator. “If a sidewalk is usable for those
with disabilities, it should be usable for everyone.”
Despite working closely with universities, govern-
ment bodies and community organizations, seeing
a campaign through to completion is never easy.
“There is no unifying body to coordinate actions by
the different utilities, and lax enforcement of regula-
tions means that each utility lays their underground
wires, cables and pipes wherever they can,” he said.
The red tape involved in digging up and re-paving
a sidewalk is a formidable challenge. Some say the
challenge is Bangkok itself, where walking is not
seen as a viable option for getting around. As Santi
explained, “Most Thais have no problem walking
when they travel to foreign countries.” He attributes
the reluctance to walk on sidewalks here to the heat,
crowds, sidewalk-blocking vendors and pollution.
To date, the group’s biggest achievement is devel-
oping a 1.5-kilometer wheelchair pathway on Ra-
chadamri Road between Rama IV and Rama I roads.
But they are building momentum. The BSW is now
working with the Bangkok Metropolitan Admin-
istration (BMA) to improve the footpaths around
Victory Monument and Siam Square, two of Bang-
kok’s busiest pedestrian areas.
“There are many vested interests here, which makes it
difficult to get a consensus from everyone. However,
we have helped those affected get their voices heard,
especially the disabled,” he said. “These projects take
a long time, and would be easier with more support
from the BMA, but I am optimistic. The younger
generation, the tourists and the expats who live here
realize that quality of life is closely tied to these
issues, and are starting to speak up. We’ll continue
doing everything we can to bring the community
together to make Bangkok a better city. We all have
a stake in this.”
235
PART III | INDIVIDUAL COMMUTING

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an equal transportation
together to press politicians on their landscape.”
policies for efficient and sustainable Saranarat Kanjanavanit, Green World
transport and an increasingly open- Foundation (pictured right) Aerial view of KMUTT’s green campus. Water treatment system at KMUTT.

236 237
PART III | INDIVIDUAL

THANYARAT DOKSONE , a Bangkok-based journalist and proponent of bicycle commuting, got fed up with the wasted
hours and unpredictability of going to and from work in Bangkok. So she started riding her bicycle the 2 kilometers to
work and hasn’t looked back.

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to encourage bicycle use and honor the queen.

238
 PERSONAL
PARTICIPATION
& AWARENESS
How to make informed choices
and get involved
Sustainable development cannot be achieved
without the active participation of you, the reader,
not only to act as a check on power and greed and
to make business and government interests account-
able to citizens, but also to create a constructive
sense of engagement and balanced dialogue that
creates better long-term solutions for everyone.
By nature, sustainable development is an inclusive
development program intended to involve all stake-
holder opinions. As the development economist
Shavi Kumar observed, “Without people participa-
tion, development actions fail.”
In a society in which change has historically been
enacted in a top-down fashion, that possesses a
tradition of non-confrontation and where the ques-
tioning of any source of authority or decision-maker
may be simply ignored or answered with lawsuits,
threats or even violence, simply voicing your opinion
can become an act of substantial courage.
Indeed, until recent decades in Thailand, public
participation typically took the form of protests,
many of which ended in violent suppression. It
was only in the latter half of the 20th century that
a civil society emerged, with groups to represent
farmers, workers, women, students, environmen-
talists and human rights promoters, among others.
Yet mostly these groups have found themselves on
the outside looking in, forced to take their cases to
the public through public protests, sit-ins and other
campaigns to make themselves heard. (Notably,
during the anti-government “Black May” protests of
1992, mobile phones were used for the first time to
mobilize people, but the peaceful protests ended in
military-led bloodshed.)
240
A protest against a planned dam in Mae Wong National Park.
Thailand is a signatory to the UN’s Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development (1984), which
holds that “environmental issues are best handled
with the participation of all concerned citizens.” As
a signatory, Thailand is committed to disseminating
information on environmental issues and actively
seeking public input.
Yet for prominent environmental activists, pushing
back against unsustainable development has long
carried the threat of violence. Sixteen Thai environ-
mentalists were killed from 2002–2013, according to
a report from US-based nonprofit Global Witness, a
murder rate outpacing 27 of the other 36 countries
studied, and the second highest in Asia after the
Philippines. The Justice for Peace Foundation noted
in a 2010 report that activists were also vulnerable
to enforced disappearances, while Freedom House’s
2015 country report on Thailand added that “even in
cases where perpetrators are prosecuted, there is a
perception of impunity for the ultimate sponsors of
the violence.”
In practice, the environmental and health impact
assessment (EHIA) reports that are conducted and
the public hearings that are held are often regarded
as mere formalities aimed at appeasing outside
observers and headed for foregone conclusions. In
2010, for example, the government announced plans
to build a dam on the Mae Wong River in Nakhon
Sawan. The EHIA was heavily criticized by protesters
who said it ignored the potential impact on ecosys-
tems and how this would in turn damage local
communities.
As of 2015, construction of the dam was halted. The
main catalyst for this delay was Sasin Chalermlarp,
head of the Seub Nakhasathien Foundation, who
set out on a 388-kilometer trek in 2013 from Mae
Wong in Nakhon Sawan to Bangkok to protest the
building of the dam. A social media storm kicked up
on the way. By the time Sasin reached Bangkok he
was met by thousands of supporters, the majority
of whom lived in the capital, far away from the dam
in question, but nonetheless were inspired to get
involved. now communicate with thousands without ever
sharing the same physical space and the instanta-
Such is the often organic nature of public partic- neous nature of contemporary telecommunications
ipation today with social media representing the means that news spreads almost as fast as the events
greatest game-changer. While access to the Internet take place. Amplified like this, corporations, gov-
is low overall in Thailand, nearly half of the popu- ernments and other powerful parties can no longer
lation has a social media account. One person can ignore or avoid public opinion.
241
PART III | INDIVIDUAL PERSONAL PARTICIPATION AND AWARENESS

Foundation for ThaiPublica.org

Consumers and Sal Forest
History: Founded in 1994 History: Founded in 2011 and 2013
Founder: Saree Aongsomwang respectively
(current director) Founders: Sarinee Achavanun-
Number of staff: Five full-time staff takul and Boonlarp Poosuwan (still
in central office, with offices in more executive editor)
than 40 provinces in Thailand. Facebook: ThaiPublica (more than
Website: www.consumerthai.org 170,000 likes)
Twitter: @ThaiPublica (more than
14,400 followers)
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along with a team of volunteer lawyers Foundation for Consumers (pictured) ment issues. in the issues of sustainable develop- Sarinee Achavanuntakul.

242 243
PART III | INDIVIDUAL PERSONAL PARTICIPATION AND AWARENESS

Resources economic and social development in democratic

Where else can you go for reliable information systems and good governance. The institute also
TUL PINKAEW founded the Thai chapter of global online petition and campaign advocacy platform Change.org before or to get more involved with the sustainable de- promotes and enhances understanding of civic
starting his own consultancy, Sidekick, which advises NGOs and INGOs on how best to engage and mobilize the Thai velopment movement? We list some of the many rights and duties according to the constitution.
public. resources available in Thailand.
■ The National Institute of Development Ad-
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graduate schools in the field of national devel-
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dence increases and they feel safer to T
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take on bigger ones. led the charge. lished to strengthen the promotion of balanced
and sustainable development and the achieve-
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changes you’ve noted in the challenge with Sidekick? conducted 459 public opinion surveys (as of
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■ National Statistics Office: Thailand’s statisti-
es you faced with Change in a society come together to volunteer people need to be informed and cal and information center is used by the public ■ Pantip: The largest Thai-based community
country renowned for valuing a and then that movement grew into passionate about the issues affecting as well as national and international agencies. website with over 30 million users per month
non-confrontational approach? people speaking out about other SVSBM
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tion coming from the government to take. public policy research institute that provides products and services that can impact sales.
technical analyses and reports to public agencies.
TDRI’s think tanks help formulate policies on ■ Facebook: The social media platform is a
socioeconomic development in Thailand. powerful mechanism driving public participa-
tion in Thailand. The country is ranked as the
■ Khon Thai Monitor: A nationwide survey on world’s ninth biggest overall user with an esti-
Thai views on the country’s progress, conducted mated 28 million Thais participating.
The Filth and the Fury with an aim to create a collaborative and public
platform for all sectors. Its 2014 survey focused INTERNATIONAL SOURCES
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this striking transformation alone is to be active in national development. ■ The Open Society Foundation implements initia-

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of opinions, promote fundamental rights and en-
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NPS- tainable development for corporations, nonprof- tion (IAP2): Founded in 1990, the association
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its and government bodies. Some are available to promotes the values and best practices in public
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tional training, seminars, meetings and coun- from 26 countries including Thailand in a bid to
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own street.” seling concerning politics and administration, effectively improve public participation.

244 245
COMMUNITY
SPIRIT
On the Farm
Area-based Rural Development
Organic Revolution
Integrated Farming/New Theory
By the Forest
Local communities are the driving
Reforestation
force behind many noble projects
across the country, from reforesting
Forest Conservation
degraded areas to introducing water
Wildlife management systems.
Although Thailand has become
On the Coast an economic powerhouse of Southeast
Asia, the spirit of togetherness and the
Saving Marine Habitats value of communities helping commu-
nities – which stem from a more tradi-
Coastal Resource Management tional, more agrarian time – still inform
much of our daily interactions and re-
In the City lationships. The local skills, knowledge,
and traditions of Thai farming commu-
Historical Preservation nities have also proven sustainable and
effective in today’s complex world in
Urban Development areas like integrated and organic farm-
ing. When such wisdom is combined
Green Spaces
with the assistance and finances of the
royally initiated projects overseen by
the royal family, Thailand has a formi-
dable agent of change.
Perhaps the best known of these
schemes is the Doi Tung Development
Project. Initiated by the late Princess
Mother, the ongoing project has been
hailed by the United Nations for
achieving the economic, social, cultur-
al and environmental aspirations of
sustainable development. As a result
of such projects and other initiatives
by NGOs, community groups and
academics, Thailand is on the path to
repair some of its worst ailments. For
example, more than 1.3 million hectares
of trees were planted between 1990 and
2010, which has done much to address
the issue of deforestation. Over these
two decades, the size of planted for-
ests grew from 2.7 million hectares to
almost four million. It’s an impressive
record that attests to the power of com-
munity initiative.
In the north and northeast, farm-
“Never doubt that a small group of
thoughtful, committed citizens can
change the world; indeed, it’s the
only thing that ever has.”
Margaret Mead, famous American anthropologist
ing communities have benefited from
newer and more sustainable manage-
ment strategies like integrated farm-
ing, which takes a holistic approach
to nurturing entire ecosystems and
makes farmers more self-sufficient. It is
also a move away from the chemically
intensive form of monocropping that
continues to dominate agribusiness in
Thailand.
As more sustainable alternatives
grow, the hope persists that agriculture
and forestry, and the communities that
depend on them, will continue to be re-
juvenated by these new developments.
Though Thai society has changed to
embrace more Westernized habits
and consumption patterns in recent
decades, the return to a more com-
munity-based society with communal
values could well be a sea change in
sustainability.
 AREA-BASED RURAL
DEVELOPMENT

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After returning from studying in Switzerland in 1951, In promoting this type of rural development, it’s
King Bhumibol Adulyadej traveled far and wide in important to match the right farming technique with
Thailand over the decades to meet with villagers the right terrain. Given the plentiful water and arable
and discuss their problems. These discussions and soil in the central region, integrated farming is a
observations formed the backbone of his royally good choice. In forested parts of the north and south
initiated projects that typically promote site-specific where plots for farming are limited, agroforestry
measures that are both sensitive to the local environ- can be put to good use, especially for cash crops like
ment and also take into consideration the socio- rubber and eucalyptus trees. If done right, agrofor-
economic conditions and cultural backgrounds of estry can also benefit the whole ecosystem because
the people. This approach is sometimes referred to trees, plants and shrubs grow alongside pastures to
in Thailand as “Area-based Rural Development.” enrich the earth and improve biodiversity. Farming
that benefits the environment is a crucial consid-
In the north, where opium cultivation and slash-and- eration when looking at alternatives to monocrop-
burn farming were rife, these initiatives promoted ping, which still accounts for the vast majority of
the growing of cool-weather crops, like coffee farms in Thailand and relies on harsh chemicals. Terraced rice paddies in the mountainous area of Chiang Mai’s Mae Chaem district in northern Thailand.
and strawberries, suited to the highlands. In the Natural farming, pioneered by the Japanese farmer
northeast, where drought kills crops and stunts Masanobu Fukuoka (see sidebar), and New Theory Until the invention of the insecticide DDT in 1939, Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) can eat up
household incomes, irrigation projects such as the farming, the brainchild of King Bhumibol Adulyadej, and the gradual spread of industrialized agriculture, 20 percent of the farm’s profits per year. This is one
Huay Klai Reservoir slaked the crops’ thirst for water. both eschew a dependence on pesticides. all farming had been organic. The harmful effects reason why organic farms only count for 0.2 percent
of such chemicals only came to be widely known of the total of cultivated land in the kingdom.
thanks to Rachel Carson’s landmark book, Silent
Spring, published in 1962, when the science writer In the field of area-based rural development,
detailed how the use of DDT was killing off songbirds however, taking an integrated approach that factors
and other creatures. Subsequently, DDT was banned in the land, the people, the crops and culture has
in the United States in 1972, but it’s still widely used proven effective. In this respect, the Doi Tung
BACK TO THE EARTH The best-selling book One-Straw XJUIPVU
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in Thailand and other Asian nations. Development Project is exemplary. Not just a crop
ONE-STRAW REVOLUTION: Revolution: An Introduction to Natural although the chemical crops produced substitution program designed to eradicate opium in
AN INTRODUCTION Farming by farmer and philosopher B
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Year: 1978 culture. One-Straw Revolution outlines farming in a way that simulated natural momentum as the “Green Revolution” of the 1960s developed area inhabited by marginalized hill tribes.
in pragmatic and poetic terms the processes as closely as possible was and 1970s boosted yields but caused environmental
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the downside, certification by a globally recog- of all such endeavors is the Thai value known as
nized body such as the International Federation of choomchon khem kaeng (community spirit).

248 249
PART III | COMMUNITY AREA-BASED RURAL DEVELOPMENT

made it even more difficult for govern- hands-on vocational training that are
Doi Tung ment officials to provide any assistance
The crop substitution CPUI
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Development Project to the hill tribes. programs are also designed to instill THE INSPIRATION
program has inspired
History: Established
That is the backstory of and the
catalyst for the Doi Tung Development similar ventures in opium-
students with cultural pride and provide
them with enough skills to find good jobs OF THE PRINCESS MOTHER
in 1988
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members of the community.
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replaced opium with coffee and
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products sport the seal of the United
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globally renowned of all royally initiated over the project when it concludes. Nations Office on Drugs and Crime as The Mae Fah Luang Foundation (MFLF) is a private nonprofit orga-
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healthcare and schools. To make matters ventures in opium-plagued countries of Education on reforming the curricu- economic and ecological development discovered that the ethnic minorities in northern Thailand were dis-
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Thailand remains the world’s most suc- to provide opportunities to study and considerations and blends them into a and ignorance. At the same time, she was aware of their many artistic
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programs and activities so the foundation was renamed. Thus, the
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regional flavor that are both produced that culminated in the comprehensive development project in the
and processed in that area. Doi Tung area.

In honor of the Princess Mother’s memory the foundation has gone

from strength to strength by focusing on social enterprises with a sus-
tainable development slant. In 2009, Mom Rajawongse Disnadda
Diskul, the secretary-general of the DTDP, and her former private sec-
retary, received the Schwab Foundation’s “Social Entrepreneur of the
Year for the Region of East Asia” award for the organization’s efforts
to provide people with legitimate livelihoods and a better quality of
life, while also keeping environmental concerns at the forefront of
their agenda.

Doi Tung garden with the famous “continuity” sculpture by Misiem Yipintsoi. A hill tribe person harvests coffee cherries.

250 251
 AREA-BASED RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Irrigation Manage-
ment at Huay Klai
Reservoir
History: Founded
in 2011 by the Royal
Initiative Discovery
Foundation
Location: Nong Wua
Soe district in Udon
Thani province
Key features: Helping locals to
grow crops in this drought-prone
area by providing them with a
year-round supply of water

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Huay Klai Reservoir in the northeastern province of Udon Thani. and bananas.

An estimated 490 acres of farmland have been irrigated by the Huay Klai Reservoir project.

253
 ORGANIC
REVOLUTION
The movement continues growing
)Ʉ.+-*0/$)"Ʉ$Ŧ - )/Ʉ*Ŧ.#**/.ɄɄ
“Organic” is one of the most widely used buzzwords
of recent years, but it’s the harbinger of much
more than just chemical-free produce and toilet-
ries. Emerging over the past few decades as a
reaction against large-scale agribusiness, the organic
movement seeks to support and propagate crops
grown without pesticides or herbicides to improve
land management, promote responsible resource
use, reduce pollution and preserve biodiversity.

But what does it mean to be “organic”? The

International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM) defines this form of agriculture
as “a production system that sustains the health of
soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological
processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local
conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse
effects.” In general, these inputs refer to synthetic
chemicals (pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers), as
well as biogenetic processes (such as genetically
modified food). But the organic movement also
influences and is influenced by many other concepts
that impact economy and society, from serving as a
In Thailand, the certification
infrastructure and government support
for organic farming already exist.
Farmers at work in the rice fields of the central plains.
lifeline for farmers mired in debt to giving forward
thrust to the economic engines of rural communities.
Although the majority of Thailand’s modern agri-
culture is monoculture, its detrimental effects on
the environment have long been known here. That
backlash resulted in the formation of the Alternative
Agriculture Network in the early 1980s. It was the
first step to establishing a certification body, the
Organic Agriculture Certification of Thailand (ACT),
in the 1990s. From tiny beginnings, organic farming
has been on the upswing, increasing from roughly
6,300 rai of land under cultivation in 1998 to 224,000
rai in 2011. Most of Thailand’s organic crops are
produced for export. The main crop is rice, while
other cash crops, such as soybeans, peanuts, tropical
fruits, asparagus, tea, coffee, herbs and rubber, bulk
out the total.
The movement in Thailand faces many challenges.
According to Green Net, an organic agriculture
research and advocacy agency, less than 0.2 percent
of all arable land in Thailand is under organic cul-
tivation today, and only 0.15 percent of all farming
households were certified organic in 2011. The Thai
awareness of and interest in such crops and products
is relatively low as well. But there are encouraging
examples from inside Thailand, such as the Palang
Punya project, which is aimed at solving the issue of
acidic soil in the northeast through organic farming
practices, and also helping the farmers make a living
by finding markets for their organic products.
That can be a challenge. According to sustainable
development consultant Jeff Rutherford, the organic
movement here is currently dependent on individ-
ual purchases, which makes for small sales and slow
progress for the movement as a whole. But a look
at Europe, the US and Japan shows a growing insti-
tutional demand for organic foods and products.
In Thailand, this untapped market of institutions,
such as government departments, municipal bodies,
schools and corporations, has the potential to raise
the demand in a major way by contracting farmers
or procuring organic products to supply entire
institutional populations. The certification infra-
structure and government support for organic
farming already exist. But making more inroads into
marketing and distribution, as well as forging more
partnerships between farmers and consumers, will
play decisive roles in the movement’s future growth
or stagnation here.

254 255
PART III | COMMUNITY ORGANIC REVOLUTION

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vesting due to heavy investment in chemicals. which teaches the virtues of organic farming. is the answer.” Organic products that go straight from Raitong Organics Farm to consumers.

256 257
PART III | COMMUNITY ORGANIC REVOLUTION

farming methods mimic the natural states

Farmers’ Friends Pun Pun Center for of jungles and forests; no chemicals or “We can learn to do things
Rice Community Self-Reliance synthetic products are used on the land;
and community members produce
ourselves, then tell our
History: Founded in History: Started in almost all of their own food and daily friends about it. My hope
2014 2003 by Jon Jandai is to change things from
sundries such as soaps and shampoos
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258 259
PART III | COMMUNITY ORGANIC REVOLUTION

the efforts of a handful of small-scale site. The residents produce their own
Panya Project FOEFBWPST
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BOBMZ[JOH
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OVUSJFOU
DPOUFOU

DPNNVOJUJFT
UIPVHI
TFSWJOH
EJGGFSFOU
carefully planned to create a “food forest.” PG
TPJM
BMM
PWFS
5IBJMBOE
1SBUFFQ

The term “permaculture” initially stood for QVSQPTFT
BSF
DPNNJUUFE
UP
QPPMJOH
UIFJS
.PSFPWFS
UIF
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BOE
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7FSBQBUUBOBOJSVOE
CFMJFWFT
UIBU

“permanent agriculture” and focused on LOPXMFEHF
NBOQPXFS
BOE
SFTPVSDFT
PG
GSVJU
BOE
OVU
USFFT
JT
MJLF
B
SFBM
GPSFTU
farmers can tailor their use of fertiliz-
TVTUBJOBCMF
GBSNJOH
NFUIPET
*U
IBT
TJODF
to support each other. This cooperative DPNQMFUF
XJUI
B
DBOPQZ
VOEFSTUPSZ
ers to the soil’s needs and implement
evolved to mean “permanent culture.” TQJSJU
FNCPEJFT
iDBSF
GPS
UIF
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POF
CSVTI
BOE
HSPVOEDPWFS
/PU
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NPSF
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DPTUT

*O

UIF
GPVOEFST
PG
QFSNBDVM- of the three core tenets of permaculture. chemicals and pesticides are never used and boosting yields in the process.
UVSF
"VTUSBMJBOT
#JMM
.PMMJTPO
BOE
%BWJE
4JODF
1BOZB
1SPKFDUT
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on the property.
)PMNHSFO
PVUMJOFE
UIFJS
BHSJDVMUVSBM
the venture has grown from a private The community’s goals are to This practice of fine-tuning and
economic and interpersonal princi- community to an internationally known attract more locals to participate in its customizing agricultural equipment
ples. To make their ideas and methods FEVDBUJPO
DFOUFS
5IFTF
EBZT
1BOZB
QSPHSBN
BOE
UP
VMUJNBUFMZ
FYQBOE
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and chemicals to cut waste is called
of implementation accessible to more offers accredited courses year-round XPSL
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TPMVUJPOT
iQSFDJTJPO
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NPWF

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PO
i*OUSPEVDUJPO
UP
1FSNBDVMUVSFw
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to Thai communities outside the prop- toward more natural ways of working The Department of Agricultural Extension promotes its tailor-made fertilizer project.
curriculum and certification program. i1FSNBDVMUVSF
%FTJHO w
XIJDI
QSPWJEFT
erty’s food forest perimeter. UIF
FBSUI
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The three major tenets of perma- credit for permaculture accreditation. XJUI
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GBSNFST
the soil’s nutrients. That was why he TPJM
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BOE
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PG
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iDBSF
GPS
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"
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QFSNBDVMUVSF
DBO
CF
can analyze the nutrients inherent in launched his soil clinic in partnership phosphorous and potassium (a com-
GPS
UIF
QFPQMF w
BOE
iSFUVSO
PG
TVSQMVTw
FBSOFE
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EPJOH

IPVST
PG
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A fairly new concept in their local soil to make the most of XJUI
UIF
%FQBSUNFOU
PG
"HSJDVMUVSBM
bination of essential nutrients known
The first two are clear enough while the 'SPN
UIFSF
TUVEFOUT
DBO
HP
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UP
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Thailand, permaculture is what nature offers. &YUFOTJPO
BT
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#BTFE
PO
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taking root in the country chemical and nutritional makeup of
ages people to live within their means Colorado and other accredited schools. )PXFWFS
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Though many farmers in central and UIF
TPJM
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CF

BOE
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"
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The environmental design princi- through the efforts of a GBDJOH
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eastern Thailand currently partici- made on how much and what kind of
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UIF
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handful of small-scale TBJE
BSF
B
MBDL
PG
JOGPSNBUJPO
BCPVU
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UIF
TPJM
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fertilizer should be used.
is taking root in the country through DPVSTF
BCPVOE
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endeavors and institutions. precision farming and a lack of access HP
OBUJPOBM
"DDPSEJOH
UP
1SPHSFTT

to proper technology to measure 5IBJMBOE
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UP
%S
1SBUFFQ
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OFUXPSL
UIF
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PG
precision farming has lowered the use
"HSJDVMUVSBM
&YUFOTJPO
IBT
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DIFNJDBMT
CZ

UP

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BOE

ted to creating a soil clinic station in JODSFBTFE
GBSNFST
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CZ

UP


every district across the country. This QFSDFOU
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IBWF
BMTP
TFFO
UIFJS

NFBOT
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CZ
MBUF

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profit margins rise due to lowered
CPBTU
NPSF
UIBO

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GBDJMJUJFT
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production costs.
analyze and monitor the amount of
FTTFOUJBM
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JO
GBSNMBOE
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IPQFT
UIBU
GBSNFST
XIP
QBSUJDJ-
cally cutting the amount of chemicals pate in the clinic will train others how
used and offering farmers strategies to assess their farmland and eventual-
for the precision management of their ly launch their own such facilities. This
crops. will facilitate the kind of knowledge
transfers needed to foment an agrari-
The actual process of operating a soil an revolution on a grassroots level.
DMJOJD
JT
TJNQMF
1BSUJDJQBUJOH
GBSNFST

simply dig soil samples from 15 *O
UIF
GVUVSF
NPSF
BEWBODFE
GPSNT
PG

different locations across their land UFDIOPMPHZ
TVDI
BT
ESPOFT
BOE
TPJM

to create a composite of the earth’s TFOTPST
NBZ
CF
EFQMPZFE
UP
TIPX

Prateep (standing) trains farmers on how to quality. These samples are then ana- how such high-tech aids can produce
Panya Project volunteers return from the field. Residents are essentially self-sufficient, producing their own fertilizer, fuel and more. measure soil nutrients. lyzed with a test kit that measures the FWFO
NPSF
IJHIHSBEF
TPJM
IF
TBJE

260 261
 INTEGRATED
FARMING
Combining different kinds of farms
$)/*Ʉ*) Ʉ$.ɄɄ2$))$)"Ʉ+-*.+ /ɄɄ
Integrated farming is a holistic farm management
system that incorporates multiple species of produce
and livestock to ensure sustainability for both the
land and the people who work it. This type of farm
is designed as a complex ecosystem in which each
plant, animal and type of land is both interdepen-
dent and functional.

It’s a style of farming that comes naturally to Thais

as, in one form or another, it has been practiced
for centuries. Even now, according to the National
Economic and Social Development Board, integrated
farming is still the most commonly used method of
sustainable agriculture practiced in the kingdom.
However, despite the country’s history in such
practices, virtually all farms in Thailand became
monoculture during the Green Revolution of the
1960s and 1970s. Although this increased pro-
ductivity and made Thailand a major agricultural
exporter, the landscape suffered severe side effects:
soil erosion, deforestation, dwindling biodiver-
sity, increased dependence on chemical pesticides
and fertilizers, deepening debt, poverty and bad
health for farmers, who suffered from the constant
Monoculture:
exposure to a barrage of chemicals.
Also known as
“monocropping,”
monoculture is Seeing these tragic effects, King Bhumibol Adulyadej
an agricultural outlined his New Theory of agriculture, a specific
practice that model of integrated farming. He advocated the
devotes vast return to sustainable, holistic farms that encouraged
tracts of land to food security and self-sufficiency, as well as water
the cultivation and nutrient retention. Some of these ideas overlap
of just one crop.
Monoculture with the more traditional practices of integrated
often requires the farming and organic agriculture.
use of pesticides
and chemical By cultivating a mixture of products, such as vegeta-
fertilizers due bles, fruits, rice, livestock and fish, integrated farming
to the lack of methods offer the farmer greater opportunities for
biodiversity on
the farm, which self-reliance. A variety of seeds and varietals also
usually keeps ensure a good yield despite the unpredictability
pests at bay. of weather and market forces. Diverse crops keep
Farmers walk with their cattle inside Phu Pan Royal Development Center.
nutrients in the soil and encourage a diversity of
insects, which naturally control pest populations
and decrease crop vulnerability. Having a variety
of products to sell also helps the farmer to earn a
decent living.
On an earthier level, the coexistence of livestock with
water sources, crops and trees returns both moisture
and essential nutrients to the soil while enhancing
its fecundity, which in turn helps to conserve plant
and animal species. A potent example is the com-
bination of agriculture and aquaculture (or rice and
fish farming in colloquial terms), the most common
type of integrated farming in Thailand. It’s especially
prevalent in the northeast, where this integrated
system not only creates food security and increased
profits for the household, but also contributes to
better water management and soil use for the entire
region, which is wracked by droughts and all sorts of
other ecological woes.
Just the same, this kind of approach is not without
its challenges. One drawback is that it tends to be
more labor intensive than monocropping. Integrated
practices also require a broad range of skills,
including raising pigs and poultry, crop farming,
growing grass and aquatic plants, as well as farming
fish. Given these requirements, calling on the skills,
muscle and help of other farmers, or a local coop-
erative, may be necessary, especially during harvest
time.
However, despite extensive studies and numerous
ideas on the benefits of integrated agricultural
practices, there is no single formula that will lead to
a successful integrated farm. The differing location
and growing conditions of each farm require careful
planning, and the selection of produce, livestock and
their appropriate ratios often require some trial and
error to get the balance right.
Integrated farming may be particularly relevant for
underdeveloped areas, arid regions and small-scale
and household farmers. Seeing clear benefits to this
type of sustainable development, the Thai govern-
ment has made the promotion of integrated farms
a key objective in the 11th National Economic and
Social Development Plan (2012 to 2016). With the
potential to alleviate poverty and rehabilitate the
environment, these multi-faceted farms have a range
of exciting implications and possibilities for a sustain-
able future.

262 263
PART III | COMMUNITY INTEGRATED FARMING

NEW THEORY FARMING ADDRESSES OLD WOES

dependence on the use of chemicals.
Maha Yu .BIB
:V
TPVHIU
B
XBZ
UP
NBLF
IJT
GBSN

30-percent parcel is turned into a pond to contain rain
water for use during the dry season. Aquatic animals and
Sunthornchai more in line with Thailand’s new goals of
productivity and profit without stripping
plants such as fish, shrimps and morning glory may be raised History: Began the region’s environment of its scarce
developing his inte-
in the pond for food. Another 30-percent parcel is for rice resources or sacrificing his financial
grated farm in 1947
farming for consumption throughout the year. The other independence as a farmer.
30 percent is for growing fruit, herbs and vegetables for Location: Surin 6OUJM
SPVHIMZ

.BIB
:V

consumption and, in case of a surplus, for marketing. The province QSBDUJDFE
B
GPSN
PG
NJYFE
BHSJDVMUVSF

remaining 10 percent of the land is for a residence, a corral Key features: A that he had inherited from his parents.
for livestock, and other buildings. Significantly, the initial very Thailand-specific The practice involved selecting the best
stage of the New Theory, which calls for ponds to store model of integrated farming that seeds and varietals for the farm’s con-
has helped to alleviate poverty
rainwater, could effectually solve chronic drought problems. and improve soil fertility through-
EJUJPOT
FOTVSJOH
HPPE
ZJFMET
EFTQJUF

out the northeast VOQSFEJDUBCMF
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MBCPS
TIPSUBHFT

New Theory Stage Two – Community-based Agriculture: BOE
nVDUVBUJPOT
JO
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:FU

Farmers should set up a group with common interests or he still cultivated these crops separately. Geese share the balanced, integrated farmland.
a cooperative to join hands in preparing soil, distributing .BIB
:V
4VOUIPSODIBJ
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XIFO
IF
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seedlings and making an irrigation system, among other GBSNFS
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agricultural activities. The community-based cooperative JO
UIF
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pigs were raised together that he dis- provides the farmer with every need
may market its farm products, find a rice-drying space, build QPPSFTU
QBSU
PG
UIF
DPVOUSZ
"HSJDVMUVSF
covered that diversity for its own sake if a one-rai plot of land incorporates
a rice-storing barn or a rice mill. Moreover, the cooperative is the mainstay of the economy and the does not necessarily yield ideal results; FJHIU
FTTFOUJBM
DPNNPEJUJFT
SJDF
mTI

may provide loans for member farmers as well as scholar- main livelihood in an area afflicted with SBUIFS
JUT
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BOE
QJHT
QPVMUSZ
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IFSCT

The king receives papayas at Pikun Thong Royal Development Center. ships for their children. The second stage of the New Theory drought and poor soil. play off each other that does the trick. and medical plants. This formula is ben-
grants community members a measure of self-reliance. Through his own observations and While fish swam in the rice paddies FmDJBM
JO
TFWFSBM
XBZT
'JSTU
QSPEVDJOH

Concerned about the chronic poverty of farmers, espe- QBUJFOU
QSBDUJDF
.BIB
:V
EFWFMPQFE
BOE
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UIF
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all of these commodities frees the
cially in remote and drought-stricken areas, King Bhumibol New Theory Stage Three – Lending Facilities: Farmers or a form of integrated farming specific QJHT
BOE
UIF
QJHT
NBOVSF
QSPWJEFE
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farmer from having to purchase many
Adulyadej formulated his “New Theory” farming system cooperatives may find financial sources such as banks and UP
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mTI
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to cope with agricultural hardships on a sustainable basis. private firms to provide funding to improve their quality of provides plenty of foodstuffs and other collected rainwater and maintained TFMMT
POMZ
TVSQMVTFT
XIBUFWFS
IF
BOE

life. Cooperation between farmers and lenders may poten- JUFNT
GPS
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VTF
BOE
BMMFWJBUFT
the moisture that was badly needed in IJT
GBNJMZ
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The idea came about partially by accident in the early 1990s. tially result in the sales of farm products, such as rice, at QPWFSUZ
)JT
GBSNJOH
NPEFM
JT
OPX
this arid land. The end result was a self- household greater autonomy over
At the time, the Chaipattana Foundation had purchased a fair price as opposed to an unjustly lowered price. The XJEFMZ
VTFE
JO
4VSJO
BOE
CFZPOE
SFMJBOU
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what is consumed and what is sold at
some land for the king by a temple in Saraburi province. The farmers or cooperatives may buy consumer products on *O

.BIB
:V
JOIFSJUFE

SBJ
recycled resources and did not rely on UIF
NBSLFU
5IJSE
UIF
CZQSPEVDUT
GSPN

initial plan was to use the temple as a kind of community a wholesale basis and at a fair price from private traders. PG
MBOE
GSPN
IJT
QBSFOUT
"U
UIF
UJNF
FYQFOTJWF
DIFNJDBMT
the agricultural commodities are used to
center where people could also learn new farming tech- Thai agriculture was transitioning from 6QPO
SFUVSOJOH
IPNF
.BIB
:V
EVH
GPTUFS
UIF
GBSNT
QSPEVDUJWJUZ
BT
XFMM
BT

niques. The king suggested they dig a pond to store water In keeping with the site-specific tenets that formed the subsistence and small-scale farming to fishponds in his rice fields and began to regenerate nutrients and resources.
for farming during the dry season. When he came to visit the building blocks of many royal projects, the monarch pointed agribusiness by employing new tech- FYQFSJNFOUJOH
XJUI
UIF
UXJOOJOH
PG
BHSJ- 'JOBMMZ
UIF
GBSNFST
EFQFOEFODF
PO

Wat Mongkol Chaipattana Area Development Project, the out that this basic model could easily be modified to suit OPMPHJFT
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BMTP
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BO
JODSFBTFE
DVMUVSF
BOE
BRVBDVMUVSF
"DDPSEJOH
UP
human and animal labor and their inde-
king liked the lay of the land and the balance it contained: the large or small holdings in regions where soil, water and QFOEFODF
GSPN
DIFNJDBMT
NBDIJOFT

land had been divided up so that 30 percent was allocated crop conditions varied. However, he said this model “was BOE
PUIFS
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NBZ
IFMQ
UIFN

to the pond, 30 percent for rice paddy, another 30 percent not easy to implement because the one who uses it must move out of the red and into the black.
for mixed crops and 10 percent for other household uses. have perseverance and endurance.” .BIB
:VT
NPEFM
JT
VOJRVFMZ
5IBJ

This formula became the basis of his New Theory. #VJMU
PO
MPOHTUBOEJOH
MPDBM
BOE
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All three stages of New Theory farming have been put into UJPOBM
LOPXMFEHF
JU
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TPNF

The technique is intended to improve the quality of life practice at the royally initiated Wat Mongkol Chaipattana of the tenets of the New Theory and
of farmers and strengthen the country’s economy, which Area Development Project in Saraburi province. The project 4VGmDJFODZ
&DPOPNZ
1IJMPTPQIZ
PG
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relies, in part, on the agricultural sector. Primarily designed site also serves as a learning center for farmers who have LJOH
#BDL
JO
UIF
T
.BIB
:V
CFHBO

to combat poverty, assure food security and promote a small plots of 15–25 rai and for interested individuals to teaching his farming approach to locals
self-reliant lifestyle, the New Theory farming system calls study and implement these principles. Though the New BOE
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GPVOEFE
B
GBSNFST
HSPVQ

for the implementing of three consecutive stages of sus- Theory as an exact application never caught on with DBMMFE
-PDBM
8JTEPN
PG
*TBBO
+VEHJOH

tainable, agriculture-based development as follows: farmers in a big way, its influence can still be felt in many by the fact that the region now has the
royal initiatives that continue to thrive. The idea was also highest concentration of integrated
New Theory Stage One - Farmland Division: The land the precursor to the king’s further-reaching concept of a GBSNT
JO
UIF
DPVOUSZ
.BIB
:V
IBT
CFFO

is divided into four parcels in a ratio of 30:30:30:10. One Sufficiency Economy. Thanks to the Maha Yu model, integrated farming is being put into practice in the northeast. both an inspiration and an evangelist.

264 265
PART III | COMMUNITY INTEGRATED FARMING

PO
B
TJOHMF
DSPQ
.PTU
PG
UIF
WJMMBHFST
route and get a job in an office rather

THE ABC’S OF CSA
Baan Huay Hin have adapted to the scheme and use UIBO
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UP
UIF
GBSN
*O
UIF
GVUVSF

History: Started in the it themselves. ,BODIJU
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UP
FYQBOE
UIF
TDIFNF

early 1980s Wiboon (pictured right) has also and show more people the rewards of
Location: A village in CFDPNF
BO
FYQFSU
PO
NFEJDJOBM
IFSCT
diversifying their crops and becoming
Chachoengsao province and advises others who would like to more self-sufficient.
Key features: Innovative GPMMPX
IJT
MFBE
XIJMF
IJT
TPO
,BODIJU

agro-forestry project carries on the fieldwork. The family has
encourages farmers to BSPVOE

SBJ
PG
MBOE
BOE
UPEBZ
HSPXT

become self-sufficient BSPVOE

UP

EJGGFSFOU
DSPQT

by diversifying the crops grown on 5IFTF
JODMVEF
WFHFUBCMFT
GPS
FBUJOH

their land, giving them new sources nPXFST
GPS
TFMMJOH
BOE
IFSCT
GPS
VTF

of income JO
QSPEVDUT
MJLF
TIBNQPPT
NPTRVJUP

sprays and toothpaste.
The locals are not rich but they are
*O
UIF
FBSMZ
T
8JCPPO
,IFNDIBMFSN
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MPOHFS
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pioneered an innovative agro-forestry TBJE
BEEJOH
UIBU
UIFZ
BSF
OPU
GPDVTFE
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scheme in the central province of money and care more about health and
$IBDIPFOHTBP
XIFO
IF
TXJUDIFE
happiness. They also warmly welcome
GSPN
HSPXJOH
B
TJOHMF
DSPQ
DBTTBWB
CZ
anyone who wants to visit the village
diversifying into growing many different and learn about the project. Community-supported agriculture (CSA), a sourced, CSAs also offer farmers higher profits.
plants and trees on his land organically. "NPOH
UIFTF
WJTJUPST
BSF
NBOZ
growing trend in sustainable agriculture and According to a CSA operating in Chiang Mai
"T
UIF
IFBENBO
PG
#BBO
)VBZ
young graduates who want to take organic movements worldwide, is vastly underuti- province, a weekly box of produce costs 200 baht.
)JO
WJMMBHF
8JCPPO
FODPVSBHFE
UIF
the skills they learn back to their home lized in Thailand. In CSA, consumers in a distri- With 50 participating consumer families pur-
other villagers to join him. Diversifying WJMMBHFT
BMUIPVHI
UIFZ
TPNFUJNFT
GBDF
bution area pay in advance for weekly deliveries chasing from a network of five farming families,
in this way means farmers enjoy new SFTJTUBODF
GSPN
UIFJS
QBSFOUT
XIP
of produce from local farmers. Each week, the a month of CSA subscriptions earns each farming
sources of income and are less reliant FYQFDU
UIFN
UP
UBLF
UIF
DPOWFOUJPOBM
farmers harvest their produce, pack it into boxes family roughly 8,000 baht. Assuming that they
and deliver them to a pick-up point or the CSA work 20 days per month, this figure exceeds the
member’s door. Each box contains a week’s worth average monthly salary of a person earning the
of fresh, local, often chemical-free produce. 2013 national minimum wage by 2,000 baht.
TIPS FOR INVESTING IN AN INTEGRATED FARM In particular, integrated farmers can reap rewards Meanwhile, the consumer is guaranteed a direct
from this system because it dovetails perfectly relationship with the producers. Everything they
As the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the UN pointed out, “It is useful to remember that most with the model of surplus sales. While integrated purchase is bound to be ethically sourced and
farmers in the world have little margin for taking risks.” Thus, careful planning is required to successfully tran- farmers may have trouble catering to an industrial environmentally sound. That makes it a win-win
sition or invest in an integrated farm. Here are some tips from the FAO: system only interested in bulk sales to supermar- situation for both farmers and consumers.
kets and other big chains, CSAs sidestep mono-
1. Invest in social relationships: Friends, neigh- 2. Assess available resources: Before purchasing cropping requirements by serving a market and CSAs in Thailand:
bors and kinfolk can act as insurance against risk, anything, ask what resources are already available demand for seasonal, local produce. The farming
helping in times of crisis. A social network can also on the farm or in the community. Which resources family also continues to consume what they need MAE THA KANLAYANAMIT CSA
provide shared resources, such as money, equipment are abundant, scarce, over- or underutilized? Having at home, selling only what they cannot use. Contact: Aphisak “Ahn” Kampen
and labor. a firm grasp on the resources at hand on a particu- Telephone: 087-191-5595
lar farm will help your planning. Because CSA subscribers pay upfront, the risk for Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/
farmers, barring seasonal catastrophes and in- kanlayanamitgroup.csa
3. Create a farm budget: Add up all the prospective frastructure breakdowns, is low. If a farmer were
costs, subtract the potential income, then figure out to sell produce exclusively at a farmers’ market, ADAMS ORGANIC BANGKOK CSA
the difference. This will give you a better idea of how there would be no guarantee that all his or her Contact: 5/26-29 Saladeang Rd., Silom Bangkok
the farm operates financially, and in which areas products would sell. But farmers who produce 10500
you can cut back or maximize your profits with this kind of produce often sell at both markets Telephone: 086-655-3078 and 087-905-3521
other revenue streams. and CSAs for added security. Website: http://adamsorganicbox.wix.com/
adams-organic-csa
4. Learn by example: Talk to other farmers and study With subscribers paying a premium for organic Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/
successful farms as role models. fruits and vegetables that are fresh and locally ADAMS.Organic.CSA

266 267
PART III | COMMUNITY

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farming model in Nakhon Si Thammarat province.

268
 REFORESTATION
# Ʉ//' Ʉ/*Ʉ- !*- ./Ʉ/# Ʉ*0)/-4Ʉ
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As Oxford University researchers put it, forests are
one of the “most promising technologies” we have for
combating climate change and promoting sustain-
able development. For one thing, forests are carbon
sinks. Using energy from the photons of the sun’s
light, and combining it with carbon dioxide –
the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human
activities – forests create carbon and store it in
their wood, leaves, roots and the soil surrounding
them. That’s how carbon dioxide “sinks” into forests,
ensuring that it doesn’t escape into the atmosphere
where it becomes the main agent of global warming.
The more degraded forest areas that are restored
the more carbon dioxide is removed from the atmo-
sphere and the less the planet warms.
But these jungles and woodlands
also provide humankind with
According to Oxford a host of other benefits, from
University, forests are providing different foods and
one of the “most medicines to acting as safe-
promising technologies” guards against soil erosion and
natural disasters such as floods. In
we have for combating northern Thailand, for example,
climate change. where most of the kingdom’s
remaining forests are situated,
they act as key watersheds, playing an elemental role
in supplying water to the intensively cultivated and
densely populated lowlands.
In this region, the Huai Hong Khrai Royal
Development Study Center has been a paragon
among reforestation projects. The mountain-
ous areas located upstream were reforested with
trees to help the land retain moisture and prevent
water runoff and soil erosion. Then more trees were
planted in the degraded forest. Downstream, eight
large reservoirs that hold approximately 3.3 million
cubic meters of rainwater were constructed. In
addition, smaller reservoirs, check dams and smaller
channels were constructed throughout the area to
distribute moisture and to rejuvenate the forests.
270
Monks walking through the rainforest in Doi Inthanon National Park.
Through this and other royally initiated projects,
King Bhumibol has been a catalyst for reforestation
efforts. One of his strategies, known as “three forests,
four benefits,” recommends planting diverse forests
over monoculture plantations. In a royal address to
villagers living near Khao Yai National Park in 1977,
he requested that they “grow fruit trees, trees that
yield firewood and bamboo in the compound of
the reservoir, and grow trees especially along the
mountain crest near the watershed areas, to secure
the soil and conserve moisture.”
The emphasis that he placed on such diversity flew
in the face of the perceived (and often misguided)
wisdom in Thailand, where initiatives to restore
degraded forest areas began in the 1970s. But for
years, government officials focused on single cash
crops, like eucalyptus or rubber trees. Although
some experts argue that such reforestation methods
are positive as they provide locals with a livelihood
and stop primary forests from being converted into
fields for agriculture, other ecologists believe that
such plans are shortsighted because they do not
focus on restoring forests to their true biodiversity.
To celebrate King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s Golden
Jubilee in 1996, a plan was implemented to reforest
more than 8,000 square kilometers of denuded
land nationwide. Since then, many such efforts
have favored this approach over monoculture
plantations, which are neither able to function as
effective carbon sinks nor provide the full spectrum
of benefits that diverse forests can. In the long run,
local communities also benefit from the creation of
a more sustainable source of water and foodstuffs,
improved irrigation and soil, and thus better human
security overall.
Revealing their foresight, the king and queen’s
efforts have become global concerns over the last
few decades. At the United Nations summit on
climate change in New York in September 2014, gov-
ernments and multinational companies pledged to
restore hundreds of millions of hectares of formerly
forested land. All in all, the declaration promised to
restore 150 million hectares of degraded landscapes
and forest areas by 2020, with an additional 200
million to be reforested by 2030. If that promise is
realized, the world would regain an area of forests
greater than the size of India. Pulling off such a feat
is a monumental undertaking with many positive
ramifications.
In Thailand, however, for the most part the reforesta-
tion movement is fragmented. Much of it is done for
public relations purposes: small-scale tree planting
programs that businesses hype as corporate social
responsibility (CSR) programs.
In moving forward, three questions have to be con-
sidered. Who will pay for the kind of large-scale
reforestation programs needed? How will such
programs be realized in remote areas with primitive
infrastructure in place? Thirdly, how will local com-
munities be affected by these plans? Whether the
government treads on human rights by removing the
rural poor from their land, or instead includes the
local people in managing and implementing these
programs will define the government’s reforestation
record in the years to come.
271
PART III | COMMUNITY REFORESTATION

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him to harvest many different foods and map for eco-tourists. a better life here every day.” can be used for food or given to pigs.” Nikom Putta’s project up north helps Bangkok have enough clean drinking water.

272 273
PART III | COMMUNITY REFORESTATION

Chiang Mai
University’s Forest One of Thailand’s leading forest ecologists, STEPHEN ELLIOTT, co-founder and research director of Chiang Mai Univer-
sity’s Forest Restoration Unit (FORRU), talks about the present and the future of forest restoration in Thailand, which he
Restoration defines as “re-establishing the original forest ecosystem that was present before deforestation occurred.”
Research Unit
(FORRU-CMU) Forest restoration, by definition,
promotes more diverse forests
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274 275
PART III | COMMUNITY REFORESTATION

Ideas and Inspirations for Tree Planting

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276 277

FOREST
CONSERVATION
Alliances between communities and
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In Thailand, over one million people live in and
depend on the country’s forests. These people also
play a major role in preserving them. Not only do
forest-dependent villagers know wooded terrains
the best, they also depend on forests for their liveli-
hoods, making their protection a top priority.
While the Thai government recognizes the role
villagers can play in forest preservation, it has not
gone far enough in empowering them to do so.
Neither the National Park Act nor the National
Forest Reserve Act of the 1960s, which set aside
protected areas and suddenly turned those who
had lived on the land for generations into trespass-
ers, recognized the rights of locals to participate in
the decision-making process about how to manage
these areas. In a speech to lawyers in 1973, King
Bhumibol Adulyadej acknowledged the problem and
stated: “They [the villagers] have human rights. It’s a
case of the government violating the people, not the
people violating the law.”
It is no wonder, then, that this state-managed
approach did nothing to stop rampant deforestation,
as the amount of forested area decreased from 60
National Park
Act:
A law that
enabled the
government to
designate public
land as national
parks for the
benefit of public
education and
pleasure. A grasshopper at Kanchanaburi’s Pu Toey-Pu Lad community forest.
278
,PPNQBTTJB
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5BVC, a giant tree in a community forest in the northeast.
percent in 1961 to 25 percent in 1998. Since then,
when the government realized the importance of
involving local communities, the latter figure rose to
around 28 to 30 percent.
By no means is this solely a local phenomenon. In
2014, the World Resources Institute released a report
providing evidence that deforestation has decreased
considerably in places where local peoples’
community forestry rights are given strong legal rec-
ognition as compared to those where they did not
enjoy such rights. In the Bolivian part of the Amazon,
deforestation rates were found to be six times lower;
in the Brazilian Amazon, they were 11 times lower;
and in Guatemala’s Petén Basin, 20 times lower.
Across Thailand there are now more than 10,000
“community forests,” where local residents have
been empowered to manage these resources,
sometimes collaborating with government agencies,
civil society groups and even Buddhist monks.
Experts believe that many of these projects have
made a significant contribution to the maintenance
of healthy forests, although the effect on local
incomes and poverty reduction has not been as
great as hoped thus far.
Positive examples abound. One such project is the
Joint Management of Protected Areas (JoMPA)
based in one of the country’s most biologically rich
areas, the Western Forest Complex, where the Seub
Nakhasathien Foundation has served as a go-
between for villagers and government officials
to join forces. By equipping both sides with GPS
systems to survey the land, the project has proven
that combining modern technology with local
wisdom is a win-win situation.
Meanwhile, the “Tree Bank,” launched in 2006, has
encouraged farmers to plant trees that they can use
as collateral for low-interest loans. And from small
beginnings in northern Phayao province in the late
1980s, the concept of “ordaining” trees in a Buddhist
ceremony that entails wrapping them with sacred
sashes as a way of protecting them from loggers, has
spread across Thailand and to neighboring countries.
The many royal projects to build check dams across
the country have also become watersheds in forest
conservation.
All in all, the battle to preserve Thailand’s forests
for future generations will not be easy, but as these
projects show, it’s far from a lost cause.
Keeping it in the Community
In recent decades, many community forest projects
aimed at empowering villagers to protect the envi-
ronment and reducing poverty have been launched
in Thailand. There are now more than 10,000 com-
munity forests across the country, including more
than 8,500 registered with the Royal Forestry
Department (RFD).
“Community forestry is an alternative approach
to getting people involved in sustainable forest
management for supporting local livelihoods,” said
Ronnakorn Triraganon of the Regional Community
Forestry Training Center for Asia and the Pacific
(RECOFTC), an NGO headquartered in Bangkok
with other offices in Southeast Asia and Nepal. “If
they have the benefits, that provides the motivation
for them to take care of the forest.”
Giving local communities access to forest products,
such as bamboo, wild fruits, vegetables, and honey,
which allows them to move from subsistence-
level farming to small-scale enterprises, can reap
substantial rewards. Some communities earn up to
two million baht a year from selling such products,
said Ronnakorn.
But in general, community forests tend to have a
greater effect on conservation than on local econ-
omies. That’s why the RFD aims to register around
20,000 community forests, though there is still
debate about how to include people living in pro-
tected forest areas. Currently, there is no recogni-
tion for community forests that overlap with these
zones, affecting between one and two million people
who depend on forest resources. By law it is illegal to
harvest forest products from these protected areas,
said Ronnakorn, though local agreements are often
made between park officials and local representa-
tives through advisory bodies set up in each national
park.
In this growing field there have been some note-
worthy success stories, like the village of Pred
Nai, which is restoring a mangrove forest in Trat
province where many villagers harvest crabs.
Another example is Ban Mae Kampong in Chiang
Mai province, which has become a top ecotourism
destination and campsite.
279
PART III | COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION

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of protected forest areas and XJUI
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Referred to by many as Thai-
government officials through and just getting to know them. The cooperation between these land’s greatest conservation-
mediation What the foundation did after former rivals led to the development of ist, Seub Nakhasathien was a
winning the trust of both sides was to a color-coded map showing the areas champion of both the environ-
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ment and wildlife. He was also
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enabled the local residents and the gov- other zones. White dots depicted the a scholar and activist, who
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ernment to work together on surveying communities in protected areas while protested against the building
%/1

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the land. Together they helped each green dots showed uninhabited forest. of dams, campaigned for the
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PG
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"SFBT
other determine which lands could be The collaboration also resulted in the rights of local people to live in
+P.1"

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used for agricultural purposes and which DSFBUJPO
PG
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forests, and added his voice to
between forest-dependent people lands would have to remain protected GPS
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the rallying cries to put a stop
and government officials in western GPSFTU
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to poaching and to protect the
Thailand. To carry out the mission and had the authorities and locals teamed $PNQMFY w
XIJDI
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environment better.
lay the groundwork they approached up to protect the forests; the approach for conflict resolution in protected forest
UIF
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was quite unlike the usual top-down BSFBT
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While working as the super-
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FOEFBWPS
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decision-making process. other forests. Sasin Chalermlarp. intendent of the Huai Kha
HSPVOE
JO

UFOTJPOT
XFSF
SVOOJOH
Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary
high between the local residents of forest in Uthai Thani province (a position that he took rather than
reserves and the government officials accepting an opportunity to pursue a PhD in England because
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he believed this would better position himself to protect the
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environment in his homeland), Seub grew disenchanted with
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/BLIBTBUIJFO
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the rampant destruction of nature and the ceaseless slaugh-
“They didn’t even speak to one another. ter of wildlife.
The government would come to arrest
the villagers who were using land for On September 1, 1990, at age 40, Seub took his own life in
BHSJDVMUVSF
BOE
UIF
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a stand against the plundering of nature, famously writing
back by blocking them from leaving the in his suicide note, “If any animal will be killed in Huai Kha
BSFB
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UIFZ
FWFO
UISFX
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Kaeng, it must be me.” Only 17 days after his death, Seub’s
at the forest rangers and authorities friends and colleagues received permission from the Ministry
when driving past their offices.” of the Interior to establish an organization in his name to
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CMBNF
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carry out his work – the influential Seub Nakhasathien Foun-
villagers for retaliating in the face of what dation – that carries on to this day.
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Growing cumin is an additional source of
of the estimated one million people Local residents and officials survey the forest along the buffer zone of the Western Forest Complex. income for local residents living in the forest.

280 281
PART III | COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION

UP
4BWF
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The Mae Wong i*
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Network Narong first became interested in
forests as a teacher at a local school in
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on the edges of the parks from districts
History: Launched in Chumphon
province in 2006
History: Founded in
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1996
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trict of Nakhon Sawan CBSSFO
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in those parks.
province that can also be used for loans
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One of the network’s main functions
Key features: UIF
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in the national parks is preventing forest
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of degraded forest, boosting live-
lihoods, stopping forest fires and
would cut down trees. They wanted to GPSFTU
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providing a lair for tigers. FYQBOE
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ing this spotless record to three reasons. main idea behind the pioneering Tree
not educated about the benefits of the 5IF
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has built many small dams in the area Launched by conservation officials
When the government came to designed to provide moisture that BOE
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background in environmental science. OFBSCZ
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The second is that the network sends to grow trees on their land alongside
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project and function as an intermediary every day during the dry season from for loans or by depositing them with
between the government and the local %FDFNCFS
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as they grow. When the mature trees
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the need to preserve forests. farmers pay back the loans with interest.
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tank. The latter group also served as villagers have diversified their liveli- 'PSFTU
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educators for locals and consultants for hoods through selling non-timber forest Chunaem was one of the founders
the government on decisions affecting QSPEVDUT
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of the project. The inspiration came
the project. NFEJDJOFT
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from seeing how debt-laden farmers
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in the southern province of Chumphon Now, due to Tree Bank’s
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were losing land they had deposited as efforts, trees are beginning
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wild boars and deer that now roam TFDVSJUZ
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the tree bank as a way of allowing them
to be seen as assets in their
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to clear their debts while encouraging own right.
Narong Raengkasikorn. FYQBOEFE
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abundant and healthy.” tree planting on a large scale that would
also help the government with its refor- timber as only having value when it’s
estation efforts. The project also fits in been cut down.
well with the sufficiency economy ideas /PX
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FGGPSUT

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trees are beginning to be seen as assets
the government has contributed its own in their own right. When the mature
financial resources to developing the trees are eventually cut down and
project over the last decade. TPME
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its branches across the country. The keeps a database of what trees are
program is now active in all of Thailand’s grown and where.

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are being reaped – from enjoying the
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Phongsa Chunaem, who spearheads the Tree
Asian golden cat in Mae Wong National Park. Forests in Thailand have fallen victim to land cultivation practices and fires set by poachers. common mindset that typically sees are enjoying a greener life. Bank project.

282 283
PART III | COMMUNITY FOREST CONSERVATION

Inspiring Respect for the Forest

Tree Worshippers Inspired by the happy scenes from
Laura Ingalls Wilder’s Little House in
“A tree is a wonderful living organism that gives shelter, food, warmth and protection to all living things. It even gives the Big Woods, the queen also ini-
shade to those who wield an axe to cut it down.” – Lord Buddha tiated the first Ban Lek Nai Paa Yai
(Little House in the Big Forest) project
5IF
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iPSEBJOJOHw
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to sell the wood or to use in con- in Ban Huai Lo Duk, a village in Om
enlightenment and passed away in BOE
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Koi forest in Chiang Mai province in
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they become holy. Locals believe LJOHT
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1991. At that time, the overall area
teachings are references to the im- that felling them is a sin. The practice UP
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BOE
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was already lush, fertile and a host
QPSUBODF
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echoes the Thai tradition of young across the country took part in the to wild animals. The aim was not to
placed at the entrance of forests and men being ordained as monks for project. The inclusiveness of the restore the forest but to improve
QBSLT
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interdependence between the forest
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and the people. Poultry, swine and
loggers and poachers that cutting continuing popularity. cattle breeds suitable for highland
trees and killing animals are sins. 4JODF
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NP- agriculture were supplied and a rice
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bank was set up for consumption
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throughout Thailand and to other during the dry season. Villagers were
that monks are sometimes at the QSFEPNJOBOUMZ
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supported in terms of their agricul-
forefront of conservation efforts in *O
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The king and queen of Thailand have Based on her belief that the people tural practices as well as local crafts-
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a copyright license for the practice. long encouraged reforestation prac- could peacefully coexist with the manship to ensure they could support
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tices and conservation principles, forest, the Pa Rak Nam watershed themselves. In 1995, the project was
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IBWF
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believing that these would help lead conservation program was initiated expanded to a nearby village Ban
he conducted what is believed to be ordained in the forests around Wat Thais toward more sustainable live- in December 1982 in a northeastern Huay Pu Ling and the forest conser-
the world’s first “tree ordination” in #PEIBSBN
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NJ- lihoods. province of Sakon Nakhon’s Song vation area was announced. A large
a bid to stop indiscriminate logging. nority of locals chop them down The king, for example, helped Dao district. The queen assigned a number of local hill tribes also vol-
change attitudes in Thailand through team to prepare a rai plot of deteri- unteered to be forest rangers so they
his idea commonly referred to as orated land for her to replant about could help protect their own homes
“three forests, four benefits,” which 100 saplings as a sample for local vil- from forest fires, illegal logging and
recommends planting diverse forests lagers to follow. Local residents then drug trafficking.
over monoculture plantations. helped look after the trees. As part of These two projects initiated by
In a royal address to villagers living this project, the king’s “three forests, the queen have been duplicated
near Khao Yai in 1977, he requested four benefits” idea was also put into throughout the country in water-
Amazonian Biodiversity that they “grow fruit trees, trees that practice, and villagers bred fish in a shed areas.
yield firewood and bamboo in the man-made pond to create a source
One of the world’s most vital fron- GBTUGPPE
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compound of the reservoir, and grow of protein for their diets.
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global warming could be much more trees especially along the mountain Soon local villagers presented
the largest tropical forest on the punishing. crest near the watershed areas, to more deteriorated land plots and
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"

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secure the soil and conserve mois- the project was expanded to cover
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ture.” By conducting reforestation in thousands of rai in Sakon Nakhon
home to an estimated one-quarter of UIBU
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this way, the villagers would supply and nearby Udon Thani provinces.
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their own needs for timber, fruit and With full participation of the villag-
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firewood, while also receiving an ers and support from local authori-
shelters almost one-third of all the USBDUT
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HPW- additional fourth benefit: the con- ties and the military, Her Majesty per-
known species on the planet. 5IF
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servation of soil and watersheds. sonally supervised the initial stage of
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on subsidies given to industries that Meanwhile, Queen Sirikit, when the project to serve the purpose of
million people who depend on this must remain stored if we are to have cause deforestation than the country visiting remote border villages in the watershed conservation. The queen
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a chance of fighting off the effects of normally receives in international north and the northeast during the often stressed, “Let residents live
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climate change for a more sustain- conservation aid to prevent it. 1980s, observed poverty, a lack of their normal lives. We can promote
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DPO- That news underlines the urgency security owing to the harvesting and their quality of life, helping them
struggle to survive in what is an in- tinue to be logged and cut down for of action as this global treasure trade of opium, as well as deforesta- earn more income, and be in better
creasingly hostile environment. cattle pastures that feed the world’s reaches a tipping point. tion caused by shifting cultivation. health.” Check dam at a watershed forest in the north.

284 285
 WILDLIFE Winning the Conservation Battle
# Ʉ(+$")Ʉ/*Ʉ.1 Ʉ2$''$! Ʉ Thailand may still
have some distance
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solve the prob-
lems of the illegal
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the country can take
inspiration from the
As threats to Thailand’s endangered species and FYBNQMF
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biodiversity continue to grow, one of the key long- XIJDI
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NBOZ

term solutions is to encourage the community PEET
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to play a greater role in wildlife protection. From fully turned the tide
promoting community awareness about the value against poachers.
of wild animals in the ecosystem to assisting former 5FO
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UIJT

poachers develop alternative sources of income, )JNBMBZBO
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there are plenty of ways that the government and was a major center
NGOs can help. But the most important thing is for for animal trafficking.
locals to gain an understanding of why they should 1PBDIFST
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protect wild animals. They must build a sense of real killed more rhinos
partnership with organizations and feel the satisfac- here than in the rest
tion of helping to build a sustainable future. PG
"TJB
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mainly to China where they can be sold for tens of thou-
Many wildlife conservation efforts focus on the endangered tiger.
Wang Mee district is situated a short distance from TBOET
PG
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5JHFST

Khao Yai National Park. Fifteen years ago, the area elephants and leopards were also killed for their valuable
was a hotbed of poachers and illegal loggers. Today, Successful wildlife conservation requires strong col- the next generation, then they must protect wildlife body parts and skins.
thanks in part to the support laboration between government agencies, NGOs, and the watersheds,” observed Wayuphong Jitvijak, /PU
BOZ
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and technical advice of the community-based organizations and the private a project manager at World Wide Fund for Nature BOJNBM
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Freeland Foundation, the sector: all of them working toward the sustain- (WWF Thailand). CZ
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inhabitants have found able management of biological resources. Defining launched an unprecedented crackdown on poaching
alternative livelihoods like the role of each partner is crucial. By law, the The good news is that endangered species do have UISPVHI
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JOUFMMJHFODF
BOE
UFDIOPMPHZ
JODSFBTFE

growing organic mushrooms Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant the potential to recover, so long as the conditions are cooperation with local communities and a policy of
or mulberry trees. Although Conservation (DNP) is responsible for managing right. Take the Western Forest Complex on Thailand’s i[FSP
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some have been lured back Thailand’s protected areas. But the support of border with Myanmar. This region, covering 18,000 arrested and tough new penalties on wildlife crimes have
into the illegal trade by foreign NGOs who have the technical expertise and square kilometers, contains what is probably the been imposed.
sky-high prices for endan- the ability to fund and monitor long-term conser- best tiger habitat in Southeast Asia. While current 5IF
SFTVMUT
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CFFO
PVUTUBOEJOH
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UIF
HPW-
gered species, the combina- vation projects can help the DNP and other govern- estimates put the tiger population there at only ernment announced that there was “zero poaching of
tion of poverty alleviation ment agencies to function even more effectively. 100, the region could easily support double or SIJOPT
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EVSJOH
UIF
QSFWJPVT
ZFBS

programs and strict enforce- And NGOs in turn need to engage with local com- even triple that number. And because the tiger is Tighter enforcement has also resulted in the dismantling
ment has led to a reduction munities. You could say it’s a symbiotic relationship the top predator in the natural forest ecosystem, of one of the major rhinoceros smuggling syndicates.
in poaching levels of up to that offers benefits for all parties. its existence would indicate the prevalence of wild 0G
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“We take a holistic approach Of course, there are plenty of other approaches that “The key is to have good protection,” said Anak BMM
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towards biodiversity con- could help. Visionary leadership at the highest levels Pattanavibool, Thailand program director of the BHBJOTU
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servation and protected of government is vital if the country is to follow a Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and a lecturer at EFBEMPDL
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area management,” said path that puts conservation before short-term profit Kasetsart University. “Education is important for the TIPVME
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Tim Redford, who oversees and ensures strict enforcement of wildlife laws. long term. But first you have to stop the poaching.” PG
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Freeland’s Surviving Encouraging villagers to live in harmony with nature Conservation work is immensely challenging, but it’s across the kingdom and safeguard their natural biodiver-
Together program. “Local could also go a long way toward conserving the the only chance we have to save our rapidly disap- sity and ensure its future survival.
communities just need a bit country’s rich natural heritage. “You have to teach pearing wildlife and to keep these dynamic ecosys-
of help to get on their feet.” people that if they want clean air and clean water for tems intact.

286 287
PART III | COMMUNITY WILDLIFE

leopards and banteng being mercilessly

SMART Patrol trapped or gunned down and their parts Incidents of poaching have Kui Buri National
History: Launched in sold for enormous profits.
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fallen, and the population Park
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features a GPS navigation system is simple: to harness information tech- quick to identify and arrest them. Key features: Kui Buri
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local community, government numbers of tourists who come here.






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here we have been able to bigger underlying problems in Thailand.
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to achieve a real partnership.” benefits are likely to be felt as much
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water storage capacity to ensure that JO
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wild creatures.

288 289
PART III | COMMUNITY WILDLIFE

WOMEN AND WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

well-dressed city folk on why it is wrong to use elephants An internationally renowned wildlife investigator and director of Freeland Foundation, STEVE GALSTER talks about wildlife
in circuses or to teach them to play football. “We have to campaigns, ivory and the future.
speak out about the cruelty that goes on in Thailand,” she
explained. “There are so many ways humans and elephants major transit center in the illegal Should wildlife protection and
can live together rather than teaching them unnatural tricks.” ivory trade. Has enough been community support programs
done to crack down on it? The go hand in hand? Community and
Despite considerable local and international support, both Thai government had a golden op- outreach programs are very import-
women have been repeatedly threatened by elephant portunity to say “no” to all of the ivory BOU
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traders, ivory traffickers and “influential” businessmen who USBEF
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between rangers and local commu-
fear a backlash from such high-profile public campaigns. allowing for a trade in Thai elephant OJUJFT
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Yet intimidation has done nothing to stop their quest for JWPSZ
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justice. “I used to be frightened, but now I don’t fear. I fight,” USBEF
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themselves because decision-makers
said Lek. illegal traffickers to launder poached and political leaders change so fast.
elephant tusks through legal chan- /(0
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Soraida Salwala established the world’s first elephant hospital. Whether these formidable conservationists can save Can campaigns to stop the wild- OFMT

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must help carry the torch.
Thailand’s dwindling elephant population, estimated at life trade succeed in Thailand One should not compromise in the
They are celebrated elephant conservationists, tireless less than 3,000 in the wild, is a thornier question. One fully given the enormous profits for conservation of wild animals. Name three things that need to
activists, outspoken wildlife crusaders and, most surprising of grown elephant consumes 200 kilograms of food a day rare animals?
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be done to ensure the survival of
all, in the male-dominated conservation world in Thailand, and requires at least 20 gallons of water. Yet vegetation 5IBJT
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Soraida Salwala and Sangduen “Lek” Chailert are women. and water resources are rapidly shrinking thanks to human FSBUJPO
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encroachment and climate change. “Fifty years from now, is behind the trade and they think the past decade? Thailand led the USBEF
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it’s just too easy for crooks to manip-
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increased support for rangers and
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of education to bring about genuine change. As a result, PO
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For Soraida, it began as a child, she works with school children, celebrities and occasion- In 2013, the governing body of zures have increased 11-fold around XF
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when she saw a badly injured ally even politicians to spread her message. She also assists CITES identified Thailand as a the region. the kingdom.
elephant with two long tusks village communities to∆ live sustainably with nature. “So
lying by the side of the road. many people care about animals,” she explained. “But they
The elephant had been hit by do not have a leader. I try to make an example.”
a truck and was eventually shot
to put it out of its agony. Why Fortunately, both Soraida and Lek have every intention of
couldn’t the elephant be taken to continuing their fight to raise awareness about the plight
a doctor? asked the uncompre- of Asian elephants and their habitat, which means there
hending eight year old. Soraida is still a chance that these lumbering giants may have a
never forgot those words. In 1993, future in Thailand. YEAR OF THE WOLF /PU
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she established the world’s first WOLF TOTEM Wild
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elephant hospital in Lampang. Since then Soraida and her Written by: Jiang Rong (2004) Wolf has any author written with B
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team have treated close to 4,000 elephants for everything Film adaptation by: Jean-Jacques such passion and conviction about predator that is a spiritual totem.
from abuse by humans to traffic accidents and stepping Annaud (2015) XJMEMJGF
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on landmines. She has also valiantly campaigned for the Totem
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begging for food in the streets of Bangkok. EVSJOH
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them to humans. What the book and
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film so impressively document is a
Lek’s passion for elephants also began as a child. Today, she wolves attack and kill dozens of harsh yet fragile environment where
runs the Elephant Nature Park, where elephants saved from army horses during the “white-hair IJMMT
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tourist and illegal logging operations live out their days in CMJ[[BSETw
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to change the way we think. And so on a Friday afternoon in Khan’s armies who conquered the grasslands into agricultural areas: a
March, there is Lek in a Bangkok shopping center lecturing Sangduen Chailert runs the Elephant Nature Park. world (partly through imitating the chilling lesson in biodiversity.

290 291
 SAVING MARINE
HABITATS
))*1/$1 Ʉ+-*% /.Ʉ- Ʉ*($)"Ʉ/*Ʉ/# Ʉ- .0 Ʉ
Until the 1980s marine preservation was not on
the radar for Thailand’s politicos and bureaucrats.
However, a growing, if diffuse, awareness of the
myriad benefits (fiscal, environmental and social)
that such spawning grounds provide for a range of
development sectors was acknowledged with the
designation of marine and coastal protected areas.
Today, it’s much more widely
understood that these areas,
such as marine national parks
and restricted areas for projects
like turtle breeding, are essential
for maintaining the capacity of
critical ecosystems to support sus-
tainable development. That said,
gains made by protecting some
areas have been offset by losses
created by ongoing threats such as
illegal fishing, the encroachment
of man-made infrastructure, the
destruction of coral reefs by com-

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What impresses about mercial fishing and tourism and
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projects are their sheer

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simplicity and innovation, On the positive side, combating
often spurred by limited these threats has united an

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financing... array of talents, from economic
planners and policymakers to

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members of the private sector, who have teamed up

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with academics, activists and local residents. Such

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collaborations have made it possible for a number

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of projects to proceed. In Trat province, the Ban
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The
together to preserve the area’s mangrove forests.

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protect villages from storms, mangroves are also
known to protect juvenile marine creatures that hide
in their tangled roots. By protecting the forest, the
villagers have also protected their own livelihoods as

B

fishermen and preserved their pastoral cultures.

IBT
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292
Many seaside communities like these are dependent
on fishing for both cash and calories. In the southern
province of Chumphon, a crab bank has paid
dividends for locals who are now well aware of the
Ban Pred Nai Community Forestry Group’s prag-
matism as reflected in the saying: “Stop catching a
hundred — wait for a million.” This could well be a
rallying cry for sustainable development among such
rural communities in Thailand, but it would fall on
deaf ears if it were not for financial incentives. Both
of these projects have used a system of financial
bonuses and penalties to make sure villagers
cooperate. Both have also set up community savings
funds to help farmers in distressful situations, but
only if they play by the rules.
Another leading light in saving marine habitats is
Princess Sirindhorn. She has had a long and abiding
interest in environmental matters, dating back to
some early experiments with replanting mangrove
forests around the seaside Mrigadayavan Palace
(the Palace of Love and Hope) in Phetchaburi
province and culminating with the establishment
of the Sirindhorn International Environmental Park
in the same province. In the late 1990s her founda-
tion collaborated with a resort owner on Koh Talu in
Prachuap Khiri Khan province to begin an innovative
coral replantation project that became a watershed
in marine conservation. That area has now become
an epicenter for marine scientists and conservation-
ists, eager to learn more and keep innovating. One
academic came up with the idea of using PVC pipes
to transplant coral. His project has now transplanted
some 40,000 corals around the Eastern Seaboard.
Easily the best news to come out of Thailand for
coral reefs in recent years was the 2013 announce-
ment from Chulalongkorn University’s Faculty of
Science that it had successfully completed its tests
to breed and release warm-water corals. The exper-
iment, backed by Princess Sirindhorn’s Plant Genetic
Conservation Project and the Royal Thai Navy, was
Coral colony on a reef top at Koh Chang.
hailed by marine scientists in Thailand as a major
breakthrough. Certainly it was a timely discovery.
An estimated 75 percent of the world’s coral reefs
are now threatened. Mangrove forests, currently
being depleted at a higher rate than any other type
of forest, are not doing much better, though they are
making something of a comeback in certain areas of
the kingdom where conservation projects and pro-
tective measures hold sway.
A 2014 report from Kasetsart University said that
there are some 244,000 hectares of mangroves in
the country. In parts of Phetchaburi province, where
the royally initiated Laem Phak Bia Environmental
Research and Development Project began in 1990,
they are making a slow comeback. The report
pointed out that in this cluster of four villages
mangroves are growing at a rate of 3.7 hectares per
year. Considering the benefits that these ecosystems
provide, from purifying the air to storing carbon, to
serving as nurseries for juvenile fish and havens for
bird-watchers and eco-tourists, they are extremely
valuable. Each hectare, the report estimates, is worth
around 424,000 baht per year.
The fact that many such efforts have spread to other
communities, and inspired many younger people,
is proof positive that these disparate movements,
which are united by a unanimity of purpose – to
preserve the coasts and seas for their descendants –
will have staying power.
THE OCEAN OF LIFE
THE OCEAN OF LIFE: THE FATE OF MAN AND THE SEA
Author: Callum Roberts
Year: 2012
The New York Times
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293
PART III | COMMUNITY SAVING MARINE HABITATS

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of forestry issues and conservation.
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in them. Young students participate in a mangrove reforestation project. Black-winged stilts.

294 295
PART III | COMMUNITY SAVING MARINE HABITATS

frequently pilloried by the press – for clean the wastewater before it is dis-
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296 297
 COASTAL
RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

QPMJDJFT


XIJDI

 (Ʉ Ŧ*-/.Ʉ+4Ʉ$1$ ).Ʉ
Thailand’s coasts are home to 24 sea-straddling
provinces, where the people’s wallets and stomachs
are inextricably linked to marine fisheries, coastal
aquaculture, agriculture and eco-tourism. Owing to


perennial trends like industrial and tourism devel-
opment, pollution, illegal fishing and the resulting
depletion of marine resources, these coastal commu-
nities have had difficulty keeping their heads above

#BOKPOH

water at times. Faced with shrinking opportunities
and mounting debt, many locals have had to make
do with living hand to mouth or moving to bigger
urban areas in search of better opportunities.

*
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Aquaculture plays an important role in many of
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these provinces, as well as in the food security and
economy of Thailand as a whole. Freshwater aqua-

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IBT
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culture, especially on a small scale, is mainly aimed
at domestic consumption and is a crucial source of
protein for the Thai diet.
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In contrast, brackish water aquaculture, particularly
shrimp farming, is export-oriented. According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization, aquaculture is
one of the fastest-growing food producing sectors
globally, with a projected increase in market share of

#BOKPOH
BOE
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BSF
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up to 62 percent by 2030, mainly due to decreasing
Tambon marine resources and increasing demand from the
Administration global middle class.

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Organization:
The governmen- If responsibly developed and practiced, aquacul-
tal body that ture, both small and large-scale, can generate lasting

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administers a
tambon, the local benefits for global food security and economic
unit that forms growth. Shrimp exports from January to October
the third adminis- 2014 alone accounted for 122,595 tons with an


trative level in estimated value of US$1.5 billion, according to
Thailand under Thailand’s Department of International Trade
provinces and Promotion. However, aquaculture here is increas-
districts. Tambon
are usually made ingly facing environmental and human rights chal-
up of about ten lenges. Much of the current controversy is centered
villages. around irresponsible practices such as land rec-
298
Koh Panyee fishing village in Phang-nga province.
lamation, coastal construction, drainage and the
discharge of wastewater and sewage from intensive
shrimp farms into the sea, rivers and irrigation
canals. Shrimp aquaculture has also resulted in the
physical degradation of coastal habitats through the
conversion of mangrove forests and destruction of
wetlands, salinization of water for agricultural and
drinking water purposes, and land subsidence due
to groundwater contamination. Heavily criticized for
relying on illegal migrant labor, the industry is also
being challenged to use resources more efficiently
by adopting responsible aquaculture farming man-
agement and practices.
Prior to the decentralization of governing bodies and
agencies in the late 1990s, communities traditionally
came together under an umbrella of local groups
whenever they wanted to improve these situations
and had a say in the management of their resources,
which was usually decided by the powers-that-be in
Bangkok anyway. But the gradual process of decen-
tralization has provided more social inclusion and
public participation, just as it’s inspired the formation
of local administrative bodies, such as Tambon
Administration Organizations. These organizations
have allowed the coastal communities to mobilize
and network on a scale that would have been
unimaginable a decade ago.
Today, an increasing number of coastal community
residents have decided to fight for more sustainable
development practices, namely by mobilizing their
peers to call for changes to government policies
that would allow them to have a say in the state’s
management of the marine and coastal resources.
There is strength in numbers, but also in diversity –
an astounding array of local leaders from monks to
village heads, teachers to activists, marine biologists
to lawyers, have leading roles in this mobilization.
The involvement of local and national academics and
research institutions, which have lent their support
through in-depth research, analyses and practical
solutions, has helped strengthen the community
agendas. Finally, local, national and international
non-governmental organizations have also facili-
tated the networking and mobilization efforts and
helped link the grassroots efforts to larger calls for
policy changes. These combined efforts have helped
fill gaps in coastal communities, which otherwise
would lack science-based knowledge and modern
management skills.
For some three decades, the marine conservationist and
activist BANJONG NASAE has been at the forefront of cur-
rent affairs affecting the country’s coastal communities.
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to fishing communities that have enjoyed little of either.
299
PART III | COMMUNITY COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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300 301

HISTORIC
PRESERVATION
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“A nation’s culture resides in the hearts and the
souls of its people.” This quote by the spiritual
leader, Mahatma Gandhi, delineates the essence
of the cultural heritage of a nation-state. Historical
monuments, archaeological sites and the handing
down of traditional practices and disciplines, such
as crafting, performing and writing, are traces of the
existence of previous generations. They are integral
to the identity of a people, and they represent the
story of a nation. Thus, preservation work is not
simply about protecting one’s heritage from physical
wear and tear, but it is also about safeguarding and
promoting the communities connected to it.
In Thailand, balancing the value of the past with
constant striving for the new is a tremendous
challenge. Developers, mass tourism, cultural com-
Historic modification and a general disconnect from past tra-
preservation: ditions – in short, modernization – conspire to make
Traditionally, heritage management a field fraught with tensions.
the term “historic But over the past several decades Thailand has seen
preservation” some notable success stories that have effectively
includes four
different activi-
balanced economic, social and environmental
ties: preservation, factors in the name of cultural preservation.
rehabilitation,
restoration and Some of these, such as the ancient cities, cover
reconstruction. large-scale historic areas, while others, such as the
floating markets, cover everyday activities
from bygone days. Many of these sites and
“The value of such activities are drivers of the country’s tourism
industry, which generates as much as 7
heritage lies in
percent of GDP. Community involvement
the way of life, in such preservation work varies in form
the traditions and depending on the project or activity.
activities of the
people in that State-sponsored renovation projects at ancient
community.” cities such as Ayudhya, Sukhothai and Udon
Thani’s Ban Chiang, all of which are UNESCO
Yongtanit Pimonsathean, World Heritage Sites, create only limited, direct
lecturer in the Faculty of
community involvement because the reno-
Architecture, vation work of these protected areas relies
Thammasat University mostly on experts and technical and theo-
302
A floral installation by Wat Chaiwattanaram in Ayudhya.
retical methodologies. Villagers are hired for their
labor and can benefit from selling goods and offering
tourism-related services. In addition, the sites and
their ability to attract global travelers create a sense of
pride, history and identity for the locals.
Thailand also boasts some excellent examples of
community-based heritage conservation, such
as the Shadow Puppet Troupe of Wat Khanon in
Ratchaburi province, which won the Better Practices
in Communities’ Intangible Cultural Heritage
Revitalization by the Asia-Pacific Cultural Center for
UNESCO in 2007.
Another award-winning community is situated
around Lampang’s Wat Pongsanuk, where the young
and the old have worked with the monks to restore
the temple to its original grandeur. After saving a
venerable form of northern Thai (or “Lanna”) archi-
tecture, the project received international kudos,
including a Heritage Award of Merit from UNESCO in
2008, as an example of community-led conservation.
Yongtanit Pimonsathean, a lecturer in the Faculty of
Architecture at Thammasat University, said that at
historic sites surrounded by an active community,
the locals serve an integral role in preserving the
spirit and authenticity of the site. “The value of such
heritage lies in the way of life, the traditions and
activities of the people in that community,” he said.
Yongtanit pointed out that preserving the past is not
only a source of pride for these communities, but
also presents a number of financial benefits, such
as earning money from tourism. That’s one reason
why the residents of the rustic Sam Chuk district of
Suphanburi province agreed to use some of their
own funds to renovate the old shophouses in their
area. Collaborating with experts in architectural
conservation, the community rebuilt and reinvented
itself as an award-winning enclave of tourism.
The success of any such preservations efforts,
whether it’s the tangible heritage of timeworn
monuments or the intangible heritage of shadow
plays, can be achieved through a joint venture among
locals, academics, state agencies, artists and even
monks to determine how to manage heritage in a
way that respects not only its significance in the past,
but also creates value and meaning for the future.
Crowning Achievements
Since 1997 the Crown Property Bureau (CPB)
has been preserving some of the kingdom’s most
cherished works of architecture, from temples and
palaces to the colonial flourishes of the Oriental
Hotel’s Author’s Wing. Thus far, the CPB has con-
ducted renovations at 53 sites around the country.
The CPB’s renovation projects have four main cor-
nerstones: extensive research on the history of
the premises, examining all architectural details,
fine-tuning the renovations, and writing detailed
plans for the care and maintenance of the property.
These conservation projects are also intended
to provide learning experiences for the general
public and concerned parties who may want to
restore their own properties. With the proper per-
mission, anyone can visit these sites to consult
with the relevant specialist on the finer points of
architectural restoration.
One remarkable aspect of these prize-winning
projects is that these are not museum pieces in-
habited only by ghosts of the past. No, many of
them are fully functioning buildings with tenants.
According to Oranuch Im-Arrom, head of CPB’s
Conservation Management Department, many are
proud to reside in such celebrated abodes, which
is also the key to preserving them. “Bringing back
historic buildings to their former state of glory and
to serve people as they used to is the key to achiev-
ing sustainable preservation, while sharing this
knowledge among the general public will provide
a better understanding of architectural values and
what these buildings really mean,” said Oranuch.
303
PART III | COMMUNITY HISTORIC PRESERVATION

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304 305
 URBAN In 1988, SOMSOOK BOONYA-

DEVELOPMENT
BANCHA helped found the
Asian Coalition for Housing
Rights, a non-governmental,
regional organization that
0$'$)"ɄɄ+-*+ -Ʉ+'/!*-(Ʉ!*-Ʉ promotes the rights of
slum-dwellers and seeks to
'*2Ɲ$)*( Ʉ*((0)$/$ .Ʉ create better housing conditions
for them. Until recently she was
also the director of Thailand’s
Owing to its oversized role in the country’s politics Community Organization
and economy, Thailand’s largest urban center, Development Institute, an
Bangkok, has exercised a gravitational pull over the agency advocating for housing
rural poor who flock to the capital in search of better rights for the urban poor.
jobs, brighter lights and higher living standards.
They form the backbone of the city’s underclass and How can more socially inclusive and livable envi-
constantly increase the ranks of urban poor living in ronments be created in Bangkok for the disadvan-
some 1,000 slums across the city. taged? Urban planning should be a process through
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over by governments for improvements, further top-down approach. They need to be based on a
exacerbating Thailand’s growing divide between rich bottom-up approach that helps create a practical vision
and poor and creating a society of haves and have- for communities according to their own needs. We
nots. Instead of hope and opportunity, the slums sorely need land reform in this country and because of
breed crime, violence and substance abuse. Most are Low-income housing communities are common along Bangkok canals. UIF
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overcrowded firetraps with hovels and tin shanties often involve a fine balancing act between the needs of
for rooms, which offer little in the way of safety or The program assists communities of the capital’s were content to be passive recipients of help from landowners and informal communities that squat on their
security for slum dwellers. Many of the residents are urban poor in upgrading their living environments the government in a top-down approach. Now more MBOET
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squatters with few rights who can be evicted at any within slums through infrastructure subsidies and and more of them are seeking to help themselves IBWF
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time on short notice. housing loans. Working hand in hand with municipal through bottom-up initiatives.” landowners get to develop the more commercially valu-
authorities, experts, urban planners and non-gov- able street-front portion of a plot while squatters retain
“Creating new urban envi- ernmental organizations, enterprising slum dwellers This theme of self-empowerment runs through many the back portion for their own more modest housing
ronments must involve can take the initiative in collaborative efforts to make other initiatives in the capital that aim to help the BSSBOHFNFOUT
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developing communities in their communities more livable through the creation disadvantaged by allowing them to help themselves. win-win situation.
a humane and sustainable of better housing and public spaces. They can also The Human Development Foundation, situated in
manner,” said Somsook receive legal and technical support. the city’s biggest slum of Klong Toey, is one such What do you see as the greatest challenge in
Bunyabancha, a preeminent organization. Providing proper schooling for the creating more comfortable urban environments
housing rights advocate Set up in 2003, the agency has helped locals build offspring of slum dwellers to give them a shot at in Bangkok? #FDBVTF
PG
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with decades of experience 100,000 new homes in almost 1,500 communities as a decent future outside the slum may be its most OPNJD
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in urban planning. “Proper part of some 800 collaborative grassroots projects. renowned feature, but the foundation is really a city’s growth has been helter-skelter with little foresight
housing is extremely These projects are active not only in Bangkok but microcosm of urban woes for the less fortunate, as it and proper planning. The city has grown too fast for its
important for the sustain- also nationwide. For this bottom-up rather than also serves as an orphanage for homeless children, own good. The infrastructure of well-to-do commercial
able development of any top-down form of development to really work, the a hospice for terminally ill patients, a center for legal hubs in the city has been well developed but less prosper-
Proper housing is crucial for sustainable development. urban area.” program demands that participants take a proactive aid and a credit union for impoverished women ous areas have often been neglected. The city’s economic
approach. who can receive start-up loans for small business development has become uneven and unequal.
Somsook is one of the mas- ventures.
“Our main objective is to terminds behind the gov- “Our main objective is to empower poor people to What is the way forward for the city and its
empower poor people to deal ernment-run Community deal with their own problems,” explained Thipparat As its name suggests, the Human Development residents? We need to capture the energy of new
Organization Development Noppaladarom, CODI’s former director. “People have Foundation puts people first, a trait that is also IVNBO
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with their own problems.” Institute’s (CODI) Baan to be the principal actors behind sustainable devel- prominent in CODI’s housing projects, and addresses need to be based on our greatest asset: people.
Thipparat Noppaladarom, former Mankong (“Secure Housing”) opment projects by taking charge and ownership of the social inclusion aspect that is so integral to all
director of CODI Collective Housing program. their communities. In the past, many poor people forms of sustainable development.

306 307
PART III | COMMUNITY URBAN DEVELOPMENT

living on public land where they were UIFZ
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Collective Housing QVNQJOH
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and much better housing in what used Location: The Klong
Toey slum of Bangkok
Program set about tearing down their old shacks
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to be slums.”
Key features: Schools
History: Baan Mankong (“Secure homes with help from the Community for slum kids, a hospice for the
Housing”) Collective Housing was
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indigent urbanites in hardscrabble
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urban regeneration in low-income settle- laborers and daily-wage workers. 'PVOEBUJPO
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staff and volunteers, in abused children in the hard-up district Klong Toey is a soul beaten up but never
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collaboration with the local let them see themselves as victims by no matter what.”
community, have built or urging them to take control of their lives.
rebuilt some 10,000 homes 5P
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FILM: URBANIZED “Cities are always the physical manifes- in an increasingly urbanized world in Bangkok’s slums. 8BOOFF
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URBANIZED tations of the big forces at play – where half the world’s population of NBOBHFS
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Director: Gary Hustwit FDPOPNJD
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Release Date: 2011 SPONFOUBM
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munities is paramount. These children’s
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308 309

GREEN SPACES
Bringing nature back into
/# Ʉ0-)Ʉ%0)"'
Few laments are as commonly voiced in Bangkok as
“We need more parks!” This is often uttered soon
before or soon after “We have too many malls”
and “We have too much traffic.” The underlying
sentiment of all three protests is that Bangkokians
long for the outdoors – and the fresh air, peace and
open space it offers.
Space, proper shading and comfortable connectiv-
ity are important to a city’s sustainability. They not
Urban heat
only impact the physical and mental health of urban
island: residents, but also promote economic productivity
An urban heat
island (UHI)
as well as a sense of community.
is when a city
Unfortunately, few city residents in the world enjoy
is significantly
less public green space than Bangkokians. The City of
warmer than
the surrounding Angels has only 3 square meters of green space per
rural areas, person, making it one of the worst endowed metrop-
owing to the olises in the region. The WHO’s recommended
heat generated
standard of urban green space per capita is 16 square
by its buildings,
meters. By comparison, Kuala Lumpur has 12 square
infrastructure,
vehicles and meters of green space per capita, while Singapore
human activity. residents enjoy 66 square meters of green space
per person, thanks to decades of
proper city planning, which has
been largely absent in freewheeling
Bangkok.
Poor planning and zoning as well as
endless construction projects have
gradually denuded the city of its
greenery and led much of its once
world-famous network of canals to
be filled in, exacerbating the city’s
“urban heat island” effect. Air,
noise and nocturnal light pollution
have also taken their toll on the
capital’s livability.
The WHO’s recommended
standard of urban green Fortunately, Bangkokians are
space per capita is 16 becoming innovative with the
square meters. space they have been given.
310
Lumphini Park, Bangkok’s first green lung in the heart of the city.
With little room left for ground-level development
across much of Bangkok, there is nowhere to go
but up. The Skytrain’s shaded, open concourses
known as skywalks, for example, are now favored
over cluttered and damaged sidewalks. As new
high-rise projects sprout up in areas already densely
populated, many developers seek to compensate for
the absence of green space at ground level by going
green vertically. Rooftop gardens and landscaped
terraces are becoming increasingly common. A case
in point is the new EmQuartier mall, located in the
heart of Sukhumvit Road. The high-end shopping
center has a 3,000-square-meter indoor tropical
garden with dripping ferns, stand-alone trees, culti-
vated orchids, artificial lotus ponds and a cascading
waterfall.
Several new high-end apartment complexes,
which dot Bangkok’s skyline in towering clusters at
premium locations around town, offer alternative
green spaces in the form of sky courts, sky gardens
and landscaped terraces, which are often integrated
into the core designs of new structures. They include
such luxury private residence projects as Tropicana
Eco Green Condo in Bangna and Circle Sukhumvit 11
at the eponymous location.
The elevated architectural platforms of such
buildings may not compensate for the loss of natural
ecosystems and habitats at ground level, but they do
help add to the sum of available urban greenery. In
addition to providing some much-needed greenery
and alternative social spaces, landscaped terraces
and rooftop gardens can also help reduce ambient
temperatures and filter out the perpetual din from
the street-level bustle for the residents of hybrid
buildings.
Meanwhile, several new green spaces are about
to be opened, including Pathumvanarak Park in
the heart of the central business district and a
prototype reforestation project called Metro Forest
in the northeast district of Prawet. The latter was
developed by the energy and gas titan PTT on com-
pany-owned land. The initiative has transformed
most of the available 12 rai into a self-sustaining
native forest with its own indigenous ecosystem.
The project seeks to reconnect locals to the environ-
ment in a sustainable manner while also serving as
an example for a national reforestation campaign.
Making Bangkok greener will entail many more
similar forward-looking initiatives and more respon-
sible urban planning.
Bangkok’s Green Lungs
Bangkok is home to 6,083 sites classified as parks,
green spaces or public sites, but for all that, its
major public parks make up only 0.3 percent of
the total land area of the metropolis. However, that
doesn’t mean there are no escapes.
The city’s first and most famous major park is
the sprawling yet well-manicured Lumpini Park.
Created in 1920 by Rama VI, the park boasts an ar-
tificial lake, 2.5 kilometers of paths for jogging and
walking, and numerous playgrounds.
One of the city’s most gorgeous and popular islands
of greenery is the Chatuchak Discovery Garden. This
oasis of green space and fresh air, made up of three
interlinking public parks (Chatuchak, Queen Sirikit
and Rot Fai), is situated on a total of 112 hectares. It
boasts an inviting patchwork of well-tended lawns,
scenic fields, lotus and lily ponds, shady woods,
botanical gardens, nature trails, bicycle lanes
and exercise areas. The garden supports its own
mini-ecosystem that comes complete with squirrels,
monitor lizards and exotic birds.
Across town, Rama IX Garden features an 80-
hectare expanse of greenery with an artificial lake,
picturesque walkways, Zen gardens, pavilions and
playgrounds. In between, a series of smaller parks
and green spaces – Sanam Luang, Suan Somdet Ya,
Santi Phap, Bang Kachao, Benchasiri – are play-
grounds for nature lovers, picnickers and joggers
alike.
311
PART III | COMMUNITY GREEN SPACES

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312 313
PART III | COMMUNITY GREEN SPACES

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spaces around the world. parts of the modern cityscape.

314 315
PRIVATE SECTOR
ENTERPRISE
Sustainable Business
Green Buildings
Alternative Energy
Green Manufacturing
A sustainable world is only a utopian
Ethical Sourcing fantasy without the cooperation of the
private sector. As the driver of develop-
Waste Management
ment, the incubator of ideas, the maker
Sustainable Tourism of products, the investor in innovation,
an employer and trainer of human re-
Social Enterprise sources and a provider of services, the
private sector touches all of our lives in
Restaurants direct and indirect ways.
Thus the private sector holds both
Green Finance and Banking the potential and the responsibility to
drive sustainable development. A sin-
Indices gle company can have the impact of a
thousand households, through greener
Countering Corruption manufacturing practices, investment
in energy efficiency, sensitive labor
practices, better waste management
or procurement policies that reward
companies who also believe in sustain-
able development. Toshiba, one of the
leading electronic manufacturers in
the world, has built a green factory in
Thailand that has cut down emissions
by 75 percent. Mitr Phol, one of the
largest sugar producers in the world,
has revolutionized waste-to-energy
technology and implementation, while
amply demonstrating the profitability
of such innovations.
In addition, by integetating the
principles of the Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy into their business practic-
es after the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis,
Thai firms – and the private sector in
general – has been able to weather sev-
eral global economic downturns.
Of course, money talks and competi-
tion and shareholders demand that firms
focus on profits. But studies increasingly
reveal that those companies that con-
sider the “triple bottom line” of envi-
ronmental impact, social wellbeing and
good governance, commonly known as
ESG, perform better over the long term.
Indeed, new indices that measure
this success are increasingly taken into
“If all businesses focus only on enlarging
their profits, that means they are running
their businesses irresponsibly and have
exploitative business practices. Without
‘right view’ and ‘right intention,’ they
cannot sustain their prosperity.”
Venerable Phra Shakyavongsvisuddhi, a Thai monk
account by investors, and capital is
flowing into sustainable development
initiatives such as alternative energy
projects. In Thailand, banks are allocat-
ing profits to provide seed money for
green ventures. Such small businesses,
from independently owned restaurants
in Bangkok to coffee farms in Mae
Hong Son, are also influencing the way
the public views consumption, inspir-
ing them to recycle, to buy local and to
be responsible consumers. In the travel
business, some boutique tour operators
and eco-lodges take environmental
protection seriously, employ locals and
promote traditional cultures to travelers.
Business is finally realizing that it
cannot be a bystander, that it must take
a leadership role in improving society
as a whole, that it is indeed not sepa-
rate from society or the environment at
all but dependent on their sustainable
development.
 SUSTAINABLE
BUSINESS
The advantages of moving
from CSR to CSV
In the past, companies either thought of sustainabil-
ity as a luxury or as a temporary answer to activists’
accusations of poor social and environmental per-
formance. However, as stakeholders push and pull
enterprises in different directions and unforeseen
events temporarily disrupt operations, some busi-
nesses have gradually come to see sustainability as
a core tool for their survival and growth in today’s
complex economy.

In Thailand, for example, the great flood of 2011

cost domestic businesses US$45.7 billion and
created shortages in the global supply chains of
several industries. Thailand’s fishing industry has lost
business from developed countries due to human
trafficking uncovered in its labor pool. Rising social
and environmental movements around the globe
underscore both the urgency and magnitude of
these problems. Business leaders are recognizing that
their own unsustainable business practices directly
affect the environment, place burdens on society,
and ultimately add to the cost of business itself.
Sustainable business should not be confused with
corporate social responsibility, or CSR. CSR initiatives
assess and take responsibility for a company’s impact
on the environment and social welfare. The concept
began with companies merely striving
to be “responsible corporate citizens”
A business that operates by paying taxes and complying with
on the principle laws. Today, CSR has evolved into
of sustainable companies acting as “good corporate
citizens” through philanthropy. In
development incor- contrast, a business that operates on
porates long-term, the principle of sustainable develop-
strategic planning that ment incorporates long-term, strategic
pairs business growth planning that pairs business growth
with positive envi- with positive environmental and
social continuity based on fairness
ronmental and social and equity. In other words, they make
continuity based on sustainability part of the core of their
fairness and equity. operational mission.
Effective logistics management is part of sustainable business.
Since the beginning of the 21st century, in addition to
integrating the concepts of sustainable development
throughout their supply chains, their labor practices
and the very products they create, some companies
have increasingly tapped into Michael E. Porter and
Mark R. Kramer’s idea of “creating shared value” (CSV)
as a way to enhance competitiveness while advancing
economic and social value. Now, CSV is seen as
another tool to make business more sustainable (see
sidebar for examples).
Business can create shared value in three distinct
ways: First, it can reevaluate its products and
markets. Targeting the unsolved social needs of the
billions of customers in developing countries at the
Bottom of the Pyramid, or “BOP”, can provide both
substantial profits and societal benefits. Companies
such as Unilever, GE and Vodaphone have used
innovative approaches to add value to their business
while reaching the BOP.
The second way to create shared value is to redefine
productivity. Issues within long and complex supply
chains often increase costs to business, as well as
to society and environment. Areas of opportunity
include energy efficiency in processes and logistics,
recycling and reusing resources, improving pro-
curement by increasing supplier access to inputs,
updating technology and financing, revamping
distribution channels, and engaging employees to
increase their productivity.
Finally, building supportive clusters around the
company creates shared value. The deficiencies
of any party in the cluster – such as partner firms,
suppliers, public assets and logistical infrastructure –
add to the cost of business. Companies should
enable fair and open markets, give suppliers incen-
tives for quality and efficiency, improve the sourcing
practices and labor standards of local communities,
and address gaps or issues surrounding the cluster.
More and more, companies are starting to see the
“sound business” argument for CSV and sustain-
ability. While increasing eco-efficiency offers both
financial and marketing benefits, corporate risk is
reduced by better management of sustainability
challenges. Products that draw on sustainabil-
ity concerns are also becoming more profitable
and popular with the public. Sustainability is not a
luxury, but a way to overcome challenges and create
winning business opportunities.

318 319
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS

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320 321
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS

to cut the costs of importing it and DFNFOU
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How the Business Sector is Integrating “Sufficiency Thinking”
cement during a vital time in the devel- its triple bottom line in its production mentally friendly product label called Sustainable development actions in the private sector are often inspired by the Sufficiency
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Economy Philosophy (SEP) principles. Most of these actions were taken after the 1997
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further risks. The king’s SEP provided a perfect framework to apply to both small and large
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companies in Thailand.
product life-cycle assessment ensures
their products have minimal environ- Government and non-government organizations have also sought to support SEP’s
mental impact. integration into corporate policy, value chains and governance through contests that
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reward companies for their best practices or through the creation of new industry stan-
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dards that firms can achieve. For example, the Office of the Royal Development Projects Board
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(RDPB) organizes two national contests to identify Sufficiency Economy businesses. The
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The first-time winners among large, medium and small businesses were SCG, Chumporn
which features an earthquake-safe Cabana Resort and Nithi Foods, respectively. The second-time winners were Bangchak
Petroleum, Bathroom Design and Porntip Phuket, respectively.
The RDPB, Thailand Research Fund, the Thai Chamber of Commerce and the Board of Trade
BCP: Creating Shared Value in Thailand of Thailand have also supported Mahidol University to develop a sustainability business
standard called “Sufficiency Economy Business Standard.” This standard is now being used
Bangchak Petroleum Plc, Thailand’s second-largest gas station operator, launched its gas station by agencies such as the RDPB, the Thailand Sustainable Development Foundation and Thai
franchise model specifically for agricultural co-ops in 1990. With co-investment between BCP Credit Guarantee Corporation as a tool to promote the adoption of SEP among business
and co-ops, the gas stations allow all co-op members to jointly own a business and an opportu- people. It is a standard available at no charge.
nity to receive an annual dividend. In addition, BCP strives to support community members to
become business owners and facilitates their education on how to operate a business. Members The Ministry of Industry has introduced an industrial standard called Industrial Standard No.
also receive a discount for oil products. By sharing profits and dividends with the gas station, 9999 to Thai industries. It is developed based on the SEP with an aim to promote sustainability
communities have seen improved income distribution. in the nation. Meanwhile, the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board
has established a network of large Thai companies such as SCG, PTT Group, Bangchak Petro-
Moreover, the model enhances BCP’s access to customers in provinces. The co-op gas stations leum and Toshiba to implement SEP with their trade partners throughout their value chains.
are centers of educating communities about renewable products such as gasohol and biodiesel. All of these actions are helping to promote not only the king’s ideas but also the principles of
In 2014, there were 580 BCP gas stations operated by agricultural co-ops. They contributed 27 sustainable development. The success of such practices among some companies is dispelling
percent of annual petrol sales to the company. the myth that maximizing short-term shareholder value should be the top priority.

322 323
 GREEN
BUILDINGS
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Eco-buildings are gradually gaining ground in
Thailand. Since 2007, when Thailand earned its first
LEED certification for a manufacturing plant of the
multinational carpet maker InterfaceFLOR, green
buildings have been cropping up. The greening of
buildings has not been limited to factories. Eco-
friendly structures have been commissioned by
myriad institutions, from schools (International
School Bangkok’s Cultural Center) and foreign gov-
ernments (USAID’s Regional Development Mission
for Asia) to Thailand’s blue-chip companies (PTT’s
Energy Complex and SCG’s 100th Year Building).
These buildings are designed (inside and out) to
operate on key sustainability principles, including
energy efficiency, reduction of waste and greenhouse
gas emissions, and water conservation. They are built
with careful consideration of materials and local envi-
ronment. Utility, practicality and comfort are also
important factors because a green office must also be
a healthy office for its workaday inhabitants.
Today, about a hundred certifiably green structures
dot the country, from a Toyota showroom in Nakhon
Ratchasima province to a 7-Eleven outlet in Bangkok,
to a six-story KASIKORNBANK Learning Center in
Chachoengsao province, as well as the Thai Health
Promotion Foundation Office. Partly driving the
trend are companies branding themselves as eco-
LEED, or friendly. When a conglomerate like SCG, whose core
Leadership in businesses have environmental impacts, sells “green
Energy and
products,” their headquarters becomes a part of
Environmental
Design: their brand and corporate image.
The world’s lead-
ing certification Meanwhile, just as the internationally recog-
program for nized LEED certification program by the United
green buildings. States’ Green Building Council has been gathering
To be LEED cer- momentum in Thailand, the kingdom’s own Thailand
tified, buildings Green Building Institute (TGBI) is offering a domestic
must meet strict
criteria laid out equivalent for eco-friendly certification: the TREES
by the US Green system. Since the TGBI was founded in 2009, 16
Building Council. buildings have been certified by TREES.
324
Green building practices are increasingly critical
when you consider that shopping malls, com-
mercial buildings and apartments are among the
three biggest energy users in the business sector,
according to the Thai Climate Justice Working Group.
When you combine all of these in Thailand, they
consume more energy per year than the entire
nations of Cambodia and Laos put together. Working
at optimum efficiency, green buildings use up to
50 percent less energy and 60 percent less potable
water. They produce 70 percent less solid wastes
and emit 35 percent less CO2 . During construction,
companies also save money by cutting waste by up
to 80 percent. Whether starting small by refitting an
The LEED Platinum–certified ThaiHealth Center incorporates green building technology with international standards and follows the concept of “small is beautiful.”
office with energy-saving light bulbs or designing a
whole new building, the money saved on water and
electricity can be significant over the long term.
In Asian countries such as Thailand, McGraw Hill Towering Examples of Sustainability
Construction estimates that companies with green
buildings can save around 21 percent on operating
costs over 5 years with new buildings, and 13 percent
on buildings renovated to be more eco-friendly. This
means that the return on investment for such struc-
tures is approximately 7 years, faster than in many
Western countries where construction costs are sig-
nificantly higher. Over time, these savings will defray
the exorbitant costs of constructing such monuments
to sustainability. SCG’s 100th Year Building, for
example, set the company back 3.5 billion baht, much
more than a normal building of this size.
1. PTT’s Energy Complex 2. KASIKORNBANK’s 3. Park Ventures Ecoplex,
Learning Center
Owners of green buildings enjoy an additional is the first building in Southeast Asia another LEED Platinum green building
incentive: they can charge higher rents. The Park to be awarded LEED Platinum status. in Chachoengsao province earned a in Bangkok, boasts a design that simu-
Ventures Ecoplex, a landmark building in Bangkok, In 2011 it took first prize in the New score of 10 out of 10 in Water Effi- lates two hands pressed together in the
charges 1,100 baht per square meter per month & Existing Building Category at the ciency, 24 out of 26 in Sustainable traditional wai greeting.
while normal buildings charge about 800 baht. This ASEAN Energy Awards. Sites, and 4 out of 6 in Innovation,
trend would surely wither, though, if people did among other LEED categories.
not enjoy working in green buildings. The specially
coated and insulated glass panels help reduce sound,
light and heat absorption at the Park Ventures Shopping malls, commercial buildings and apartments in Thailand consume more energy
Ecoplex, creating an enjoyable place to work. per year than the entire nations of Cambodia and Laos put together.
325
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR GREEN BUILDINGS

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with solar-reflective tiles that nonstop use of air conditioners that ■ Newly installed water-saving appliances can help water
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326 327
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR GREEN BUILDINGS

Certification Programs at Home and Abroad

Eco-buildings range across evaluates newly constructed eco-friendly build-
A pioneer of ecological design in Thailand, SINGH INTRACHOOTO is head of the Building Innovation and Technology a spectrum of shades of ings around the country. It is based on the inter-
Program at Bangkok’s Kasetsart University and serves as design principal at OSISU, the country’s leading eco-design green and are classified ac- national LEED system and likewise considers a
production house. Singh received Elle Décor’s Designer of the Year award in 2007 and won the Top Environmentalist cordingly. Their rankings wide range of similar criteria, such as building
award from Thailand’s Department of the Environment in 2008. are based on their degrees management, use of renewable energy sources
of compliance. The premier and water conservation practices. In total, 64
What considerations should development within ASEAN and global green building cer- buildings in Thailand have been certified by
architects and developers bear in in the larger world? "EWPDBUFT
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taking up yet more space by con- scale of points: Certified (40–49 points), Silver
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or a building that could endure the
Publisher: Simon & Schuster/TED looks at some of the most original harshest ice storms on earth or
Year: 2015 edifices in the world that are pushing provide shelter on the moon for a
the barriers of building design. future colony of humans.
Drawing on his background as an 'PS
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in mind. this book is full of architectural
These cutting-edge structures wonders that are both down-to-earth
Solar panels attached to a roof to save energy. Office wall decoration made of recycled paper. will redefine how most of us look at and fantastical.

328 329
 ALTERNATIVE
ENERGY
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While fossil fuels grow scarcer and more expensive
to extract, Thailand is making efforts to wean the
country off of its fuel dependency. While some
forward-thinking businesses are taking advantage of
this trend toward alternative energy to cut down on
their own energy costs, some investors are cashing
in on highly incentivized opportunities to produce
clean energy.
Thailand was one of the first Asian countries to
implement a feed-in tariff, or “adder” program,
incentivizing renewable energy development.
Thailand’s adder program offers renewable energy
producers long-term contracts to sell electricity at
A windmill power plant in Thailand.
attractive rates. Companies that generate power
through biomass, biogas, hydro, solar, wind and
waste energy are eligible for the adder program. megawatts (MW). That figure could double in 2015
Incentives like these to switch to renewables remain to about 2,600 MW. Although this is still small
vital for Thailand’s energy sector, but alternative compared to global solar leaders like Germany and
energies may soon be able to stand on their own in China, Thailand maintains its position as the solar
the marketplace. powerhouse of the region, producing more than the
rest of ASEAN combined.
In Thailand, solar is emerging
as the lead alternative energy However, there are other renewable technologies
industry as the technology to at play, too. A solar thermal plant is in operation in
cost-effectively harness the Kanchanaburi, and windmills are being tested in
clean, renewable energy from various parts of the country, as are small hydro appli-
the sun continually improves. cations. Biogas, biomass and biofuel also present
Although the price for photo- huge potential. The concept of using agricultural
voltaic technology was once waste as a resource offers multiple avenues for
astronomical, the price of profit: not only is it useful for power generation, but
solar has tumbled from nearly it also provides waste management solutions and
$75 (2,550 baht) per watt in produces other “clean” materials such as fertilizers,
Jatropha curcas is used to produce ethanol. 1972 to less than 70 cents chemicals and plastics (see “Biofuels: A Natural Fit for
(24 baht) in 2014. Today the Thailand” sidebar).
use of solar is growing faster
Thailand’s adder program than any other power source One of Thailand’s leading green energy producers,
offers renewable energy worldwide. Bangchak Petroleum, has announced a six-year, 90
billion baht business plan with a significant focus
producers long-term Solar supplied about 4 percent on environmentally sustainable power plants and
contracts to sell electricity of power production in 2014 renewable energy. Bangchak already operates a solar
at attractive rates. in Thailand at roughly 1,300 farm that produces 38 MW of electricity.
330
Costs are the biggest challenges for alternative
energies, as all production systems, technologies
and infrastructure to connect to the national power
grid require large upfront investments and can take
decades to pay for themselves. Every form of alter-
native energy also comes with its own set of chal-
lenges: solar and wind power require vast tracts of
land, gasohol and ethanol require gas stations that
distribute fuel, and all alternative energies require
structural investments to connect them to the power
grid. However, perhaps the biggest challenge is lack
of imagination and enthusiasm on the part of the
public.
Steps can be taken to help promote the proliferation
of alternative energies. Technological improvements
increasing productivity and lowering cost will drive
private sector investment. Banks offering green loans
can help fill the financing gap for alternative energy
projects, especially for small- to medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs). Policy frameworks such as tax
holidays and feed-in tariffs can boost business.
Finally, raising public awareness about the cost,
health and environmental benefits of “clean” energy
will create a groundswell of demand that will shift
the goals and operations of the supply side.
The Energy Conservation Fund
Thailand’s Energy Conservation Fund (ENCON
Fund) is an innovative way to fund alternative
energy projects. Instituted in 1992, the ENCON
Fund is sourced from a levy against petroleum
products, the rate of which is established by the
prime minister. As of 2015, the rate stood at $0.002
per liter. Annually, it generates around 7 billion baht,
making it capable of significant achievements in
sustainable energy development.
Through the levy on petroleum products, the
ENCON Fund operates under the “polluter pays”
principle. The government can effectively influ-
ence fossil fuel pricing (and usage) depending on
the levy rate imposed, and guarantee a source of
funding for energy efficiency programs. The Energy
Conservation Promotion Act requires the ENCON
Fund Committee to administer the funds, keeping
it separate from the annual government budget al-
location system. The Ministry of Energy presides
over administrative matters relating to money and
fund disbursement.
Every five years, the committee establishes a con-
servation program to serve as a guideline for utili-
zation of the ENCON Fund. The fund has also helped
develop programs like Thailand’s ESCO venture
capital scheme, the renewable energy feed-in tariff
scheme, the provision of tax incentives for energy ef-
ficiency projects, and various grant programs. Given
its large budget, how the ENCON Fund is managed
will likely play a large role in whether the govern-
ment can achieve its energy efficiency targets under
the Energy Efficiency Development Plan (EEDP).
331
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR
Solar Power
Company Group
(SPCG)

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CEO Wandee Khunchornyakong,

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electricity. That figure is set to increase
yet again this year.
This growth is due to government

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Top: A Kyocera and SPCG joint venture. Bottom: Solar prices from different energy producers.
332
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
alternative energy and to forward-
thinking investors. One important
person who fostered that growth is
self-made businesswoman Wandee
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largest solar power firm.
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Wandee got into solar development
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utility-scale solar farms. Kyocera agreed

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million solar panels for the project.
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and connected to the utility grid.
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smaller adders. XIFSF
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Wandee made large-scale solar as a roofing product that generates elec-
development in Thailand possible by USJDJUZ
produce energy for its own consumption.
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award for “transforming Thailand’s
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and stimulating economic growth in
Thailand’s impoverished northeast where
the solar farms were built.
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confidence in solar farms because of
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striving for alternative energies to fulfill
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abroad.
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A solar rooftop panel in one of Thailand’s
upcountry regions.
333
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

Biofuels: A Natural Fit for Thailand

Architect, professor, solar-home owner and environmentally concerned citizen SOONTORN BOONYATIKARN talks Biofuels are emerging as an alternative energy
about Thailand’s need to conserve energy. solution for Thailand. Often associated with
biomass and biogas, biofuel can be a confusing
alternative energy potential in Thai border. Water management is concept. Here’s a quick breakdown of the key
Thailand? 'PS
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number two. We need to learn to elements:
are the most viable. Thailand has a DPOTFSWF
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tise for business. natural product other than fossil fuels. This can
panels on your roof and then you can include biomass or biogas.
forget about them and 15 years later What is your favorite sustainable
they are still producing power. building in Bangkok? The govern- BIOGAS: A specific form of biofuel made from the
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decay of organic matter to produce a gaseous fuel
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designed the building.) BIOMASS: The organic matter – such as animal
solar house you built 12 years QPUFOUJBM
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tenance. Thailand needs to manufac- What is your favorite environ- – that can be converted to energy. Biomass can
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ture windmills locally and save a lot mentally friendly city?
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tion into a biofuel, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
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there are others that are better. Biomass can also be turned directly into energy
need to consider their consumption What other environmental by incineration or combustion.
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concerns standout in Thailand? Do you consider yourself an envi-
install solar panels. :PV
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ronmentalist?

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Using waste to generate power is a logical strategy A Thai worker fills a container with used vegetable oil before it is
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who is very concerned about the for sustainable development in Thailand, where processed to be used as biodiesel.
Do you think solar offers the most The area without trees marks the environment. a massive agricultural sector creates millions of
tons of waste each year. Farms and other waste 10 percent of the total value of biomass. The use
producers can now sell their refuse as feedstock of integrated technologies for turning biomass
and generate more profit. into other materials, such as bioplastics, fertil-
izers, animal feed, and chemicals, can increase
However, even with abundant waste resources, this to 70 to 80 percent. Rubber wood refuse, for
biofuel plants in Thailand face several challeng- example, was once used to create particleboard.
es: as higher demand drives the price of feedstock Today, it can be ground into a powder and used
THE TIMES THEY ARE This important and timely book looks will power the economy of a shrinking up, biofuel becomes less profitable, the variabil- to form a biodegradable, plastic-like material.
A CHANGIN’ at the changing global economy and XPSME
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SF- ity in the quality of feedstock poses operational Such bioplastics are already being used to create
THE GREAT TRANSITION: SHIFTING how it is forcing a shift from coal and TUSVDUVSJOH
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and cost risks, and the variability in the quality consumer products such as plastic cutlery and
FROM FOSSIL FUELS TO SOLAR AND fossil fuels to clean power. the authors write. of technology can lower production or increase straws. Biomass can be composted and enhanced
WIND ENERGY The research comes from envi- (PWFSONFOU
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maintenance costs. to create fertilizer, while the sugars from decaying
Authors: Lester R. Brown, Janet Larsen, J. SPONFOUBM
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plant refuse can be rendered into building-block
Matthew Roney, Emily E. Adams BOE
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market forces “favoring both solar Alternative fuels to power vehicles, on the other chemicals used in manufacturing, agriculture
Year: 2015 *OTUJUVUF
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and wind energy” have become hand, face even bigger challenges. Alternative and more.
book argues that the shift to renew- even more influential. Now this fuels are often mixed with gasoline, making them
ables is being forced by three things: shift is happening much faster than vulnerable to oil price instability. However, the In addition to biofuels, the creation of bioplas-
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Thai government is supporting the development tics and other raw materials presents a massive
a growing acceptance that climate environmentalists. of alternative fuels. The Ministry of Energy has economic and labor opportunity for Thailand.
change is real and accelerating. $IBQUFS
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set targets to increase Thailand’s alternative fuel A growing, labor-intensive industry of turning
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sightful history of solar energy from for energy-crop power production, which are the economy, as well as provide more employ-
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go far in displacing the fossil economy entirely.
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Finally, biomass offers opportunities for Thailand Thus, biomass is not only about power; it may
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is an important book about global beyond the energy sector. With current techno- also prove a key strategy for Thailand’s sustain-
is a long-lasting change for how we FDPOPNJDT
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334 335
 GREEN
MANUFACTURING
++*-/0)$/$ .Ʉ&)*&Ʉ
/Ʉ!/*-4Ʉ**-.Ʉ
Making products with a low environmental impact
such as energy-efficient light bulbs, additive-free
foods, or toys made from wood rather than plastic is
often referred to as “green manufacturing.” However,
in the broader context of private sector industry,
“green manufacturing” means the application of
“green processes” to all types of manufacturing –
processes that reduce energy and waste on a pro-
duction line, for example, or industrial designs that
allow the use of sustainable raw materials.
Green manufacturing differs slightly from the more
general term of “green industry” because not all
industries are concerned with manufacturing. Yet in
Thailand, which has nationally adopted green man-
ufacturing principles under the Green Industry (GI)
Program, manufacturing generates around a third of
the kingdom’s gross domestic product and around
three-quarters of its exports.
Green manufacturing is especially concerned with
reducing the materials, energy and waste consumed
by manufacturing processes to minimize environ-
mental impacts while maximizing the efficient use of
resources. A comprehensive approach to green man-
ISO 14001: ufacturing takes into account the entire lifecycle of
The key standard a product: from the design and procurement stages,
within the ISO the manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and

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14000 series, a customer use of the product, all the way up to the

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set of environ- “remanufacturing” stage, or the recovery, reuse and
mental standards recycling of products.
released by the
International
Organization In the face of increasing consumer demand and
for Standard- regulatory pressure for sustainably manufactured


ization. ISO products – especially in Thailand’s key export

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140001 defines markets of the EU and the US, which have stringent


the requirements environmental standards – Thai industry leaders and

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for an adequate government authorities see the “greening” of man-

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environmental
management ufacturing here as a means to safeguard the existing
system (EMS) sector and to ensure its sustainable growth.
implemented by
any company. Several Thailand-based manufacturers have already

JODMVEJOH
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manufacturing initiatives.
336
Quality control is crucial for green manufacturing.
manufacturing methods can help companies “future-
proof” their operations against the potentially more
expensive costs that could arise from future environ-
mental regulations, such as penalties for high energy
consumption. Green manufacturers also stand to cash
in on rewards for low emissions.
In Thailand, focusing on the carbon footprint of a
product or product chain has already presented
SCG packaging paper is certified by the Forest Stewardship Council. forward-thinking Thai companies with an opportu-
nity to develop and market low-carbon products.
taken the lead in green manufacturing. The Siam outlay. A recent study of green manufacturing by Measures to reduce that footprint on the manufac-
Cement Group (SCG) and export food company Brahmanand Mohanty of Bangkok’s Asia Institute of turing side can include redesigning products to make
Amphol Food Processing are among growing Technology highlighted how the reduction of a man- low-carbon versions with similar functions, or recon-
numbers of Thai companies that have implemented ufacturer’s carbon footprint can reduce costs and figuring a supply chain to reduce carbon emissions at
programs under the ISO 14001 standard to ensure waste. The study also pointed out that adopting green key stages.
that any environmental impacts are monitored and
improved. The related idea of “lean” manufacturing –
a system of waste reduction – is used by companies
such as Toyota and Toshiba in their Thai factories.
Green manufacturing has been promoted in the
private sector in Thailand as national policy since
2011 as part of the 11th National Economic and Social THE JOURNEY 5IF
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of Industry’s Green Industry Program, which aims Director: Rob van Hattum PG
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model village in rural China.
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manufacturing can pose significant initial costs, XBTUFT
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the long-term costs to more than cover the initial BSDIJUFDUVSF
337
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR GREEN MANUFACTURING

biomass gasification waste-to-energy

Toshiba Plan Toys QMBOU
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Semiconductor History: Founded in to its toy factory at a cost of more than

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1981
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64
year on energy consumption. The factory
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opened in Thailand 1969 "U
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338 339
 ETHICAL
SOURCING
).0-$)"Ʉ.0./$)$'$/4Ʉ/#-*0"#Ʉ
/# Ʉ.0++'4Ʉ#$)Ʉ
Companies that follow the principle of ethical
sourcing ensure that their products are sourced,
manufactured and supplied without exploiting
people or the environment. In the private sector,
ethical sourcing policies are developed by some
companies to verify transparency in each link of
their supply chain, assuring customers that ethical
standards are being upheld. This is important not
only for public image and customer satisfaction, but
also because the behavior of suppliers and partners
can pose risk to a business’s operations and viability.
Ethical issues can arise from almost any aspect at
any stage of a supply chain – from the sourcing of
food, raw materials or components, to factory pay
rates and working conditions; from industrial waste
disposal, to transport, packaging and delivery.
Ideally, an effective ethical sourcing policy ensures
that all the materials and services that go into making
a company’s finished products are created in safe
facilities by workers who are treated well and are
fairly paid, and with regard to environmental sustain-
ability. Working to enhance transparency throughout
the supply chain not only mitigates risk, but also lifts
communities out of poverty.
Some of the modern concepts of ethical sourcing
Fair trade: have origins in the “fair trade” movement, which
An international
trading practice
that aims to
lift suppliers
(mostly farmers
in developing
countries) out of
poverty through
giving a fair price
for commodities,
cutting out the
middle man, and
verifying fair
labor conditions
and environmen- Thanks to ethical sourcing, a paper manufacturer guarantees tree
tal sustainability. farmers a fair price for timber.
340
Eucalyptus trees from agroforestry in Kanchanaburi are used for paper.
gained global influence in the 1970s with a focus on
fair crop prices for farmers in developing countries.
Fair trade concepts helped inspire many global
ethical sourcing initiatives, including the Fairtrade
International certification program, one of the best
known in the field. Non-governmental organizations
such as Oxfam have campaigned for many decades
to highlight ethical sourcing issues and to develop
sustainable trade-based aid programs.
A growing number of consumers worldwide expect
the companies they buy from to behave ethically,
spawning an “ethical consumerism” movement.
These kinds of consumers prefer brands with
agreeable ethical standards, known as “positive
buying,” or they may adopt a “moral boycott” by
refusing to buy products from companies they see as
ethically harmful.
In recent years, ethical consumer movements have
focused on issues such as the safety of globally
sourced food products – highlighted by China’s con-
taminated baby milk scandal in 2008 – and on wages
and workplace conditions in developing countries,
including the Asian electronics factories where Apple
digital products are built. Thailand’s fishing industry
has recently come under international scrutiny for
sourcing ingredients for its products from trawlers
using what some observers say is tantamount to
slave labor.
Increasingly complex, global chains of supply and
manufacture mean that raw materials and compo-
nents are often sourced from different parts of the
world with widely differing standards for the protec-
tion of workers and the environment. With so much
potential for risk to be introduced at any stage, one of
the most common mistakes of companies with multi-
tier supply chains is failing to look below the first tier.
Although transparency can be hard to manage
at deeper levels of a multi-tier supply chain, it is
imperative for a truly ethical business. While many
companies make efforts to eliminate risk on tier one
(the direct suppliers) of the supply chain, audits show
that a greater number of environmental and social
risks are found deeper down the supply chain on tier
two or three. What’s more, the risks found on deeper
tiers are more critical than the risks found on the first
tier. Sedex, a nonprofit organization dedicated to
improving ethical business practices in global supply
chains, recently found that tier two on the supply
Mulberry leaves for feeding silkworms.
A growing number of
consumers worldwide
expect the companies they
buy from to behave ethically.
chain posed 18 percent more risk issues than the first
tier; however, only a third of companies globally seek
transparency below the first level.
While managing transparency through a far-reaching
supply chain can be tricky, there are various manage-
ment systems to ensure ethical sourcing on all levels,
even sub-tiers. Companies are encouraged to use
and monitor data from deeper in the supply chain to
mitigate risk, including site visits and audits to gather
information. Hiring third-party supply chain consul-
tants can identify ethical chinks in a supply chain,
and pooling information with direct suppliers can
help assess problems further down the chain.
Although ethically sourced materials and workplaces
usually pose additional costs to a company, a pro-
gressive ethical sourcing policy has been shown to
have a strong positive influence on consumers who
are willing to pay higher prices for ethical products.
Thailand already boasts several successful examples
of flagship “green” and ethical companies, such as
Plan Toys in southern Thailand and the Jim Thompson
Thai Silk Company, both of which have put their sus-
tainable and ethical sourcing policies at the heart of
their commercial branding to powerful effect.
341
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR ETHICAL SOURCING

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FAIR TRADE GOES NUTS

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THE LUCKIEST NUT IN THE WORLD
Director: Emily James
Release Date: 2002

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Crack’em!” campaign. A newly built education center in Chiang Mai supported by Starbucks’ ethical sourcing coffee program. Coffee grown under CAFE Practices.

342 343

WASTE
MANAGEMENT
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2$/#Ʉ()4Ʉ0. .Ʉ
Modern ideas of sustainable waste management
involve a reevaluation of the concept of “waste”
itself. Even a generation ago, in Thailand as in the
rest of the world, most waste was destined only to be
dumped or burned – a legacy that persists today as
hazardous dump sites and polluted waterways dot
the countryside, and residents still raise a stink about
the sporadic fires in garbage dumps.
Bagasse: But for this generation and those to come, the
The dry, pulpy concepts of waste and waste management have
residue left after a whole new meaning. Waste is now seen as a
the extraction of potential source of valuable resources, whether as
juice from sugar processed materials that can be reused or recycled,
cane, used as raw materials for factory processes, or fuel for
fuel for electricity
generators, etc. power generation, which can offset the demand for
fossil fuels. The concept of “waste as resources” has
already been put to good use in the private sector,
as businesses across Thailand develop effective and
even profitable ways to manage their waste.
The disposal of waste from industrial processes in
Thailand is governed by relatively strict environmen-
Wat Larn Kuad, meaning “temple built of a million bottles,” in Si Saket province.
Waste is now seen as a potential source of valuable
resources, whether as processed materials that can
be reused or recycled, raw materials for factory
processes, or fuel for power generation.
344
A man sells used machine parts, mostly from engines, in Bangkok.
tal laws and overseen by several government depart-
ments. Hazardous wastes that can’t be recycled or
reused, including “biohazard” wastes from hospitals
and clinics, are either incinerated or stored in secure
waste facilities designed to stop pollutants leaking
into the environment. But municipal waste – mainly
from households, shops and markets – is not subject
to such strict controls or costs, and the false classi-
fication of industrial waste as municipal waste is a
recurrent problem.
The hundreds, perhaps thousands, of illegal dumping
sites dotted around Thailand are subject to similar
dangers. To their credit, Thailand’s authorities have
vowed better enforcement of the existing laws on
industrial waste and tighter controls on municipal
waste, coupled with efforts to build awareness of the
dangers of illegal dumping and the benefits of safe
waste management. Such measures will take time.
In recent years there has been a sharp increase in
“e-waste” – digital electronic detritus such as old
cellphones, computers, laptops, batteries, televisions,
cameras and printers. E-waste can contain small
amounts of valuable minerals and components, but
also toxic materials. A local industry has sprung up
in some “e-waste villages” in northeast Thailand to
process e-waste imported from overseas in shipping
containers. While valuable materials and compo-
nents are recovered and sold, the unprofitable waste
from these village ventures has been piling up at
local dumps, where subsequent tests have found
hazardous levels of lead and arsenic. New laws to
regulate e-waste in Thailand are due to come into
force in 2015.
Modern waste-to-energy technologies offer the
promise of near “zero waste” industrial processes and
a partial solution to Thailand’s problems. Waste-to-
energy power plants are already well established in
Thailand, producing power for factory processes and
electricity primarily from renewable biomass sources
such as rice husks and bagasse waste from milling
sugar cane. Biopower plants that use methane gas
from waste and bioethanol fuel are also being
implemented.
The outlook for sustainable waste management in
Thailand is hopeful, offering potential solutions for
a number of environmental issues, including the
reduction of pollution and landfill sites, while
generating more renewable energy.
Recycling Outside the Box
Tetra Pak packaging – the coated paper cartons
used extensively as aseptic packaging for drinks
and other foodstuffs – is one of the most successful
packaging innovations of our time, with more than
50 billion Tetra Pak–packaged products made each
year in more than 170 countries.
But Tetra Pak technology is not perfect: the plastic-
or aluminum-coated paper cartons can’t be recycled
through the usual processes, and only a quarter
of the packaging is recycled worldwide. The rest
mainly ends up in landfills and dumps.
Since the 1980s, the company has worked hard to
develop its recycling efforts and it now operates
more than 100 specialized recycling factories
around the world, including a plant near Bangkok.
The first in Southeast Asia, it was built and con-
tinues to operate in partnership with the Bangkok
Metropolitan authority. In 2011, Tetra Pak Thailand
launched a recycling initiative with the establish-
ment of 10 collection centers around the country. So
far, the project has collected more than 55 million
discarded cartons and used them to make sheets
of roofing material, which are distributed through
the Princess Pa Foundation and the Thai Red Cross
for use in building emergency shelters for disaster
victims.
345
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

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346 347
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

from the sugar refining process as a Turning Waste Heat into Alternative Energy
Mitr Phol Bio-Power feedstock for bioethanol at four produc-
History: Mitr Phol was tion plants with a combined capacity of In Thailand, the Siam Cement Group (SCG) has
founded in 1946; Phu more than a million liters a day. been developing waste heat recovery power gen-
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growing algae farms used for biofuel. gy at its plants in Vietnam and Indonesia.

The total output of 76 megawatts from Mitr Phol’s sugar-waste-fuel plant in Chaiyaphum powers operations. Extra electricity is sold to consumers.

348 349
 PATA: Partners in Sustainability

SUSTAINABLE When the Pacific Asia

Travel Association

TOURISM
(PATA) began in 1951,
the total number of
international arrivals
to the region stood at
*2Ɲ$(+/ƇɄ*((0)$/4Ɲ. Ʉ
travel is gaining ground and
winning converts
When the term “eco-tourism” was coined in 1983
by Héctor Ceballos-Lascuràin, a Mexican architect,
it came to encompass all sorts of nature-based
trips where the onus was on the tour operator to
provide an environmentally friendly excursion. As
the term morphed into “responsible tourism,” the
onus was more and more on the traveler to behave
responsibly by respecting the local environment
and customs. But as the market continued to grow,
it evolved into “sustainable tourism,” the term most
commonly used today, where the onus is on all
stakeholders, from the hotels to the agents to the
traveler.
All of these terms represent branches of the same
tree. They are guided by similar principles, such as
low volume/low impact, which is only common
sense: the fewer travelers on any given outing, the
less impact they will have on the environs. The
necessity of sourcing local foods and reducing
transport is also easy to grasp; both contribute to
a lower carbon footprint for each visitor and the
company.
Equally important is that the members of the com-
munities visited also benefit from the influx of
travelers. For tour operators, that means employing
Authentic local guides and drivers. For resort owners that
experiences: means hiring local cooks, maids, handymen and per-
A specific formers to ensure that the tourism industry becomes
experience in a part of the community instead of an entity that
specific place
that may involve stands apart from it.
things like eating
a traditional An even more integrated version of this approach
dinner in a tradi- is sometimes called “community-based tourism.”
tional manner, or In this niche market of sustainable travel,
taking part in an the hottest buzzword of the last five years is
ancient ritual like
giving alms to “authentic experiences.” That could mean a trip to
Buddhist monks the oldest tea plantation in Thailand for a few lessons
in the morning. in plucking and making tea, or it might be a visit to
350
Aerial view of green rice paddies in Nakhon Sawan province.
a local shaman with a translator in tow for a consul-
tation, or it may entail a performance of songs and
dances from members of a hill tribe.
Sometimes called “learning experiences” or “local
encounters,” these are not your run-of-the-mill side
trips that coachloads of other tourists will join for the
sake of posting a few photos on social media. These
are boutique experiences meant to sincerely involve
and benefit local communities and to provide the
tourist experiences to be savored and remem-
bered, as the elders pass down their hard-won,
time-honored nuggets of wisdom or experience
to help preserve these customs and traditions for
future generations. When the villagers see visitors
taking interest in different aspects of their culture,
it’s a powerful reminder that such heritage has an
intrinsic value that is only partly monetary. All over
Thailand and other parts of the world, tour operators
are helping to preserve indigenous arts, crafts and
folklore through exactly this kind of exposure.
Part of the reason why there has been so much
“greenwashing” in the travel industry is that hotels,
tour operators – and even countries – have been
able to make the most outrageous claims about
their tours and destinations without having to back
them up. The tour operators and hotels decide on
policies and implement them at their own discretion.
There are no official government policies to follow
except when it comes to complying with certain
rules governing national parks or wildlife sanctuar-
ies. That has changed to some extent with increased
regulatory oversight and pressure from governments
and the rise of certification bodies like Earth Check,
Green Globe, the Thai Ecotourism and Adventure
Travel Association and Travelife.
All of these sincere efforts can seem like a hopeless
battle in the face of the ever-expanding tourism
sector. Putting the impacts of tourism in a rather
frightening context, one study estimated that local
activities account for less than 5 percent of the CO2
emissions of the tourism industry, while transpor-
tation, especially air travel, may be responsible for
around 70 percent, with the remaining 25 percent
created by accommodations. These numbers
support the adage that the most sustainable form of
tourism is to simply travel closer to home.
But that’s not a winning sales pitch or proposition for
any country as reliant on global tourism and business
around 100,000 per
year. Now it’s close
to 500 million. As
a true originator in
the region, PATA has
played a pivotal part
in that phenomenal
increase.
Initially, PATA served as an advisor to national
tourism organizations in the Asia Pacific region
as tourism plans were developed, marketing cam-
paigns organized, and infrastructure built from
the ground up. In the 1970s the nonprofit associa-
tion was instrumental in promoting then up-and-
coming destinations like Chiang Mai but, more
significantly, it became one of the first such in-
ternational tourism bodies to push environmental
concerns to the forefront of its agenda.
That dedication has continued to resonate through
many parts of the organization and its various
events, like the PATA Travel Mart, started in 1978
as a hub of networking, a showcase of destina-
tions and a trove of best practices in sustainability.
More recently, the association started the PATA
Foundation, a charitable arm that lends a helping
hand to rural communities engaged in tourism,
and inaugurated the PATA Adventure Travel and
Responsible Tourism Conference and Mart with
high-profile events in Nepal and Bhutan.
as Thailand is. The expansion of air travel across the
world, region and Thailand is certain to translate into
more tourists, as well as power-guzzling trips, hotels
and shopping complexes to cater to them. Having
long ago embraced mass tourism and its economic
benefits and with a budget airline industry essentially
in its infancy, integrating the practices of sustainable
development throughout the tourism industry to
limit negative impacts may become a critical issue
for the country in the years ahead.
351
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Costa Rica: The Epitome of Eco-tourism

Lisu Lodge
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constructed around such key pillars as tried alternative energy sources like solar
are designed so they blend into their sur- preserving the environs and keeping the panels but found them too erratic for the
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their cultures and providing them with were too noisy.
in northern Thailand. FNQMPZNFOU
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dozens of independent tour operators *OTUFBE
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comes to stay in the lodge the owners and attracting hundreds of visitors during sells packages ranging from one to five competition in the field and the chance
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villagers’ pigs. TUSVDUFE
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impacts. XJMM
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outdoor activities that embody all the "OO
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these kinds of lodges do not have the XBOU
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“We have to adapt to the
kingdom’s oldest tea plantation to learn large number of rooms or guests to ever EJGGFSFOU
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growing demands of the
how to pick the leaves and brew tea. become massive moneymakers. They ZFBST
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are concerned about organic living and
can also take in performances of songs for steady growth. XF
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20 years ago, or even
and dances by hill tribe members. They 5P
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can even request consultations with NFOU
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market. That’s what makes your business Chananya “Ann” Phataraprasit,
the local shaman on everything from PG
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sustainable.” owner of Lisu Lodge

352 353
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Khiri Travel
SOMSAK “PAI” BOONTAM earned a bachelor’s degree in engineering and an MBA in sustainability before he began to
History: Founded by Willem
Niemeijer in Bangkok in 1993 work on development projects with hill tribe communities in Thailand. After working for the Mae Fah Luang Foun-
dation at Doi Tung in northern Thailand, he co-founded his community-based tourism company, Local Alike, with
Location: The company operates
Noon Pakavaleetorn in 2012. Local Alike offers sustainable, socially responsible and immersive travel experiences that
in seven countries in Southeast
Asia, including Thailand, Laos preserve culture and generate income for local communities. The outfit has won many competitions in Thailand and
and Indonesia, and also has a sales Singapore for social enterprises, attracting much media attention in the process.
office in the US
Key features: Specializes in How does community-based Why do you think you won
sustainable tours with cultural, tourism benefit these villages? these competitions? #FDBVTF
XF

natural or educational angles 5IFZ
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work really hard on the ground and
Accolades: “Best Asia Pacific of the tour and another slice of the embody the ideals of social enter-
Responsible Tourism Website” award profit gets put into their community prises. We also have some successful
at the 2014 TravelMole APAC Web Thi Lor Su waterfall in Tak province is a famous eco-tourism destination. GVOE
)BWJOH
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case studies from the villages to show.
Awards money also helps to keep these fam- 4P
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ilies together and makes them proud money from these tours.
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benefit in many different ways.
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logistics. These choices can make a big CZ
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sustainable tourism early on because the EJGGFSFODF
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certification comes with other benefits: Since at first you could not get
company was not interested in main- UXP
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TVT- “Consumer demand for sustainable What were the origins of the traditional investors, you chose
stream travel. Khiri’s niche tours revolve UBJOBCJMJUZ
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products is growing. Companies that take company? "GUFS
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to enter social enterprise com-
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sustainability seriously will score higher (FSNBOZ
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petitions, right? We tried to get a
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came a wave of “greenwashing” as tour PO
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few investors interested but we did
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operations as environmentally sound. FGGFDUT
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to realize that tourism could be an competition plan. We won a few
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important force for not only employ- competitions for social enterprises
back to the local community and training bodies in place to challenge these claims. 8FTUFSO
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ment and income but also a source JO
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That changed with the emergence of us a competitive advantage over other of hope for communities. Coming BOE
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better working environment for the staff. organizations like Earth Check for hotels %.$T
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from a poor rice-farming village in :PVOH
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staff will only be there for the money and Khiri Travel spent a year preparing for XJOH
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The awards helped us raise money
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hundred percent of the money Khiri the people and their struggles. BOE
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fundraises for development projects tors came to us. rooted in Thai culture.
Destination management companies audits of its offices to measure everything goes to affected communities. Khiri looks What sort of rural communi-
%.$T

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ties are you working with now
bility and power because they control so and audits of their work in the field to QSPKFDUT
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ensure minimal negative social and envi- ages its own employees to serve as offering?
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different tour packages. The commu-
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what you do and try to improve every DBOOPU
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kayaks on the canals and trying local
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travel is the norm for many people now.” food. The nora dance, a southern cultural performance.

354 355
 SOCIAL d.light: Solving a Global Problem

ENTERPRISE through Social Enterprise

*($)$)"Ʉ2 '' $)"Ʉ2$/#Ʉ+-*Ũ/Ʉ

A strength of Thai culture is the willingness to take

care of others. People of all walks of life regularly
give time and money to support communities,
temples, schools and other causes. Leading
companies and patrons believe it is their responsi-
bility to support village development projects and
education. Social enterprises in Thailand promise to
take this desire to do good even further.

Bridging the divide between the public and private

sectors, social enterprises apply business strategies A d.light distributor in Kenya.
and the power of the marketplace to solve environ-
mental and social problems. The Social Enterprise "DDPSEJOH
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Alliance, a US-based organization, defines social Young entrepreneurs who started an eco-tourism business to benefit locals.
billion people in the developing world do not have
enterprises by three distinguishing characteristics: DPOTJTUFOU
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a successful social enterprise directly addresses a SFNBJO
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social need, drives revenue through commercial utes to society. According to the Social Enterprise not always understand the need to evaluate whether TUJMM
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activity, and holds the common good as the enter- Alliance, social enterprises often create social impact they are achieving the value they intend to create. TUVEZJOH
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and creatively than the nonprofit sector, and more Social entrepreneurs can have a significant impact EMJHIU
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Although the term “social enterprise” was coined generously than business. Whether organized as on business in Thailand. If these social entrepreneurs reliable solar-powered lights to households and small
in the UK as recently as the 1970s, the concept has for-profit or nonprofit, social enterprises fill the gaps succeed, they can leverage that success for even CVTJOFTTFT
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spawned a rapid proliferation of social enterprises between the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. higher impact by attracting impact investors. If they 8JUI
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worldwide and a young, hopeful generation of are solving important challenges and willing to run BOE
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entrepreneurs. Numerous organizations are now In Indonesia, for example, Dr. Gamal Albinsaid’s their ventures as well-managed businesses, they can MBOUFSOT
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dedicated to incubating and funding social enter- Garbage Premium Insurance Clinic Program allows attract part of the estimated US$700 billion in impact 5IF
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BOE
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prises and connecting entrepreneurs with impact people who cannot afford health insurance to bring investments available around the world, resulting in in need are local dealers who live in the same developing
investors. Social entrepreneurs give sophisticated an equivalent of $0.85 in recyclable waste to the further capital inflows into Thailand. DPNNVOJUJFT
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consumers more opportunities to channel their clinic to receive healthcare in return. The clinic then XJUI
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buying power into community-conscious, sustainable trades the recyclables for cash. This program not Accordingly, the Thai government is recognizing this entrepreneurs who lack many opportunities.
products and services. Meanwhile, impact investors only provides healthcare for those in need, but it also sector’s value and is ramping up structural support d.light products come with a two-year warranty and
fund social enterprises to create meaningful change. addresses the issue of waste management plaguing for social enterprise. In 2009 the government formed EFBMFS
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many Indonesian municipalities. But as a financially the National Social Enterprise Committee to increase from single lanterns to mobile power grid systems that
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by the non-financial benefit that a venture contrib- its staff are properly paid for their services. 2011, it launched the Thai Social Entrepreneurship TJCMF
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Office (TSEO), backed by US$3.2 million in funding. UIPTF
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Bridging the divide between the public and common good, they have limits. Things offered Finally, social entrepreneurs also benefit themselves. move away from dependency on national power distribu-
freely are not always needed but always accepted, They give themselves meaningful work and allow UJPO
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private sectors, social enterprises apply business leading to wasted resources. Often, donations must themselves to gain an appropriate reward for that NPWF
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strategies and the power of the marketplace to solve be replenished to maintain a desired outcome. Also, work. As they succeed, they become role models and
environmental and social problems. those giving generously of their time or money do pave the way for a more sustainable society overall.

356 357
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SOCIAL ENTERPRISE

The kit uses a special pen that dispenses BOE
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by the Haas School of Business
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Key features: Designs, at the University of California,
manufactures, and sells FYQSFTT
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world
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able materials to manufacture Lensen business plans from around the
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world, the annual competition offers
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358 359
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR SOCIAL ENTERPRISE

an indispensible element to any venture’s

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According to a 2012
funds through various programs and EDWARD RUBESCH is the director of the International Master’s Degree in Business Administration (IMBA) at Tham-
History: Founded in Thailand Social Enterprise
2001 by royal patronage DPNQFUJUJPOT
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under the Thai Rural the nonprofit that offers funding to scale the country is currently Southeast Asian Region of the Global Social Venture Competition, the world’s largest social enterprise business plan
Reconstruction competition.
Movement Foundation
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the terms social enterprise and social
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have stirred a lot more interest. What
is less clear is whether this interest has
actually encouraged more social
entrepreneurs to work through
the challenges to create successful
ventures. We see a lot of interesting
projects. We’ll have to wait a little
longer to see if any of those projects
blossom into successful businesses
ChangeFusion staff observe the natural tea-growing process in Nan province. The DoctorMe app, a tech solution for health. that attract impact investors. Mentoring sessions on social enterprise attract an increasing number of young graduates.

360 361
 RESTAURANTS
Innovative restaurants are rethinking
/# Ʉ24Ʉ/# 4Ʉ.*0- Ʉ/# $-Ʉ!**
In the 1980s, healthy living emerged as a trend that
evolved into a lifestyle for those with a passion
for exercise, clean living and fresh food. The “slow
food” movement arose around the same time as a
backlash against fast food and its harmful impacts
on the environment, health, local communities and
small businesses. Taking a firm position against such
unsustainable practices as razing rainforests for
cattle farms, genetically modified foods, and mono-
culture, the movement for sustainability in the food
industry has now come to encompass everything
from organic and free-range agricultural products to
the farm-to-table movement; from the denuncia-
tion of chemical additives to the rise of macrobiotic
and even socially responsible restaurants.
If an overarching name for this far-reaching food
revolution is elusive, at least some of its tenets
and practices are easier to pinpoint. Bo.lan, a well-
known, high-end Bangkok restaurant, is striving
to become carbon neutral by 2018 and favors an
approach that runs the gamut from serving organic
produce to cutting down on waste and emissions.
Oyster Bar Bangkok and Eat Me refuse to serve
endangered or farmed species of fish. Sustaina is all
about creating an organic farm that feeds a restau-
rant, supermarket and supply chain that distributes

CVU

their innovative products to more than ten countries.
Farm-to-table

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growth of the alternative agriculture
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movement. Consumers are driving this
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food consump-
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ing local and and consume a lot of power through lighting and
seasonal food temperature control, and many rely on industrial

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hormone because of consumer
production and dishwashers that use a great deal of water.
agriculture, the
farm-to-table In Bangkok, one of the world’s foodie capitals,
movement often
works in tandem this new restaurant trend is being driven mostly
with organic by Western chefs and a few prominent Thais like

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EPDVNFO- the brightest spot in this dark and
principles. Duangporn “Bo” Songvisava, the award-winning
362
chef and co-founder of Bo.lan, as well as Sho Oga,
the Japanese entrepreneur behind Sustaina. Ever
so slowly, consumer awareness has been growing,
thanks to such popular documentaries as Food, Inc.
and Super Size Me, numerous books about nutrition
and food security, and the proliferation of Western-
style farmers’ markets in Thailand’s bigger cities.
The markets are not only sources of organic
produce, artisanal bread, natural soaps, shampoos
and cleaners, but they also function as community
centers for workshops, performances and gather-
ings of like-minded consumers. In spite of these
new markets in Bangkok and elsewhere around the
A chef ’s selection of ingredients is crucial for sustainability in the food industry.
world, and despite the popularity of healthy restau-
rants and lifestyles, the farm-to-table movement has
not altered the landscape of how food is grown and
produced. Few people understand this better than The markets are not only sources of organic produce, artisanal bread, natural soaps, shampoos and
Dan Barber, the award-winning American chef and cleaners, but they also function as community centers for workshops, performances and gatherings.
restaurant owner named one of the 100 most influ-
ential people in the world by Time magazine in 2009.
“More than a decade into the movement, the
promise has fallen short,” Barber wrote in The New
York Times in 2014. “For all its successes, farm-to-
table has not, in any fundamental way, reworked
the economic and political forces that dictate how FEAST FOR THOUGHT The premise of Food, Inc. reads like UIJT
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our food is grown and raised. Big Food is getting FOOD, INC. an Orwellian take on farming and a note of optimism resounds in the
bigger, not smaller. In the last five years, we’ve lost Director: Robert Kenner BHSJDVMUVSF
nearly 100,000 farms (mostly midsize ones). Today, Release Date: 2008 QBUFOUFE
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1.1 percent of farms in the United States account for of private investigators and a hotline NPWFNFOU
nearly 45 percent of farm revenues.” to track down farmers accused of millionaire organic yogurt entrepre-
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It’s a sobering editorial on the real limitations of any UFSIPVTFT
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64
decision to stop selling a brand of
food revolution. For every restaurant that strives for meat market and incubated a slew milk that contained a synthetic growth
sustainability, another opens with little awareness or PG
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financial margin to support its key concepts. For the run like assembly lines and the illegal PVUSBHF
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privileged minority who can afford specialty markets immigrants who staff them are treated changed the biggest company on
and high-end restaurants, this trend will continue to only slightly better than the animals. earth.”
grow. But the poorer and middle-class majority will *U
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brilliantly made documentary.
363
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR RESTAURANTS

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International was formed
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364 365
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR
The “Catches” of Sustainable Seafood
Unbeknownst to many, our oceans and fish are in
grave danger. If there is not a reevaluation and

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slowdown of commercial fishing, marine scien-

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tists have forecast that the planet’s fish stocks
will be mostly gone by 2048.
To raise awareness about this crisis, Billy Mari-
nelli, owner of The Oyster Bar Bangkok, organizes
regular screenings of the documentary The End of
the Line. The film sweeps around the world illus-
trating how oceans everywhere are being over-
w
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fished: in Canada’s Newfoundland, the collapse
of the cod fisheries wrecked the economy of the
maritime provinces; similar catastrophes rocked
African countries. In Japan, bluefin tuna, a delicacy,

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is in danger of extinction – about 90 percent of the
bigger species have already been fished.
Having studied marine biology and worked in the
seafood business for much of his life, Billy is an

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evangelist for sustainability and practices what he
preaches. At his restaurant, no endangered species
nor farmed salmon are served, no MSG or other
chemical additives are used. For Billy, sustainabil-

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ity in the seafood trade is also defined by the way
fish are caught. “The fish that I use is all hook-and-
line caught, or caught with a hand or gill net. This

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also weeds out the slower and stupider creatures
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a form of Darwinism, the survival of the fittest,”

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to do with fiscal prudence than ecolog-
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world’s seafood is consumed and where fishing
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Butler. Bottom: Dishes served at Eat Me.
366
juvenile fish, so that 70 percent of each haul is
referred to as “bycatch” or “trash fish,” and ends up
as animal feed or sold under names like “sea bass.”
Fortunately, efforts are underway in Thailand
to produce higher quality fish in sustainable
ways. The Earth Net Foundation’s Small Scale
Fishers and Organic Fisheries Products Project
was started with funding from the EU to address
this shortage. Overseeing the project is Supaporn
Anuchinacheeva, who has worked on sustain-
ability issues with Oxfam. The main goals of her
current project are supporting small-scale fish-
ermen who are doing conservation work, and
getting them better prices for their products,
such as 70 percent of the value instead of the 20
to 30 percent they are usually offered by middle-
men. The project also ensures that higher quality
seafood comes to Bangkok consumers.
Another organization, the Organic Agricul-
ture Certification Thailand (ACT), is promot-
ing safe, sustainable, and socially responsible
catches. Seafood can only be certified organic
if it meets four criteria. First, the fish must be
caught using responsible practices, such as tar-
geting the species and not scooping up bycatch.
At no point during the process can fishermen use
chemicals; the fish can only be packed in ice. The
fishing area cannot be polluted, so it must be far
from industrial or agricultural areas. The last cri-
terion is traceability – they must be able to trace
who caught each fish.
Marketing these products has proven to be one of
the biggest challenges. Though these fishers have
been selling some seafood to Bo.lan and the Plaza
Athenee hotel, it’s difficult to guarantee a certain
amount of a fish species because of their catch-
as-catch-can method. This makes supermarkets
a hard sell too. In response, Earth Net has set up
a stall at the monthly Bangkok Farmers’ Market
to hawk 12 different kinds of seafood from five
different villages.
As our oceans empty in what is the biggest
mass extinction of species since the age of the
dinosaur, we should ask ourselves: Do we know
where that seafood on our plates came from, who
caught it, which middleman bought it and who
packed it under what sort of conditions?
RESTAURANTS
Eat Me
History: Founded by
Australian siblings
Darren and Cherie
Housler in 1998
Location: Convent Road,
Bangkok
Key features: The menu
details where many products are
from and how fish was caught; no
endangered species of fish are
served
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designed an ever-shifting menu where
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who have taken it upon themselves to TVSWJWF
367

GREEN FINANCE
AND BANKING
# Ʉ$)./$/0/$*).Ʉ)ɄŨ))$'Ʉ/**'.Ʉ
behind green growth
Economists argue that one driving force of non-
sustainable production and consumption is that the
negative impacts of such consumption do not carry
a financial cost to those that create those adverse
effects. Economists refer to this as “negative exter-
nality costs.” The logical consequence is that financial
decision-making would be “greener” if such external
costs were “internalized” and made part of the
decision-making process itself.
But what about financial institutions, whose
products are largely immaterial? What role can
they play in sustainable development? The answer
is a very large one. By offering access to capital or
incentives to catalyze environmentally friendly and
socially responsible financial decisions, financial
institutions can have a massive impact in encourag-
ing change and spurring innovation. Internationally,
demand for such financial products has been on the
rise since the 1960s, when the political climate of the
West gave way to civil rights movements and a more
socially ethical consciousness.
Today, green finance is beginning to reshape the
corporate landscape as the private sector commits
more investment to sustainability. In the energy
sector, for example, capital is flowing away from
the fossil fuel business into the low-carbon industry
and alternative energy projects. A leading global
hedge fund based in Norway, for example, decided
it will no longer invest any money whatsoever in
fossil fuels. Similarly, investors around the world
are looking toward myriad opportunities presented
by the sustainable development movement. Many
of these investment strategies
and instruments are unique,
Green finance is beginning requiring a long-term view of
to reshape the corporate the investment. Microfinance,
for example, is predicated on
landscape as the private the belief that small loans to
sector commits more those in need will, over the
investment to sustainability. long-term, lift entire communi-
368
SCB’s classic Talad Noi Branch, located on the Chao Phraya River.
ties out of poverty and spur local economies. More
and more investment firms are now factoring in the
potential impacts of climate change in their assess-
ments of risk and opportunity.
While green finance encompasses all the ways indi-
viduals and institutions can use capital to promote
sustainable behavior – such as green loans, ethical
investments, and environmentally friendly finance
policies like carbon pricing – green banking, on the
other hand, aims to transform the banking industry
itself into an environmentally conscious one and
refers to the myriad ways banks and financial insti-
tutions can cut down on the carbon footprints
and energy use of their operations and customers.
Green banking reaches consumers through initia-
tives such as mobile and online banking to minimize
carbon footprints, solar-powered ATMs for energy
efficiency, and green credit cards where the issuing
bank buys carbon-offset credits or funds eco-
friendly projects every time the credit card is used.
Together, green finance and green banking offer
the products, services and incentives that create
sustainability through every dollar spent, invested
or transacted. This creates public benefits such as
reducing global warming, raising standards of living
and preserving natural capital. These practices also
create private benefits for financial institutions in the
form of reduced lending risks, stranded assets and
reduced operational costs from minimized paper
and energy use. This not only increases the efficiency
and profitability of operations, but it also improves
the bank’s image and competitive edge, ultimately
attracting a growing number of customers and
investors demanding green products and services.
In recent years, banks across Asia have started
taking steps toward green finance and banking. They
are investing an increasing share of their financial
portfolio in the low-carbon economy, launching
new green financial products, including green
bonds, and expanding green banking operations.
Siam Commercial Bank (SCB), KASIKORNBANK and
Bangkok Bank are among those in Thailand that have
successfully incorporated green banking in their day-
to-day financial activities. SCB says it was the first
bank in Thailand to offer ATM customers the option
of not receiving a transaction slip and has recently
launched a “slipless process” at the counter, elimi-
nating handwritten forms for 80 percent of branch
transactions, and saving a large number of trees
World Bank Green Bonds
In 2008 the World Bank introduced its Green Bond
initiative to raise funds for development projects
that mitigate climate change or help affected
people adapt to it. Designed in partnership with the
European financial group Skandinaviska Enskilda
Banken (SEB), the bonds provide access to green
investments through a triple A-rated credit fixed-
income product. As of February 2015, the World Bank
had issued nearly US$8 billion through more than
80 green bond transactions in 18 currencies since
its inception.
Eligible projects fall into two categories: projects
that target mitigation of climate change and
projects that target adaptation to climate change,
such as infrastructure that prevents climate-
related flood damage.
Other issuers including development banks and
corporations have joined the green bond market.
This has expanded the investor base, leading to
greater transparency and reporting on climate
change projects. In 2014 the market reached US$36.6
billion.
Green bonds are useful to developing coun-
tries like Thailand, which are in need of build-
ings, transport infrastructure, water and energy
systems, and farms and food supplies that can
withstand the impacts of climate change, such as
rising sea levels and extreme weather patterns.
The bonds currently support more than 60 projects
across 20 countries, from solar and wind instal-
lations, reduced-emission renovation of power
plants and transmission facilities, green transpor-
tation, eco-friendly farming, and clean water and
irrigation management.
in the process. Similarly, Bangkok Bank’s Bualuang
iBanking service saves approximately 80 million
sheets of paper per year. Bank policy also encour-
ages entrepreneurs to develop or use environmen-
tally friendly technologies; use alternative energy;
and undertake sustainable agricultural activities.
Bangkok Bank provides information and special
low-interest-rate loans to help facilitate customers’
sustainable business and network expansion.
Meanwhile, KASIKORNBANK has extended its credit
facilities to renewable energy projects like solar,
wind and biomass power generation and to electric
power-saving programs, among other endeavors.
369
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR GREEN FINANCE AND BANKING

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Bangkon Bank head office with Royal Garuda. that treat or dispose wastewater.

370 371
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR GREEN FINANCE AND BANKING

THE PRICE OF POLLUTING Carbon Checks and Balances

Climate finance is a specific subset of green IJHI
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finance that targets climate change mitiga- ing population and growing industry JOH
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tion. Within these parameters, carbon pricing BOE
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in semi-urban and rural areas of
is a major trend that promotes low-carbon in- coal-based power production. *OEJB
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dustries and climate-resilient development. Tar- The government has pledged JO
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which promotes sustainable devel-
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credit plus” loan for energy efficient
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carbon permits. Carbon prices are roughly equiv- JO
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green home loan scheme that offers
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carbon. Carbon permits are tradable and the total Traffic light and solar cell panel in Ladakh, India. mSTU
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environmentally friendly residential
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“green channel counter” facilities in farms in its business
How does it work? An ETS allows industries with the world’s total CO emissions. This NPSF
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low emissions to sell their extra allowances to Shenzhen and Tianjin) covering 1,115 MtCO2e.
larger emitters. The system also increases less- Emissions trading schemes are also currently
developed countries’ access to energy. By creatingactive in the US, Canada, Kazakhstan, Japan,
supply and demand for emissions allowances, the Australia and New Zealand. Carbon taxes have
ETS establishes a market price for greenhouse been introduced or are about to be implemented
gas emissions, while the cap helps ensure that in parts of Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Denmark,
the required emission reductions will take place Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Norway,
and keep the emitters within their pre-allocated South Africa, Mexico, Sweden, Switzerland and
carbon budget. Carbon taxes also set a price on the UK. According to the World Bank, carbon
carbon by defining a tax rate on greenhouse gas taxes and carbon trading implemented across
emissions, or on the carbon content of fossil fuels.
the world cover almost six gigatons of this poison-
ous element, or about 12 percent of annual global
What is it worth? The value of the global carbon greenhouse gas emissions.
market in 2014 was around US$49 billion accord-
ing to Thomson Reuters, a 15 percent year on year Who are the key players? National and interna-
rise due to higher prices in the European Union tional policymakers establish carbon markets and
Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) and steady emission trading systems on local and regional
prices in the North American markets. levels. Development banks around the world both
monitor and participate in carbon pricing ini-
Where does it apply? The EU ETS is the world’s tiatives, while private organizations such as the
largest carbon market with 2,039 million tons Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) seek to address
of carbon dioxide equivalent (abbreviated as carbon issues that remain neglected or unad-
MtCO2e), followed by China’s six pilot carbon dressed by governmental bodies by working on
markets (Beijing, Guangdong, Hubei, Shanghai, a company-by-company level. India’s Nilgiri Mountain Railway was built in 1908. The original locomotives are still used, but the coal-fired engines have been replaced. 

372 373

INDICES
# Ʉ*(+'$/ Ʉ-/Ʉ*!Ʉ( .0-$)"Ʉ
*-+*-/ Ʉ.0./$)$'$/4
By virtue of its wide-ranging nature, sustainable devel-
opment can be difficult to quantify. Attempting to
provide an objective and independent gauge, so-called
sustainability indices have been developed to measure
the economic, environmental and social performance
of companies. These specialized indices offer socially
responsible investors a look into a company’s oper-
ations for their sustainable investment approach,
rating everything from corporate governance and
risk management to IT investments, climate change
readiness, energy consumption, supply chain
standards and labor practices.
Sustainable Investors who are interested in sustainability indices
investment are not only concerned with ethics. They also believe
approach: that companies with a high score in sustainability
An approach offer higher returns. Disclosure of a company’s sus-
to investment tainability performance allows investors to analyze
where environ- a company’s operational and external “costs” – for
mental, social
and governance example, vulnerability to future regulatory risks
(ESG) factors, in (such as those related to carbon pricing) – as well as
combination with the company’s purchasing and sourcing practices
financial consid- and the environmental impact of its operations.
erations, guide Companies that focus on improving these areas are
the selection and thought to have a long-term vision that will lead to
management of
investments. lower costs and higher profits.
The ethical investment movement is said to have
started with the launch of the FTSE KLD 400 Social
Index in 1990, since renamed the MSCI KLD 400
Social Index. It ranks companies on the US equity
Best in class:
market with positive ESG (environmental, social and
Refers to invest- governance) characteristics. In 1999, the trend went
ment in sectors,
companies or global when the Dow Jones Sustainability Index
projects selected World was launched. Other notable sustainability
from a defined indices that followed include the FTSE4Good Index,
universe for Calvert Social Index and NASDAQ OMX CRD Global
positive environ- Sustainability Index.
mental, social
and governance
(ESG) perfor- Each index assesses corporate sustainability differ-
mance relative to ently. For example, the basis of DJSI World’s assess-
industry peers. ment is a questionnaire developed by RobecoSAM,
374
Sustainable investing is gaining ground worldwide.
an international sustainability investment company.
Questionnaire responses are supported by company
documentation, which are verified through examina-
tion of media coverage, public documents and stake-
holder input. Each year, DJSI World invites the largest
2,500 publicly traded companies from 59 industry
groups to participate in the questionnaire. Of these,
the top 10 percent with the highest ranking in sus-
tainability factors is included on the index.
The FTSE4Good indices also use a questionnaire to
assess sustainability, but it is developed by EIRIS, a
global ESG research institution. Answers provided
by companies are backed by company interviews
and examination of annual reports. Companies are
then given a score of 0 to 5 on their ESG perfor-
mance, with a score of 5 indicating industry-leading
practices and 0 indicating no disclosure. The MSCI
ESG, on the other hand, does not use a question-
naire but instead interviews companies and uses SEC
filings, media coverage, and third-party research. All
indices annually update company rankings, allowing
investors to monitor performance over the long term.
However, to date there is no fail-proof way to accu-
rately assess corporate sustainability. Much data
are based on company documents and self-evalu-
ations. The “best in class” approach taken by most
indices means that companies are ranked against
industry peers, not necessarily providing investors
the full picture of how sustainable a company is.
Nevertheless, the influence of sustainability indices
is growing: 15 to 20 percent of the world’s assets
currently under management are estimated to be
managed according to sustainable guidelines. A 2013
paper by Harvard Business School found evidence
that highly sustainable companies significantly out-
performed their counterparts over the long term in
terms of stock market and accounting performance.
Sustainability indices also have a proven impact
on company profitability: rankings affected stock
prices and the cost of capital. Billions of dollars are
also invested in mutual funds and other financial
products that track sustainability indices.
In Thailand, a new local sustainability index, the
ESG100, now ranks the top 100 sustainable Thai
companies. Thai companies are also making news
abroad: 10 Thai companies were included in the 2014
DJSI. All 10 were selected for inclusion in the DJSI
Emerging Markets list and four also made it onto
DJSI’s global index known as DJSI World.
Sustainable Investing
A growing field, sustainable investment, or SRI
(socially responsible investing), involves the
screening of investments in terms of environ-
mental, social and governance factors. Sustain-
able investors may exclude or divest negatively
performing firms from their portfolios, or choose
those that excel within their respective industries
in terms of sustainability. Alternatively, they may
simply apply “norms-based screening” to make
sure the companies are in minimal compliance
with international norms. Here are some other in-
vestment terms and practices related to sustain-
able investment:
Corporate engagement and shareholder action:
Shareholders may exercise their clout and influ-
ence corporate behavior through direct corporate
engagement. They may file or co-file shareholder
proposals, or proxy vote guided by comprehensive
ESG guidelines.
ESG integration: This involves an explicit apprais-
al of the environmental, social and governance
factors of a company in the investment deci-
sion-making process. Firms must demonstrate
their adherence through a transparent and sys-
tematic process.
Exclusion criteria: Should a company violate one
of the exclusion criteria (for example, the company
uses forced labor), this firm is excluded from the
investment universe for SRI funds and may no
longer be purchased by SRI funds.
Impact investing: According to the Global Sus-
tainable Investment Alliance, a collaboration of
sustainable investment organizations around the
world, “impact” investments are targeted invest-
ments, typically made in private markets, aimed
at solving social or environmental problems.
Examples include community investing, where
capital is specifically directed to traditionally
underserved individuals or communities, or
financing that is provided to businesses with a
clear social or environmental purpose.
Sustainability-themed investment: This strategy
targets specific sustainability issues, such as
climate change, food security, water use, agricul-
ture, alternative energy or clean technology and
more.
375
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR INDICES

Thai Companies on the DJSI

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History: Established by the Thaipat
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PTT Public Oil, gas and energy. Thailand’s 2.89 trillion 2014 Dow Jones Sustain- Promotes alternative/renewable energy
Location: Thailand Company largest public company. Formerly baht (2013) ability World Index (DJSI projects such as biodiesel, gasohol and
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Limited the Petroleum Authority of World), 2014 Dow Jones solar power. Currently in the middle
Key features: Sources data from Thailand, which was set up in Sustainability Emerging of a massive reforestation program.
public documents and Form 56-1
ranked companies by using more than 1978 and privatized in 2001. Markets Index (DJSI
declarations to compile an index  
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scores in environmental, social and from annual reports and other informa- PTT Exploration Oil, gas and energy. Exploration and 260 billion 2014 DJSI World, 2014 Focuses on improving energy
and Production production business subsidiary of baht (2014) DJSI Emerging Markets efficiency, lowering greenhouse
governance areas UJPO
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state-owned PTT. Founded in 1985. gas emissions, using green tech-
Public Company nology, improving water treatment
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Chemical Subsidiary of PTT, founded in baht (2014) DJSI Emerging Markets print in 2013 from purchasing
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talization of around nine trillion baht Siam Cement Construction materials. 454 billion 2014 DJSI World,2014 DJSI Projects include building check dams
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64
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Public Company Founded in 1913. Thailand’s baht (2013) Emerging Markets, 2014 to protect watersheds and conserve
largest cement company. DJSI’s Industry Leader in forests, supporting research on
that promotes socially responsible DPNQBOJFT
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percent of the Thai stock market’s 14 Limited Construction Materials for growing crops on saline land,
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trillion baht capitalization. fourth consecutive year, recycling waste-heat and encour-
2014 DJSI’s Gold Class for aging sustainability throughout
seventh consecutive year their supply chain and business.

Banpu Public Coal, mining and energy. Founded 106 billion 2014 DJSI Emerging Gets good sustainability ratings for
Company in 1983. Thailand’s largest coal baht (2014) Markets projects like its wastewater
mining company with operations treatment system.
Limited in Thailand, Indonesia, Austra-
lia, China, Laos and Mongolia.

Central Pattana Property development. Founded 22.4 billion 2014 DJSI Emerging Lauded for energy conservation, water
Public Company in 1980. Retail property de- baht (2013) Markets recycling and waste management.
velopment and management
Thailand’s largest oil and gas refiner, THAIOIL GROUP, is one of the country’s industry leaders in sustainability. It was Limited arm of Central Group, Thai-
land’s largest retail developer.
listed on the 2014 DJSI Emerging Markets list and was named a Gold Class Industry Leader in Energy that year.
IRPC Public Petroleum, petrochemi- 287 billion 2014 DJSI Emerging Projects on energy and water
Company cals and energy. Founded in baht (2014) Markets conservation, as well as cam-
Is it important to Thaioil’s ment systems can effectively handle B
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1978. Subsidiary of PTT. paigns to preserve river basins
investors and shareholders for most scenarios or cases that might makes Thaioil more competitive. Limited and mangrove forests.
the company to receive a rating lead to a negative impact and can
on the DJSI?

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generate returns to them in the long What steps did Thaioil take to Minor Hospitality/food and beverage. 36.9 billion 2014 DJSI Emerging Promotes the conservation of natural
International Founded in 1978. Operates baht (2013) Markets resources and runs waste manage-
two types of investors and sharehold- UFSN
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become a listed company on the Public Company over 1,500 restaurants and ment and water recycling programs.
100 hotels across Asia-Pacific,
ers: one puts the focus highly on the reliable in its operations with a long- DJSI? Thaioil created a sustainable Limited Europe, Middle East and Africa.
DPNQBOZT
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term commitment to business conti- development master plan and 5-year
while the other is also looking for nuity and stakeholders’ satisfaction. SPBENBQ
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Frozen Products Founded in 1988. baht (2013) Markets es, marine resources and biodiversity.
intangible performance. Thaioil uses HPSZ
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a tool for corporate risk management. sustainability improve Thaioil’s Limited
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competitiveness? :FT
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that we have enhanced systems to SFDUMZ
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improvement for future ratings? Thai Oil Oil refining and distribution. 396 billion 2014 DJSI Emerging Achieving sustainability through
Public Company Founded in 1961. Thailand’s baht (2014) Markets, 2014 DJSI’s energy efficiency projects, reducing
JEFOUJGZ
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attention and raise awareness of the :FT
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Limited largest oil and gas refiner and Gold Class Industry energy consumption and greenhouse
supplier of petroleum products. Leader in Energy gas emissions, and investing in
compared to our peers in the same DPNQBOZT
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UIPTF
DIBJO
NBOBHFNFOU
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alternative energy, such as ethanol.
industry. This can assure our investors investors who are concerned with management and creating shared value
and shareholders that our manage- sustainability performance. With between the company and society. The above list features the companies listed in 2014. For 2015, all of the above Thai companies remained on the list and three
more were featured: Advanced Info Service PCL, Airports of Thailand PCL and Charoen Pokphand Foods PCL.

376 377
 COUNTERING
CORRUPTION
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Thailand’s private sector has long been aware of the
malaise of corruption and the toll it takes on their
economic fortunes. On many occasions, corruption
has derailed key investments in areas instrumental
for the country to reach its full potential. This has
also negatively impacted the country’s competi-
tiveness, as shown in recent surveys that forecast
opportunities will be lost to other ASEAN nations
less prone to graft.
In 2014, Thailand ranked 85th in the Corruption
Perceptions Index, an annual report published by
Transparency International, which is based on the
perceptions of foreign businessmen. The ranking
put the kingdom on par with India, Jamaica, Peru,
the Philippines and Sri Lanka. In the case of foreign
investment, image may not be everything, but it is
important.
Fortunately, lessons learned in other countries –
particularly in Hong Kong and South Korea – of
proven successes in tackling corruption to boost
economic growth have been widely shared among
large and small enterprises in Thailand, leading to the
Corporate birth of Thailand’s Private Sector Collective Action
governance:
Coalition against Corruption (CAC) and the Anti-
The system of Corruption Organization of Thailand (ACT).
rules, practices
and processes by
which a company Since the CAC’s inception in 2010, nearly 100
is directed and companies have been certified for their implemen-
controlled. Good tation of effective anti-corruption policies; a few of
corporate gover- the stauncher enterprises have even declared “zero
nance sees the tolerance” for such misconduct. By the end of 2014,
interests of the
many stakehold- 416 private companies declared their intentions to
ers in a company run “clean” businesses to the CAC.
taken into con-
sideration, from To aid this anti-graft drive, the Thai Institute of
its shareholders Directors (IOD), a founding member of the CAC, offers
and employees anti-corruption courses to disseminate best practices
down through
its customers, to a wide range of enterprises. Thus far, some 20
suppliers and the training sessions have taken place, involving more
community. than 400 executives and chief compliance officers.
378
Gathering of the Anti-Corruption Organization of Thailand.
The IOD hopes to increase the number of private
companies participating in the CAC to 600 in 2015, as
well as enhance the level of professionalism among
the country’s directors by providing them with
training and peer reviews. Thanks to the IOD, some
35 individuals have been trained to become top-
notch, corruption-fighting directors so far.
The IOD and some of its founding members, such
as the Securities and Exchange Commission and the
Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET), have lauded these
positive moves by the private sector. In this gradual
way, good corporate governance is becoming a
priority for companies that see the rewards it brings,
like being listed on the Dow Jones Sustainability
Indices. In 2014, ten Thai companies made the list,
the highest number out of any ASEAN state. For
years, the indices have produced key indicators for
investors to show which companies are excelling
both ethically and environmentally and, in turn,
which are best adapted to thrive in an investment
climate that increasingly considers a firm’s environ-
mental, social and governance (ESG) standards.
In 2013, the ASEAN Corporate Governance Scorecard
showed an average corporate governance score of
75.39 for Thai listed companies: the highest within
ASEAN for a second consecutive year. Thailand
notched up high scores in the Rights of Shareholders
and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders, two of
the five areas of corporate governance that were
analyzed. In the areas of Disclosure and Transparency,
Responsibilities of the Board and the Role of
Stakeholders, there was room for improvement.
In terms of financial institutions, the SET’s part-
nership with the UN Sustainable Stock Exchanges
Initiative has proven its seriousness about taking its
governance standards to the next level. In fact, the
SET became the first stock market in ASEAN to join
12 other stock exchanges from around the world that
are equally committed to promoting long-term sus-
tainability by enhancing corporate transparency and
ESG integration.
No question, the heightened awareness of corrup-
tion and the methods used to counter it are now
spreading from large-sized companies to smaller
enterprises. But to win this war the private sector
cannot go it alone. Collaborating with other agencies
like the National Anti-Corruption Commission
(NACC), the Anti-Money Laundering Office (AMLO),
Pramon Sutivong, ACT chairman, speaks at the event “Hand in Hand: Reform the
Fight for Sustainable Victory” on Anti-Corruption Day.
The ASEAN Corporate Governance Scorecard
showed an average corporate governance
score of 75.39 for Thai listed companies:
the highest percentage within ASEAN
for a second consecutive year.
and the Anti-Corruption Organization of Thailand
(ACT) is crucial to uprooting corruption, and keeping
it to manageable levels, if not eliminating it entirely.
A growing number of firms are among the 47
member organizations of ACT, whose mission is
to gather information about graft and disseminate
it to relevant authorities to raise awareness and
encourage the spread of best practices from the
corporate world to the political sphere. Of these
practices the “Integrity Pact” is worth singling out, as
private companies vying for government procure-
ment projects must swear not to take any bribes.
One of ACT’s biggest successes so far was its drive to
get approval for the Facilitation of Official Permission
Granting Act of 2015. For years and years the
private sector had complained about the inefficient
process of granting approval for factory permits. The
rigmarole could be dragged out endlessly, and the
process presented too much leeway for bribery to
cut through all the red tape. The ramifications of this
new piece of legislation may have a ripple effect on
other government services, forcing them to stream-
line their operations and cut back on opportunities
for graft too.
Although corruption is a perpetual problem in
Thailand, affecting the private and public sectors and
people from all walks of life, substantial efforts (still
small scale but with much potential for growth) are
being made to keep the excesses in check.
379
PART III | PRIVATE SECTOR COUNTERING CORRUPTION

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KASIKORNBANK CEO, during an anti-corruption seminar held by the Thai Institute of Directors. corruption.

380 381
THE ROLE OF
GOVERNMENT
Education for Sustainable Development
Energy Savings
Sustainable Transport
In Thailand, where budget planning
Sustainable Cities
tends to span three or four years at
best, it’s difficult to shift the mindset
International Partnerships
of politicians towards longer-term
projects that are more durable and
eco-savvy. When this strain of myopia
and budget constraints are compound-
ed by governments that come and go,
the state’s muscles are weakened even
more. A new committee, chaired by the
prime minister and known as the Com-
mission for Sustainable Development,
may be a step in the right direction. It
promises to follow the vision outlined
by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.
One significant role of the public
sector is to facilitate and enable the pri-
vate sector to be the engine of growth,
which benefits not only the economy
on a macro level, but also individuals
and communities every day. An effec-
tive way to do this is to offer businesses
incentives or disincentives, as the state
does with renewable energy, and which
have proven quite successful.
While long-term public-private
partnerships promoting sustainability
may be challenging, these projects
have tremendous potential. A case
study in point is the ongoing exten-
sions to the mass transit lines in and
around Bangkok, as well as the con-
struction of new lines that are part
of a sweeping 10-year plan. The new
mass transit lines could significantly
cut down on traffic and clear the air in
the chronically congested capital, as
transportation was responsible for 27.5
percent of all energy-consumption-re-
lated CO2 emissions in Thailand.
Almost all of this figure came from the
road sector, with the greater Bangkok
area accounting for half.
In areas like these, the state holds
the power, connections and instru-
ments to make a huge difference.
Through a subsidiary, the Provincial
Electricity Authority (PEA) has invest-
ed substantially in its largest project to
date, the LED Streetlight Upgrade Proj-
ect, which requires replacing some four
“Sustainable development is the
pathway to the future we want for
all. It offers a framework to generate
economic growth, achieve social
justice, exercise environmental
stewardship and strengthen governance.”
Ban Ki-moon, Secretary-General of the United Nations
million high-pressure sodium street
lamps with LEDs that could result in
energy savings of up to 70 percent.
A constant refrain in Thai politics
is decentralizing power and planning
so that provincial authorities have the
freedom to implement projects in their
respective areas. Little by little, prov-
ince by province, this transformation
is taking place. Cities such as Phuket
and Chiang Rai have taken charge
of their own urban renewals. In the
process they have won accolades for
being “green cities.” To truly develop
Thailand sustainably, the public sector
will require training a new generation
of politicos and bureaucrats to think
sustainably and be agents of change.
What better place to start than with
education reform? This is exactly what
is happening at schools that train stu-
dents in the king’s Sufficiency Econo-
my Philosophy: a system that promotes
the virtues of moderation, sustainabil-
ity and looking past short-term profits
to better assess all the long-term gains.
 EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
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Some 10 years of applying the principles of His
Majesty the King’s Sufficiency Economy Philosophy
(SEP) in the national education system have yielded
substantial results. As of 2015, of the approximately
40,000 primary and secondary schools in Thailand,
more than 16,000 have been certified as having suc-
cessfully integrated the philosophy as a practical ori-
entation in teaching.
The aim of the SEP campaign for education reform
is to promote sustainability practices and mindsets
as a basis for national development. SEP offers a
paradigm for responsible behavior through suffi-
ciency thinking based on three principles – modera-
tion, reasonableness, and prudence – along with the
two conditions of virtues and knowledge.
At the level of individual student behaviors – the
focus of the reform – the aim has been to cultivate
SEP-based mindset and practices in young students
in the name of building a sustainable society. The
holistic approach of SEP schools in Thailand impacts
the “head, heart and hands” of students – the intel-
lectual, spiritual and practical aspects of education.
SEP schools seek to cultivate attitudes that will help
students to form lifelong habits of thinking and doing
that support sustainability in society in general.
Students are encouraged to develop a sufficiency
Sufficiency perspective for living a self-reliant and balanced
Education lifestyle.
Learning
Centers (SELCs):
Special educa- Curricular goal aim to inculcate a moral and ethical
tional institu- outlook associated with a disciplined approach
tions that train that reflects virtues. The SEP-imbued curriculum
teachers and also includes decision-making principles. Students
administrators of should use reasoning in applying knowledge, with
schools that are prudence and carefulness, in order to contribute
striving for Suffi-
ciency Education their share of school and community benefits. In
Philosophy (SEP) these schools, learning through doing (questioning,
accreditation. planning, acting, and reflecting), and developing
384
sufficiency-based decision-making and interest in
local and global knowledge are essential.
In the beginning, these schools had a curriculum
that can instill SEP-based behavioral principles in
students. However, classroom teaching alone was
insufficient to change thinking and action, so a
“whole school” approach has also been developed
that applies sufficiency thinking in all school activi-
ties, including management, extracurricular student
activities and community relations. Two levels of
school certification for sufficiency-based schools
have been established by the Ministry of Education.
The first certification level for sufficiency-based
schools concerns such a SEP curriculum and a whole
school approach. The second type of school certifi-
cation in SEP exists: Sufficiency Education Learning
Centers (SELCs) that can offer teaching, advice,
mentoring and supervision to other schools aiming
to become sufficiency-accredited. At present, 68
schools have thus qualified as SELCs.
To be certified as a sufficiency-based school, the
headmaster and teachers must work together to
prepare themselves and apply through their school
district. The voluntary basis of participation in suf-
ficiency school certification reflects an “inside-out”
approach to educational development that springs
from internal motivation, emanating from the inspi-
rational nature of SEP as a gift from His Majesty the
King to his people.
A career incentive is also built-in to help drive the
growth of certified schools. SEP training is available
to district managers, school directors, lecturers and
teachers. Headmasters and school staff can use
their SEP project experience to apply for promotion
in their careers. A school’s quest for sufficiency
certification often starts with the aim to improve
its management of its limited resources. Only few
private schools, where students come from well-
Primary students at Roongaroon School in Bangkok practice rice farming.
to-do families, have ample resources and use SEP to
cultivate moderation, sharing and good citizenship
in their students. Cultivating sufficiency mindsets
in schools is important for developing sustainable
Thailand for many future generations.
Schools ‘sufficiency-based activities are extended
to the greater community. Volunteers are trained to
be the main change- agents educating community
people, parents and students. SEP applications in
daily life include developing attitudes toward mod-
eration in many families. According to the research
conducted by the Sufficiency School Center of the
Foundation of Virtuous Youth, evidence of favorable
outcomes from SEP impacts among students include
reports of graduates of SEP schools entering presti-
gious universities and faculties, of increased student
enrollments, and of improvement in results from the
universal O-NET (Ordinary National Educational Test).
Qualitative measures from sufficiency-based schools
include students demonstrating greater modera-
tion, for example, re-using the reverse side of sin-
gle-printed pages, volunteerism, courtesy and disci-
pline. They realize the importance of balancing four
dimensions (material, social, spiritual and cultural)
in their lives, know how to utilize limited resources, O-NET
and share with others. Students show enhanced (Ordinary
analytical and social skills. They become assertive National
and self-confident. They participate in and are Educational
proud of their local cultural activities. In sum, they Test):
are acquiring “21st century skills” (e.g. higher-order A standardized
thinking, creativity and good citizenship). Teachers test on eight
major subjects
at SEP schools also show greater prudence and administered
improved personal management in their finances, by the National
and greater engagement and a spirit of volunteerism. Institute of
Educational
Parents at the SEP schools report being satisfied Testing Service
with the results that sufficiency education show (NIETS) to assess
in their children, in terms of student development the academic
along SEP guidelines. Parents’ interview responses proficiency of
indicate that they see the SEP approach working in 6th, 9th and
forging effective partnerships between school and 12th graders in
Thailand.
local community. They see the students, school and
community working together to identify and solve
local problems and issues such as poor health owing
to lack of nutritious food.
Developing SEP-oriented attitudes and practices
in schools and communities clearly supports the
UNESCO vision of “Education for Sustainable
Development.”
385
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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and preserving culture. sustainability, such as recycling. practice their patience and stamina principles such as the Chantanimitr

386 387
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

FURTHER READING
• Whole-school approaches to sustainability: An international review of
whole-school sustainability programs,
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UNESCO’s Education for Sustainable Development 4ZEOFZ


• Sufficiency Economy: Philosophy and Development,
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a sustainable future. ESD takes a holistic approach that identifies environmental sustainability with &DPOPNZ
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Centre in-house researchers,
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the sustainability of society. It is to be promoted both informally and through all educational levels. An interview with PRIYANUT DHARMAPIYA ,
The aim is to build capacity for community-based decision-making, social tolerance, environmental Director of the Sufficiency School Centre,
• Shaping the Education of Tomorrow: 2012 Full-length Report on the
UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development,
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stewardship, an adaptable workforce and improved quality of life for all, using techniques that pro- Foundation of Virtuous Youth, Bangkok. 6/&4$0
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mote participatory learning and informed thinking.

The key features of sustainable schools are listed 5. Curriculum committed to sustainability. ings might not be compatible with
here, which have been culled from evidence-based “World citizens are facing 4&1
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findings in the “Further Reading” sidebar. 6. The school as a “learning organization,” using EJGmDVMU
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participatory learning approaches for students shared problems regarding mindset and practices. The develop-
1. A commitment to positive social, environmen- and reflective practice for teachers. Sustainable environmental deteriora- ment of sustainability in Thai society
tal and economic outcomes, focusing on socio- education requires integrative, problem-based tion, conflict, and gradual has been slow partly due to a decade
cultural dimensions of sustainability rather than and exploratory forms of learning that invite decline in cultural heritage PG
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a restricted focus on “green” agendas. participants to be critical, creative and change- and spiritual values....In JO
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involvement and consensual decision-making. 7. Whole-school approaches with sustain- SEP principles bestowed undertaking requires participation
ability practices in all aspects of school activ- by our king as a systemic from other larger sectors of society.
3. Continuing professional development for ities and everyone’s lives. They coordinate process to restore balance in 4&1
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teachers and all participants. sustainable learning activities between school and developing the country.” UIF
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community. in accord with sufficiency practice
4. Extensive multi-stakeholder partnerships (i.e., JO
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society at large is also the students’
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active engagement of multiple actors in the joint 9. Appropriate political support (i.e., through the King of Thailand’s Sufficiency cal characteristics). We have gone behavior.
redesign of basic operations, processes and rela- Ministry of Education and other governmental Economy Philosophy (SEP)? through a learning process and have
tionships of school-related activities. agencies). World citizens are facing shared understood how to develop sufficien- Can SEP be applied in other
problems regarding environmental DZCBTFE
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international character-building
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restore balance in developing the We try to identify as many differ- learning through reflection or self-
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such as moving to other communi- focusing on just one or a few
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388 389
 ENERGY
SAVINGS
*1 -)( )/Ʉ. /.Ʉ/-" /.Ʉ/*Ʉ$(+-*1 Ʉ
)/$*)Ɩ.Ʉ ) -"4Ʉ Ů$ )4
As fossil fuels grow scarcer, Thailand is becoming
a regional leader in the promotion of renewable
energy for a number of good reasons. By reducing
imports of fossil fuels from abroad, it has improved
the country’s energy security and its trade balance,
while developing a rich resource base of renewable
energy that has also generated much-needed jobs in
rural parts of the country. Through these initiatives
the kingdom’s contribution to reducing greenhouse
gas emissions to ameliorate the effects of climate
change has been laudable.
Although developing fossil fuel sources remains
a government priority, the fact that the price of
renewable energy is dropping has become a key
driver bound to further accelerate production in
coming years. Among Asian nations, Thailand was
one of the first to implement a feed-in tariff, or
“adder” program, incentivizing renewable energy
development. Thailand’s adder program offers
renewable energy producers long-term contracts
to sell electricity at attractive rates. Companies that
generate power through biomass, biogas, hydro,
solar, wind and waste energy are eligible for the
adder program. Providing incentives like these to
switch to renewables remains important, but alter-
Energy intensity: native energies may soon be able to stand on their
A measure of the own in the Thai marketplace.
energy efficiency
of a nation’s That’s also because carbon markets have brought
economy. It is innovative renewable energy technology, capacity
calculated as and climate finance capital into Thailand. Carbon
units of energy
per unit of GDP. credits from Thailand are still used to offset the
Higher energy in- carbon footprints of a range of international orga-
tensities indicate nizations and products. Even Thai Airways uses
a higher price or carbon credits from Thailand to offset emissions
cost of converting from their flights and a small but growing number of
energy into GDP. Thai businesses offer climate neutral options for their
Thailand has be-
gun to reduce its products.
energy intensity
in recent years. These efforts have been boosted by the Thailand
390
Bangkok consumes about 30 percent of the whole country’s electricity.
Greenhouse Gas Organization (TGO), which was
formed in 2007 as an autonomous government
agency charged with implementing strategies to
lower greenhouse gas emissions after Thailand
ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. The kingdom,
classified as a Non-Annex I country, has been
promoting and implementing Clean Development
Mechanisms (CDMs) through the TGO as part of its
commitment to the protocol.
As in many other countries, solar is emerging as the
lead alternative energy industry as the technology
to cost-effectively harness the clean, renewable
energy from the sun continually improves. Although
the price for photovoltaic technology was once
astronomical, the price of solar has tumbled from
nearly US$75 (2,550 baht) per watt in 1972 to less
than US$0.70 (24 baht) in 2014. Today the use of
solar is growing faster than any other power source
worldwide. Solar will compete with generation from
fossil sources on a commercial basis within the next
five to 10 years, making the construction of new
fossil assets obsolete.
In Thailand, solar supplied about 4 percent of
the power production in 2014 at roughly 1,300
megawatts (MW). That figure could double in 2015
to about 2,600 MW. Although this is still small
compared to global solar leaders like Germany and
China, Thailand maintains its position as the solar
powerhouse of the region, producing more than the
rest of ASEAN combined.
However, there are other renewable technologies
at play, too. A solar thermal plant is in operation in
Kanchanaburi, and windmills are being tested in
various parts of the country, as are small hydro
applications.
The use of biogas and biomass has already trans-
formed the nature of competitiveness in a number
of agro-industries. For example, no starch producer
can afford to not produce and use biogas from its
wastewater because of its impact on energy-related
production costs.
The concept of using agricultural waste as a resource
offers multiple avenues for profit: not only is it useful
for power generation, but it also provides waste
management solutions and produces other “clean”
materials such as fertilizers, chemicals and plastics.
One of Thailand’s leading green energy producers,
Energy crops like palm oil play a key role in Thailand’s policy on renewable energy.
In Thailand, solar supplied about 4 percent of the
power production in 2014 at roughly 1,300 MW.
That figure looked set to double in 2015.
Bangchak Petroleum, has announced a six-year,
90-billion-baht business plan with a significant focus
on environmentally sustainable power plants and
renewable energy. Bangchak already operates a solar
farm that produces 38 MW of electricity.
Energy crops, such as Napier grass, are expected to
play a very large role in the mid-term future: unlike
agricultural waste, these crops are grown for the
explicit purpose of energy production.
Last but not least, investment in second-generation,
integrated bio-refineries is expected to take off on a
very large scale, with the potential to turn Thailand
into the Middle East of the bio-economy.
In the short-term, costs are the biggest challenges for
alternative energies, because the share of the upfront
investment – as part of the overall, levelized produc-
tion cost – is higher in comparison to fossil energy
solutions (which have a higher share of variable costs
meaning the fuel costs) and a lower share of capex
investment. This is critical especially when access to
capital is difficult or expensive.
To see what is driving these trends in renewable
energy one can look to other countries around the
world to see that solar will soon be the cheapest
form of energy on the planet, and where profits
loom the private sector comes running. The main
question now is how can policy-makers and other
stakeholders help to steer these drivers down a
faster track while eliminating the regulatory hurdles
holding them back to increase Thailand’s competi-
tiveness in the new low-carbon economy?
391
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR ENERGY SAVINGS

Thailand’s Energy Efficiency Development Plan (2011–2030) PVUTJEF
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with a focus on replacing highway
Policy targets include long-term, short-term and sector-specific goals. These include the following: LED program FOFSHZ
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289,000 kilotons of oil equivalent, avoiding 976
million tons of carbon dioxide emissions, and
saving a total of 5.4 trillion baht on energy ex-
penditures. To achieve these targets, the EEDP 
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prescribes the following five strategic approach-
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Thailand’s Energy SFGSJHFSBUPST
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ciency labeling on equipment and appliances History: Established in 1993 by the and water heaters. energy efficiency labeling for certain
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Thailand (EGAT) UIF
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392 393

SUSTAINABLE
TRANSPORT
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The world is rapidly urbanizing, especially in Asia.
Over the next 20 years, India and China will welcome
another 500 million urban dwellers into their cities.
These burgeoning metropolises are the engines of
their national economies, but they run the risk of
stalling if clogged by congestion, pollution, green-
house gas emissions and cars driven by the middle
and upper classes hogging the roads. All told, the
economic costs of transport externalities eat up
an estimated 5 to 10 percent of GDP in developing
countries.
Eco car: In Thailand, in 2012, the transport sector was
According to responsible for 27.5 percent of all CO2 emissions
the Board of from energy consumption in Thailand. Almost all of
Investment in these emissions were generated in the road sector,
Thailand, “an
eco car is a motor with the Bangkok Metropolitan Region accounting
vehicle that emits for about half. The percentages are not unusual;
either modest or they reflect the general transport policy trend in
no greenhouse emerging economies to focus on building roads
gasses and for cars and trucks. However, in the next phase of
as such is less the country’s development, sustainable transport
harmful on the
environment, in solutions have to feature more prominently, in order
comparison to to maintain steady economic growth, safeguard
conventional the environment, and foster good health among
internal com- urbanites. In addition, with Thailand’s geographic
bustion engine location in the middle of the ASEAN member
vehicles running nations, the country is situated to become the
on gasoline or
diesel, or one that logistical hub of Southeast Asia, making transport
uses certain alter- infrastructure all the more important for economic
native fuels.” growth following the integration of the ASEAN
Economic Community.
In 2012, the tran- Thailand is taking steps to integrate
these approaches into its ongoing
sport sector was transport planning policies. The auto-
responsible for 27.5 mobile tax structure, widely blamed
percent of all CO2 for the proliferation of the heavy
emissions from and inefficient pickup trucks on the
energy consumption country’s roads, will be reformed and
restructured to include taxes based
in Thailand. on CO2 emissions and energy effi-
394
27.5 percent of all CO2 emissions in Thailand are from the transport sector.
ciency as of 2016. The automobile manufacturing
industry is being reshaped with the second phase
of the eco car scheme, which prescribes stringent
standards and promotes the production of energy-
efficient vehicles that produce lower carbon
emissions.
In Bangkok, massive extensions to the mass transit
networks known as the BTS, or Skytrain, and the
MRT, or subway, are being constructed, as well as
new lines. Urban freight centers are being estab-
lished to take the weight off the capital’s roads from
all the big trucks hauling goods.
In another massive development announced at the
end of 2014, the government signed an agreement
with Chinese state companies and financiers to
develop an 867-kilometer rail corridor from Nong
Khai to Bangkok and the industrial estate of Map Ta
Phut, which will expedite the delivery of freight and
reduce the wear and tear on the roads from truck
traffic. It is the first step in the ambitious government
scheme to build 3,000 kilometers of modern dual-
track railway lines across the country.
In the capital, the Office of Transport and Traffic
Policy and Planning (OTP) is in charge of pub-
lishing traffic management proposals focused on
discouraging car use and promoting more public
transport. One practical way to achieve that aim is by
revamping Bangkok’s bus network. At the moment,
the Bangkok Metropolitan Transit Authority is
upgrading its fleet with 3,183 buses that run on
natural gas to replace most of the old diesel vehicles.
GPS tracking and traffic management is being intro-
duced on select bus routes, while the entire network
is slated for route consolidation and optimization to
improve efficiency.
Also on the drawing board is an integrated ticketing
system for rail, bus, boat and road tolls, as well as
the remodeling of Skytrain and subway stations to
make them more accessible for pedestrians and
cyclists.
One can truly say that Thailand is at a transport
crossroads. The plans and policies currently in place
need to be further expanded and strengthened –
and fully implemented in a timely manner – to
provide a comprehensive framework for the sus-
tainable development of this crucial sector in the
decades to come.
Avoid – Shift – Improve
Sustainable transport solutions are the answer
to the modern mobility conundrum: how to move
even more people and goods while keeping overall
costs and impacts low. In the sphere of policy-
making, these solutions are usually categorized
under the “Avoid-Shift-Improve” framework.
Local innovations of electric cars and e-tuk-tuks help save fossil fuel
consumption on city streets.
“AVOID” – WHAT IS IT? Reducing travel demand
and bringing people, goods and services together
with fewer and shorter trips.
HOW IS IT DONE? Mixed land-use planning means
all amenities in business and residential districts
are within walking distance; more efficient public
transport networks and vehicles; improved route op-
timization and loading for trucks; holding video con-
ferencing sessions instead of face-to face meetings.
“SHIFT” – WHAT IS IT? Changing behaviors so
people are less likely to take so many car trips and
more likely to use public transport
HOW IS IT DONE? Building extensive public trans-
port networks in cities, promoting cycling and
walking, discouraging car use through road charges
and tax mechanisms, using rivers and railways
instead of trucks to haul goods.
“IMPROVE” – WHAT IS IT? Developing ad-
vanced technology that makes vehicles more en-
ergy efficient and less prone to causing pollution.
HOW IS IT DONE? Using more electric and hybrid
vehicles, cleaner fossil fuels and biofuels, promot-
ing more efficient fuel injection systems, and trucks
with more aerodynamic cabins and less energy-
guzzling trailers.
395
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

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impact of motor vehicles.

396 397
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

Lightening the Ecological Load

SINGAPORE:
High transport costs are lowering productivity and
profits in Asia’s export-oriented economies. Costing Gearing Down the Car
between 15 and 25 percent of GDP, they are two 5IF
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to three times higher than in the US, Europe and at the forefront of sustainable trans- Numerous projects have enabled
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COPENHAGEN:
On the Road to Smart City Status
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residents use a bicycle for inner-city per year.

398 399
 SUSTAINABLE
CITIES

-*..Ʉ#$')ƇɄ.(''Ʉ$/$ .Ʉ
have big ambitions
Compact city: In a world where 54 percent of the population lives Future. But it was not until 2012 that the United
A popular con- in urban areas, sustainable urbanization is a key con- Nations System Task Team included the concept of
cept among some sideration of sustainable development, especially in sustainable cities as a major issue in the pursuit of
urban planners developing countries, such as Thailand, where the sustainable development. The UN identified four
and sustain- World Bank estimates that 98 percent of the world’s main pillars required to build a sustainable city:
able develop-
ment thinkers. urbanization is happening, and at a more rapid pace social development, economic development, envi-
Essentially it than in the past. ronmental management and urban governance.
advocates a
high population The importance of urban growth and its impact on In Thailand, urbanization is dominated by Bangkok
density around the environment was officially recognized in 1987 through what is known as the “primate city” phe-
mixed land uses, by the Brundtland Commission, a UN-organized nomenon. In 2010, the capital had almost nine
highlighted by
outstanding research group behind the seminal report on sus- million inhabitants and boasted nearly 80 percent of
public transport. tainable development known as Our Common the total urban area of Thailand. Bangkok’s rapidly
Thailand’s resort town of Hua Hin.

Experts Weigh in on the Keys to Creating a Sustainble City
“In terms of sustainable urbaniza-
tion policies, there are numerous
policy options in different sectors
that don’t entail hefty spending
by the municipality. Sometimes,
achieving sustainable urbanization is
just as much a question of changing
consumption habits and lifestyle
practices by engaging in education
and community outreach — none
of which are particularly expensive.
But they all require political com-
mitment; that is essential. Political
commitment may come from the
mayor, or other local politicians, or
within the council more generally,
but without it, sustainable urban-
ization policies will continue to be
sidelined.”
–Rowan Fraser, Architect and Urban
Development Consultant
“Urban sustainability is possible not
only because of policies and their
implementation but also the citizens
who reside in its vicinities. The citizens
have to value their environmental
resources; as they consume, they have
to be able to sustain the resources.
They have to understand the impacts
of their activities on the environ-
ment. It is also important that citizens
are satisfied with their surroundings
and are willing to keep their own
unique, authentic lifestyle including
culture and traditions. Policies and
their implementation are only one
dimension, the quality of citizens such
as honesty, integrity and ethics are
crucial to bring the whole community
toward sustainability.”
— Dr. Nathsuda Pumijumnong, Faculty
of Environment and Resource Studies,
Mahidol University
“The greatest challenge...is the holistic
and integrated approach required
to tackle development issues. There
are many instances of national gov-
ernment agencies, municipalities,
regulatory bodies, NGOs, interna-
tional agencies, and the private sector
working in a fragmented way that is
unable to effectively address socioeco-
nomic and environmental concerns.
This kind of compartmentalization and
individualized way of working makes it
difficult to implement policies because
by nature, cities, communities, and all
their socioeconomic and environmen-
tal problems are highly interconnected
with one another, requiring multi-dis-
ciplinary approaches and cooperation
from all stakeholders involved.”
—Paht Tan-Attanawin, Oxfam, Asia
Regional Centre, Bangkok
growing population has nearly placed the city on
par with the “megacities” of the world, or cities
whose populations exceed 10 million. Although the
world has 28 mega-cities, the World Bank estimates
that almost half of the world’s urban population
lives in settlements with less than 500,000 citizens.
This model of what is often referred to as the
compact city has become the focus of Thailand’s
sustainable city projects.
The concept of sustainable cities was introduced
in Thailand in 2004 by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment and is based, in part,
on the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy of King
Bhumibol Adulyadej, which can be applied not only
to rural development but also to urban develop-
ment. The Thailand Sustainable City Project intends
to strengthen local governments in environmental
management by promoting public participation,
developing capacity-building activities and trans-
ferring experiences from city to city. Project imple-
mentation started with 15 local governments as pilot
sites and 485 local governments collaborating in the
“Sustainable City Network.” Some of the most suc-
cessful Sustainable City Projects have been awarded
by the ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally
Sustainable Cities (ESC).
Building ESCs has been a top regional priority
as well, since the East Asia Summit Environment
Ministers Meeting (EAS EMM) of 2008. The ASEAN
Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint (2009–2015)
was developed to improve environmental sustain-
ability. One main objective is to meet the social and
economic needs of the people without depleting
natural resources. Specific actions to reduce
pollution and improve air and water quality through
regional or national initiatives have been proposed,
including intensifying individual and collective
efforts; encouraging transference of experiences,
expertise and technology; promoting initiatives
towards a “Low Carbon Society;” implementing
“Compact City” and “Environmentally Sustainable
Transport” concepts; developing internationally
comparable measures and indicators for environ-
mental sustainability by 2015; and introducing an
ASEAN ESC Award as an incentive to promote these
practices.
The ASEAN ESC Awards is given by the ASEAN
Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable
Cities and endorsed by the ASEAN Environment
Ministers. Three ASEAN ESC Awards (2008, 2011 and
2014) have been given to cities in Thailand thus far:
Bangkok, Phuket city and Chiang Rai city.

400 401
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES

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Sustainable City in 2011 Sustainable City in 2014 places to sell products made of recycled tion activity where residents created
Location: Approximately Location: The northern- materials; developing waste collection a database of large plant species to
862 kilometers south of most city of Thailand, with a fleet of trucks and volunteers who increase people’s awareness of their
Bangkok it is the gateway to the report any uncollected solid waste; and environment and to prevent deforesta-
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SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND SOCIETY TPDJBM
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research from around the world be accessed online at http://www. Small Cities category. The city’s major achievement was to monitor water-supply quality and effluent
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402 403
 INTERNATIONAL
PARTNERSHIPS
# Ʉ-*' Ʉ*!Ʉ.Ʉ$)Ʉ+$/4Ʉ0$'$)"
Thais have a long history of openness to foreigners
dating as far back as the Ayudhya Kingdom, which
was founded in 1351. After Chinese and Indian
traders settled in Ayudhya, explorers from Portugal
arrived in 1512, representing the first Western
engagement. By the 17th century, Ayudhya had
become famous for its cosmopolitan nature, with
many peoples from around the world represented.
The Europeans that followed the Portuguese also
had a second agenda: to introduce Christianity to
Thailand. The European and American missionar-
ies of the 19th century tended to be unsuccessful
in converting Buddhists, but they still had a large
impact through the Western technology and medical
knowledge they introduced. American missionar-
ies founded the Bangkok Christian College as the
first boys’ school in 1852. The Thai government,
seeing the importance of education, modeled public
schools after those established by the missionaries.
Thus, in a way, missionaries are considered to have
created the first international NGOs in Thailand.
At the beginning of the 20th century, many Chinese
immigrated to Thailand and founded philanthropic
A letter from Prince Mahidol to the Royal photograph of Rama VII and Queen Rambhai
Rockefeller Foundation. Barni being welcomed by the Rockefeller Foundation.
404
organizations still in operation today, such as the
Poh Teck Tung Foundation, which works in accident
and disaster relief. Thailand also launched its first
homegrown NGO, Sapha Unalom Daeng (later
the Thai Red Cross), to help the poor and sick. The
Rockefeller Foundation arrived in 1915 and suc-
cessfully collaborated with the Thai government in
improving public health and medical education.
During Thailand’s economic boom in the 1960s
and 1970s, mass migration to Bangkok led to over-
crowded slums, neglected rural communities and
a widening income gap. Although the government
focused on improving the national infrastructure
and expanding rural development, its coverage
extended to only 60 percent of the rural areas. NGOs
responded with community development projects.
They helped resource-poor communities become
self-reliant, realizing that providing services without
any capacity building would only increase the
dependency on assistance.
The number of both local and international NGOs
in Thailand grew during the 1970s as a result of
conflicts within Southeast Asia, inspiring efforts by
The laboratory of bacteriology at the Faculty of Medicine
at Chulalongkorn University in the 1930s.
International partnerships in modern medicine development began in the 1920s at Siriraj Hospital.
the Christian Children’s Foundation (CCF), CARE
Foundation (Rak Thai Foundation), Plan International
and Save the Children. Oxfam launched its first
project in Thailand to aid war refugees suffering from
leprosy. Several German organizations such as the
Friedrich Naumann Foundation engaged in political
education. Amnesty International has been advo-
cating human rights in Thailand since the political
unrest of October 6, 1976, and was later joined by
Human Rights Watch.
Environmental issues have also been addressed since
the 1990s, when economic growth began to deplete
natural resources. NGOs such as Worldwide Fund for
Nature (WWF) and Greenpeace arrived in Thailand
to support the conservation of wildlife and nature.
Before the 2000s, 27 international NGOs operated
in Thailand, but many of them have transferred their
projects to local NGOs due to Thailand’s improved
economy. In 2003, the Thai government announced
that it had stopped accepting foreign aid so that the
money could go to poorer neighboring countries.
This long history shows that international organi-
Currently, local NGOs face the challenge
of becoming self-reliant, as many have
received the majority of their financial
aid from international organizations
for almost 50 years.
zations have collaborated with local stakeholders
in tackling an array of pertinent issues in sustain-
able development. These are just some examples
of foreign support besides direct aid from the
United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the
Asian Development Bank and the governments of
developed countries.
Currently, local NGOs face the challenge of
becoming self-reliant, as many have received the
majority of their financial aid from international
organizations for almost 50 years. It is an interesting
time to watch the movement of local NGOs, espe-
cially as Thailand faces new issues as the result of
becoming an upper-middle-income country.
405
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR
Oxfam
History: Founded during World
War II in 1942 as the Oxford
Committee for Famine Relief
(Oxfam)
Location: Headquartered in the
UK, operating worldwide
Key features: Oxfam works in 90
countries to eradicate poverty and

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injustice. It has reached 3.9 million
people through health programs;

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World Wide Fund
for Nature
History: Founded in
1961 as the World Wildlife Fund,
now known as the World Wide Fund
for Nature
Location: Based in Switzerland,
operating worldwide
Key features: The world’s largest
non-governmental environmental
conservation organization, WWF
strives to safeguard the natural
world, take action against climate
change and protect biodiversity.
Operating in more than 100 coun-
tries, WWF is known for using the
most current scientific research.
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management of marine resources.
WWF works with Thai government agencies to provide community-based wetland management and innovative wildlife conservation.

406 407
PART III | PUBLIC SECTOR INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS

The Rockefeller Before ASHVIN DAYAL joined the Rockefeller Foundation in 2008, he held leading roles at Oxfam Great Britain for 15
Foundation years. Today, Dayal is associate vice president and managing director of the Rockefeller Foundation. He manages the
History: Founded in 1913 by the regional Asian office in Bangkok and leads a major capacity-building initiative to help cities adapt to climate change.
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York, operating worldwide
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to “promote the well-being of your work in Thailand? When we issues that are going to be import-
humanity throughout the world,”
the foundation has given more than
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sive for many decades. We also see
Hookworm eradication was Rockefeller’s first helped introduce a new breed of rice learned from Thailand’s developmental the emergence of a new wave of very
project in Thailand. and farming techniques that yielded two evolution to other countries. innovative young philanthropists and Urban resilience is among the issues the Rockefeller Foundation works on with local communities.

408 409
 EDITORIAL TEAM
Alex Mavro (contributing editor) believes in
business as a calling to serve the needs of
others so that in the end, everyone profits. He
is a highly regarded writer and speaker on the
subject of purposeful stakeholder respon-
siveness and Chief of Operations, Centre for
Sustainability Management, Sasin Graduate
Institute of Business Administration of
Chulalongkorn University.
Amornrat Mahitthirook (writer: “Transporta-
tion”) is a 20-year veteran of the Bangkok Post
who covers the transportation sector.
Amy Wu (writer: “Trade”) has over 20 years of
professional journalism experience, including
at TIME, San Francisco Chronicle, and The Deal.
Anchalee Kongrut (writer: “Soil”, “Water”,
“Urbanization”, “Disasters”) has been a reporter
at the Bangkok Post since 1997. She focuses on
environmental issues. She has Master of Arts on
mass media studies from The New School for
Social Research in New York City.
Anjira Assavanonda (writer: “Health”) spent 16
years reporting local and international stories
with special focus on health and social issues
for the Bangkok Post.
Apiradee Treerutkuarkul (editor and writer:
“Gender Equality”) spent the last 15 years as a
print journalist and communications consultant
for non-governmental organizations based in
Bangkok prior to helping lead this project.
Apornrath Phoonphongphiphat (writer:
“Trade”) is a journalist with more than 20 years
experience covering agricultural and industrial
commodities.
Arianna Flores (writer: “Sustainable Cities”) is a
political scientist, who earned a Masters degree
in Environmental Management and Technology
at Mahidol University. Her recent research
focuses on renewable energy, governance and
the environment, and sustainable cities.
Ben Davies (writer: “Biodiversity”, “Wildlife”) is a
Bangkok-based journalist and photographer. He
regularly contributes articles on the international
wildlife trade and is author of Black Market -
Inside the Endangered Species Trade in Asia.
Benjapa Sodsathit (art director) received an
MFA from Minneapolis College of Art & Design
in Visual Studies and a BFA from Silpakorn
University. She is co-founder of Palotai Design
Co., Ltd., which serves clients locally and
internationally.
Chanthipapha Sopanaphimon (designer)
earned her BFA from Silpakorn University.
Deunden Nikomborirak (writer: “State-owned
Enterprises”) is a research director at the Thai-
410
land Development Research Institute, a private
economic policy think-tank in Bangkok. Her
area of expertise include competition policy,
sectoral regulations, governance, anti-corrup-
tion strategy and services trade and investment.
Evan Gershkovich (writer: “Reforestation”) has
worked in Thailand as a freelance journalist
covering forest conflict and as a communica-
tions specialist for a community forestry NGO.
Francis Wade (writer: “Tourism”, “Conflict”) is a
freelance journalist based between Southeast
Asia and London, with a focus on Myanmar. He
worked as a journalist in Thailand for six years.
Greg Jorgensen (writer: “Commuting”) writes
about expat life in Thailand at GregToDiffer.
com, and was co-creator and co-host of
BangkokPodcast.com.
Ingo Puhl (contributing editor) is a co-founder
of the South Pole Group, a World Economic
Forum-recognized, clean-tech social enterprise,
and an angel investor in companies that seek
to create positive social and environmental
impact at scale in the fields of food, consumer
choice, consumer loyalty/reward and cause-re-
lated fundraising. He is also co-founder of
Collaborative Designs, an investment company
and accelerator that nourishes the execution of
ideas that benefit communities and the planet.
Inhee Chung (writer: “Introduction”) leads the
Sustainability and Safeguards program at the
Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI). Previ-
ously, she managed projects on biodiversity,
cleaner production and green buildings at ERM
and UNEP.
Jim Algie (editor and writer: “Religion”,
“Forests”, “Agriculture”, “Sustainable Tour-
ism”, “Restaurants”) is a Thailand veteran of
Scottish-Canadian vintage who has authored a
number of acclaimed books on the kingdom,
and contributed a chapter to EDM’s history
book, Americans in Thailand.
Khan Ram-Indra (writer: “Introduction”) is an
environmental economist by training. He has
worked on sustainable development, climate
change, and clean energy for USAID, the British
Embassy and private sector. He is currently
serving as the Thailand Program Manager for
the Global Green Growth Institute.
Kim Atkinson (editor: “Education for Sus-
tainable Development”) spent his career as
an editor for UN agencies in Bangkok, Rome
and West Africa, then returned to Bangkok to
continue editing and teach writing.
Luxana Kiratibhongse (art director) graduated
with a Fine Arts degree from Macalester
College in the US. A graphic designer for more
than 10 years, she has been commissioned by
clients in Thailand and around the world for
marketing, advertising and editorial projects.
Mark Fenn (writer: “Forest Conservation”) is a
British journalist based in Thailand.
Mick Elmore (writer: “Alternative Energy”), a
journalist of 30 years, has filed stories for nearly
100 publications from 20-plus countries. Based
in Thailand since 1992, Mick earned his South-
east Asian Studies Masters at Chulalongkorn
University and teaches there.
Molraudee Saratun (writer: “Education for
Sustainable Development”) is an Assistant
Professor at the College of Management,
Mahidol University. Her research focuses on
human resource management, corporate
sustainability and the Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy.
Nelly Sangrujiveth (writer: “Energy Savings”)
has a JD and LLM in Environmental Law from
the University of Oregon. Since graduating, she
has worked with donor organization projects
seeking to increase the implementation of
clean energy in Asia through innovative financ-
ing and good governance.
Nicholas Grossman (editor-in-chief) has
produced 10 books on Thailand, including
Thailand: 9 Days in the Kingdom, Chronicle of
Thailand, Thailand At Random, Americans in
Thailand, A History of the Thai-Chinese, and
King Bhumibol Adulyadej: A Life’s Work.
Nikola Stalevski (writer: “Consumer Choices”,
“Sustainable Transport”) develops and pro-
motes sustainability interventions in Bangkok
for international cooperation agencies (GIZ
and others). His passions are climate change
mitigation, cities and transport.
Nina Wegner (editor and writer: “Organic
Revolution”, “Integrated Farming”, “Social
Enterprise”), is a freelance journalist who writes
about indigenous issues and corporate
responsibility in developing countries. Her
work has been published in Al Jazeera, The
Atlantic and The Huffington Post, among others.
Noel Boivin (writer: “Heritage”, “Personal Par-
ticipation and Awareness”), a Canadian writer
and communications specialist, worked in
media in Bangkok for a decade before joining
the United Nations Education, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) as a media
and communications officer.
Patima Klinsong (writer: “Historical Preserva-
tion”, “Family”, “Poverty/Income Inequality”),
a graduate in Technical Communication from
Illinois Institute of Technology, has been a jour-
nalist, writer and translator for over 15 years.
Patinya Rojnukkarin (art director) earned her
MFA from Minneapolis College of Art & Design
in Visual Studies and BFA from Silpakorn
University. She has 15 years of graphic and
motion graphic experience.
Pattraporn Yamla-or (writer: “Sustainable
Business”, “International Partnerships”) is the
co-founder of Sal Forest Co, Ltd., which furthers
public discourse on sustainable business by
conducting research on key sustainability issues
as well as running workshops and events.
Phisanu Phromchanya (writer: “Labor”,
“Finance”, “Corruption”) has over 15 years of fi-
nancial journalism experience with internation-
al wire services. He is now a consultant for an
anti-corruption initiative in the private sector.
Purnama Pawa (assistant editor) is an editorial
assistant, and sales and marketing manager for
EDM. She holds a BA in Communications
Management from Chulalongkorn University.
Raviprapa Srisartsanarat (writer: “Public
Participation”) is an international develop-
ment specialist with more than 17 years of
experience in designing, managing, monitoring
and advising on development programs for
leading international donors, NGOs, and Thai
government agencies.
Siree Simaraks (designer) has over six years
of experience in graphic design. She holds a
bachelor’s degree in Graphic Design from the
Faculty of Architecture, Urban Design and
Creative Arts at Mahasarakham University.
Sofia Mitra-Thakur (writer: “Green Finance and
Banking”, “Indices”) is a British journalist and
writer, currently working at the Bangkok Post.
She has previously worked for the South China
Morning Post, The Telegraph, and The Indepen-
dent, and Engineering & Technology Magazine.
Surasak Glahan (writer: “Oceans and Seas”,
“Saving Marine Habitats”, “Coastal Resource
Management”) has over 10 years in journalism
and communications, including as a reporter at
the Bangkok Post. He has worked for regional
and international NGOs and inter-governmen-
tal organizations.
Surasak Tumcharoen (writer: “Area-based Ru-
ral Development”) was a Bangkok Post political
news reporter for over 25 years. He is currently
a correspondent at Xinhua News Agency.
Tibor Krausz (writer: “Urban Development”,
“Green Spaces”, “Green Homes”, “Green
Buildings”) is a widely published writer and
journalist. He is a lecturer at Bangkok Universi-
ty’s International College and has worked as a
consultant for the UN.
Tom Metcalfe (writer: “Green Manufacturing”,
“Ethical Sourcing”, “Waste Management”) is
a journalist and filmmaker with a focus on
science, environment and Asia-Pacific region.
Warinthorn Kansupmits (designer) earned her
BA in Communication Design from the Faculty of
Fine Arts at Srinakharinwirot University and has
over eight years experience in graphic design.
Wasant Techawongtham (writer: “Energy”) was
a former deputy news editor for Bangkok Post.
Currently, he is a freelance writer and editor.
Woranuj Watts (writer: “Competitiveness”,
“Manufacturing”, “Education”, “SMEs”) graduat-
ed in history from Thammasat University and
worked as a business journalist for 15 years.
She is now a freelance writer and translator.
THANKS TO OUR ADVANCE READERS
Ariya Arunin
Lecturer, Department of Landscape
Architecture, Chulalongkorn University
(Topic: Urbanization)
M.R. Chakrarot Chitrabongs
Distinguished Scholar, Chulalongkorn
University, Former Permanent Secretary of
the Ministry of Culture (Topic: Heritage)
Supachet Chansarn
Lecturer, School of Economics, Bangkok
University (Topic: Poverty/Income
Inequality)
William Klausner
Senior Fellow, Institute of Security and
International Studies, Chulalongkorn
University (Topic: Buddhism)
Orathai Kokpol
Deputy Secretary-General, King Prajadhipok’s
Institute (Topic: Public Participation)
Sucharit Koontanakulvong
Head, Water Resources System Research
Unit, Department of Water Resources
Engineering, Chulalongkorn University
(Topic: Water)
Usa Lertsrisantad
Program Director, Foundation for Women
(Topic: Gender Equality)
Kiatanantha Lounkaew
Director, Dhurakit Pundit Research Service
Center (Topics: SMEs, Poverty/Income
Inequality)
Wimonthip Musikaphan
Deputy Director, National Institute for Child
and Family Development, Mahidol University
(Topic: Family)
Willem Niemeijer
Board Member, Khiri Group (Topic: Tourism)
Deunden Nikomborirak
Research Director, Economic Governance
Thailand Development Research Institute
(Topic: Corruption)
Sumeth Ongkittikul
Research Director, Transportation and
Logistics Policy, Thailand Development
Research Institute (Topic: Transportation)
Anand Panyarachun
Former Prime Minister of Thailand
(Topics: Monarchy, Conflict)
Sompop Pattanariyankool
Head of Strategy Division,
Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of
Energy (Topic: Energy)
Prempreeda Pramoj Na Ayutthaya
National Program Officer (HIV), UNESCO
(Topic: Gender Equality)
Nipon Poapongsakorn
Distinguished Fellow, Thailand Development
Research Institute (Topic: Agriculture)
Banyong Pongpanich
Director and Chief Executive Officer
Kiatnakin Phatra Financial Group
(Topic: State-owned Enterprises)
Pranee Srihaban
Expert on design & system on land
development for Region 5 (Khon Kaen
province), Land Development Department
(Topic: Soil)
Jittima Srisuknam
Program Officer for Thailand and Lao PDR
ILO Country Office for Thailand, Cambodia
and Lao PDR (Topic: Labor)
Seree Supharatid
Director, Climate Change and Disaster Center
Rangsit University (Topic: Natural Disasters)
Viroj Tancharoensathien
Senior Adviser, International Health Policy
Program, Ministry of Public Health
(Topic: Health)
Somkiat Tangkitvanich
Director, Thailand Development Research
Institute (Topics: Competitiveness, Finance,
Manufacturing, Trade)
Ronnakorn Triraganon
Manager, Capacity Development and Techni-
cal Services, RECOFTC, the Center for People
and Forests (Topic: Forests)
Nalinee Thongtam
Biologist, Phuket Marine Biological Center
(Topic: Oceans and Seas)
Supat Wangwongwatana
Coordinator, EANET Secretariat, Network
Support, Regional Resource Center for Asia
and the Pacific and Former Director-General,
Pollution Control Department, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment
(Topic: Pollution and Waste)
Doris Wibunsin
Council Member, University of Thai-Chamber
of Commerce, Vice-Chairman Council,
Webster University (Thailand) (Topic:
Education)
Ismail Wolff
Executive Director, ASEAN Parliamentarians
for Human Rights (Topic: Conflict)
411
 INDEX
Principal coverage of a subject is entered in bold
and illustrations in italics.
A statistics 17–18; Thailand primary education
Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030
28, 29
Agriculture 254–69: Agrarian Revolution history
99; alternative agriculture movement
363; average age of farmers 409; Bank of
Agriculture 109, 283; challenges faced 98;
ChangeFusion 360; chemicals, use of 54;
conversion of land into real estate 61; defor-
estation and 64; environment performance
rank 17; Food and Agriculture Organization
(UN) 56, 72, 73, 298; forestry and 66, 67,
270, 280–1; Fukuoka’s indispensable book
248; highland agriculture 285; importance
of to sustainable development 98; insect
farms 101; integrated farming 262–9; land
cultivated increases 57; large family farms
97, 98; logging and 62; mangroves sacrificed
for 65; “New Theory Agriculture” 264, 385;
organic agriculture 249, 254–61; Organic
Agriculture Certification Thailand (OACT)
366; Oxfam and 406; percentage of GDP 18;
percentage of total land area 19; percentage
of workers involved in 179; rice farming 96;
rice paddies 100; Rockefeller Foundation
408; rural development and 100; SMEs and
116; soil as lifeblood of 54–7, 100; threats to
100; toxic agriculture 77; treated wastewater
297; water, importance of 58
Alternative Agriculture Network 97
alternative energy 330–5 see also energy
algae, possible use of 314; Bangkok Bank
encourages 369; biofuels 335; biomass, use
of 97, 314; capital directed to 368; Energy
Conservation Fund 331; energy saving loan
company 371; forecast for supply of by 2020
47; Lisu Lodge 352; solar energy 390; turning
waste heat into 377
Anand Panyarachun 195, 205, 313
Annan, Kofi 205
architecture: BIG TREES 313; Chiang Mai
University faculty 227; Crown Property
Bureau 303; Future of Architecture in 100
Buildings 329; green architecture 224;
‘Lanna’ architecture 302; McDonough and
Braungart 337; Olmsted and landscape
architecture 315; online magazine 225;
religious architecture 215; vernacular archi-
tecture 223, 227
Art of Designing Public Parks, The (Frederick
Law Olmsted) 315
Article 112 202 see also lése majesté law
ASEAN: air pollution disputes 83; ASEAN
Confidential 148; aviation industry
137, 141; Certificates of Recognition 403;
competition from 105; connectivity 149,
150; corporate governance in 378–9; corrup-
412
tion in 378; Energy Awards 325; English
proficiency in 164; free trade agreements
132, 135, 150; Global Social Venture
Competition and 359; logistics costs 138;
motor vehicles sales 228; Mutual Recog-
nition Agreements (MRAs) 147; rail links
138, 140; Solar Power Company Group 332;
160; Thailand’s location in 394; Thailand’s
membership of 134; trade hub 134; visa
cooperation 120; Wildlife Enforcement
Network 291; women executives 189;
Working Groups and Awards 401
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) 107;
billboard 149; expected boost to
Thai economy 132; integration of 100; labor
sector and 147, 152; opportunities and
challenges 114, 141, 161; Thai SMEs and
119; Thailand and China 135, 138; Thailand’s
membership of 134
Ashvin Dayal 409
Asian Financial Crisis: currency flotation and
126, 130, 131; manufacturing and
102; medical tourism and 123; serious effect
of 114; timelines 48, 131, 144
Ayudhya: Burmese sack 200; flood plain 61;
Historical Park 90; openness to
foreigners 404; renovation projects 302; rice
fields 59; timelines 67, 144, 165, 203, 209,
215; tourist attractions 199
B wood forests 66; free trade agreement 132;
Baan Huay Hin 266
Ban Don Kha School 386
Ban Pred Nai Community Forestry Group 294
Bandid Nijathaworn 380
Bang Bua Canal Community 308
Bangkok see urban development
Bangkok Bank 365, 367
Banjong Nasae 299
Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Coopera-
tives (BACS) 109, 283
banking 368–73
Bhumibol Adulyadej, King: core values of
sustainable development 204;
Coronation 203; crop substitution pro-
gramme 250, 262, 264; decades of leader-
ship 10, 11; development of deep south 195;
Diamond Jubilee 201; education reform 162,
164; extensive travels 248; forest conserva-
tion 278; fresh relevance given to monarchy
200; Golden Jubilee 270, 272; historical
sites quote 212; Huai Hong Khrai Center
276; New Theory farming 248; Phetchaburi
River cleaning 297; physical and mental
fitness quote 169; Rockefeller Foundation
and 408; royal projects 55, 56; Sufficiency
Economy Philosophy 401; timelines 125,
203; Uthokawiphatprasit Watergate 301;
water resources 60: wealth of monarchy
202; WIPO Global Leader Award 60; World
Wide Fund for Nature 407
bicycling 238; commuting by 138; Copenhagen
399; cycling park near airport
235; Enter Your Bike 238; for commuting to
work 327; KMUTT policy 235, 237; Lisu Lodge
348; mass transit lines and 396; Singapore
promotes 399; Sukhothai encourages 304
Big Trees 312
Biodegradable Packaging for Environment
Public Co Ltd 230
biodiversity 76; Amazon River 284; biomass
energy and 53; Chiang Rai City
403; constant threats 74; Costa Rica 353;
decline of keystone species 63, 286, 287;
forests 64, 270, 275, 276, 294; harmful
cash crops 66; Kui Buri National Park 289;
mangrove degradation 65; monoculture and
262; National Biodiversity Action Plan 75;
National Marine Parks 68; organic revolution
and 254; Pun Pun Center 259; reading
list 77; rural development 248; Thailand’s
remarkable richness 74; tipping point 75;
World Wide Fund for Nature 407; Year of the
Wolf 291
biofuels 335
Bo.Lan 365
Buddhism 192, 198, 206–11, 404
C D
Chaiporn Phrompan 256
ChangeFusion 360
Chiang Rai 403
China 135; baby milk scandal 340; Corruption
Perception Index 152; demand affects rose-
Hydrology Institute 314; import percentage
133; Mitr Phol Group 376; mobile phone
technology 105; model village and housing
project 337; pilot carbon markets 372;
principal market for Thai farmers 97; railway
networks 136, 138, 140, 152; rhinoceros
horn smuggling 287; solar power 330, 391;
statistics 16–18; tourism from 124; urban-
ization 394
Chiva-Som 320
Chulalongkorn, King (Rama V): pacifies outer
regions 197; reforms government bureau-
cracy 200; religious tolerance 201; timelines
99, 144, 165, 203, 209
Chulaporn Nantapanich 227
cities see urban development
CO2 emissions: see also greenhouse emissions
coal 53; India 373; tourism industry 351;
transportation 383, 394
coastal areas 298–301
commuting 234–9; see also transport balanced
transport system 138; by bicycle 138; fuel
quality law and 83; high speed trains 140;
roads favoured for 136; subway and Skytrain
79, 136–7
competitiveness 113, 148–53; agriculture 100,
391; corruption and 155, 157; Costa Rica
353; ‘creating shared value’ (CSV) 318, 323;
crowdfunding 131; education and skills
146, 160; English language proficiency 164;
further reading 107, 111, 125; policy and
continuity 193; research and development
134; SMEs 117, 119; statistics 18; sustainabil-
ity and 376; sustainability of 128; transport
systems 137, 138, 141; Travel and Tourism
Index 121; wages and productivity 142;
World Bank quote 133
conflict 192–7; Deep South 197; pillars of peace
192; yellow shirts and red shirts 193, 196
consumers 228–3, 242; labelling 232
Copenhagen 399
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 323
corruption 154–7, 378–81; bureaucracy and
107, 182; Corruption Perception
Index 152; healthcare 166; in depth
journalism 243; lack of investment from 95;
local authorities 86; mutual fund combating
360; National Anti-Corruption Commission
(NACC) 113; political corruption 137; private
sector 378; rail networks 79; scale of 149;
SMEs 119; state-owned enterprises (SOEs)
108, 109, 111, 112; statistics 19; Thai Airways
113; transport 141; yellow shirts 193
Costa Rica 353
Crab Bank 297
Crown Property Bureau 56, 202, 303
Dairy Home 321
disasters 88–93
Doi Tung Development Project 247, 249,
250–1, 252
E statistics 17; streetlights 383; temperature
Eastern Seaboard: car manufacturing 136;
industrial complex and port 85;
industrialization 69; mangroves 62; Map Ta
Phut industrial estate 78, 85, 140; refining
and petrochemicals 102; soil type 54, 55;
transplanting coral 292, 296
Eat Me 367
eco car scheme 397 see also transport
education 160–5, 354, 384–9; Bangchak
Petroleum business education 322;
basic rights 159; biodiversity and 77; Chi-
ang-Mai 343; Chiva-Som 320; competitive-
ness and 152; Doi Tung Development Proj-
ect 250; for farmers 57; forest ecosystems
287; Human Development Foundation 309;
innovation and 106, 119, 409; Khiri Travel
354; King Bhumibol on 205; Klongdinsor
358, 359; Mangrove Center 320; National
Park Act 278; Panya Project 260; part of
national agenda 10; Phuket 402; political
education 405; poverty and 149, 176, 177,
179; priorities 146; public health 408; public
schools and the missionaries 404; Pun Pun
Center 224, 259; reforms required 191, 383;
Rockefeller Foundation 404; rural areas 142,
201; Satree Manda Pitak 387; sex education
172, 191; social enterprise supporting 352;
social status and 185; southern Thailand 194;
statistics 16, 19; Sufficiency Education Learn-
ing Centers (SELCs) 384, 389; Sustainable
Development Goals 11; Twelve Core Values
163; UNESCO for Sustainable Development
388; upgrade required 148; wildlife conser-
vation 290; women and 186–7, 189
Elliott, Stephen 275
EnerGaia 314
energy 46–53, 222, 324, 329, 330–5, 371,
375–7, 390–3 see also alternative energy
air conditioners 225, 327; alternative energy
330–5; bank credit for projects 369, 370,
371, 373; biodegradable packaging 230;
biomass in demand 97; capital flow in the
sector 368; Chiva-Som 320; clean energy 53;
CO2 emissions 394; coastal communities 91;
conservation campaigns 81; consumption of
50; ecosystems at risk 77; edible algae 314;
electrical products 232; energy bars 101;
Energy Complex 325; Energy Conservation
Fund 331; Energy Efficiency Development
Plan 392; Energy Efficiency No. 5 Label 393;
energy-efficient labels 228; Energy Policy
and Planning Office 398; energy savings
390–3; ESG 1000 representation 372; five
major players 51; forests 270; green banking
373; Green Buildings 324; Green Campus
237; green homes 222; green manufacturing
336–7; greenhouse gases 92; heating water
320; landfills 86; LEED certification 329;
level 5 certification 229; motor vehicles
327; older buildings 327; organic waste
403; paperless banking 370; protests 71;
recycling processes 227; regulatory body
109; solar power 326, 328, 352, 368;
and humidity issues 327; Thai companies,
various 373; Thai Energy Efficiency labelling
232; timelines 111; Toshiba Semiconductor
338; transport issues 394; waste-to-energy
technologies 345, 375–7, 402; water
consumption and 59; Yak01 225
environment; value chains 148, 150
ESG100 376
ethical sourcing 340–3
F KASIKORNBANK 370, 371, 381; green
families 172–5
Farmers’ Friend Rice Community 258
farming see agriculture
finance 126–31, 368–
Food, Inc (Robert Kenner) 363
Forest Man (William Douglas McMaster) 277
Forest Restoration Research Unit (Chiang Mai
University) 274
forests 62–7, 270–7, 278–85, 292–5; carbon
sinks, as 75; conservation 278–75;
ecological research 407; felling 74, 82,
362; forest cover 62; Kui Buri National
Park 289; mangroves 292–5, 298, 323, 377;
plantations 247; protection of 77, 91, 200,
407; reforestation 270–7; shrimp farms
292; sustainable sources of produce 74, 76;
timelines 67
Foundation for Consumers 242
freedom of speech 180, 183, 185
Future of Architecture in 100 Buildings, The
(Marc Kushner) 329
G
Galster, Steve 291
gender equality 186–91
Global Social Venture Competition 359
Great Transition, The (Lester R. Brown and
others) 334
green buildings 324–9
Green Campus at KMUTT 237
green homes 222–7
green manufacturing 336–9
green spaces 310–14
Green World Foundation 236
greenhouse gases 92, 314 see also CO2
emissions
H
health 166–71
heritage 212–17 see also preservation
hill tribes: corn planting 273; diseases affecting
168; forest rangers, as 285; government
assistance 250; marginalization of 249;
northern hill tribes 168, 206, 208;
Starbucks in partnership with 343
historic preservation see preservation
Hoi An 305
housing: green homes 222–7
Huai Hong Khrai Royal Development Study
Center 61, 270, 276, 285
Huay Klai Reservoir 253
Human Development Foundation 309
I
indices 374–7
industrialization 69, 85, 102–4, 106
internet 183, 241 see also social media
J
Jim Thompson Silk 342
Joint Management of Protected Areas,
The ( JoMPA) 280–1
K
banking 365; Learning Center 324,
325; Research Center 123
key performance indicators 16–19
Khao Paeng Ma Reforestation Project 272
Khiri Travel 354
Klongdinsor 358
Korea: free trade agreement 132; Korean
War 180; North Korea 193; SMEs 116;
statistics 19; tackling corruption 378;
timelines 153; Toshiba 338; tourists, as
124
Kui Buri National Park 289
L
labelling 232, 393
labor 142–7
Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and
Development Project 297
LEED (Leadership in Environmental and
Energy Design) 324, 329
lèse majesté law 183, 185, 202
413
 Lisu Lodge 352–3
Luckiest Nut in the World, The (Emily James)
342
M emissions standards 398; Gulf of Thailand
Mab Ueang Agri-nature Center 268
Mae Klong Community Network 300
Mae Wong Network 282
Maejo Baan Din 224
Maha Yu Sunthornchai 265
mangroves 65, 294, 295 see also forests
manufacturing 102–7, 336–7 ; competitiveness
challenges 133; difficult challenges 94;
green manufacturing 219, 336–7; increasing
reliance on 82; innovation, need for 148,
152; LED lighting 393; LEED certification 324;
motor vehicles 136, 394, 397; multinationals
150; Plan Toys 339; shift from 141; timelines
111; Toshiba Semiconductor 338; waste heat
recovery 377
Map Ta Phut: air pollution 78; alternative
to sought 71; controversy over 51; Eastern
Seaboard industrialization 69; opens 85, 85;
rail links 138, 140, 394
mass transit lines 396 see also transport
media 183 see also press, the; social media
Banjong Nasae 299; bias 195; Buddhism
and 210; consumer preferences and 228;
environmental concerns and 334; financial
pressures 243; LGBTI community 187; Local
Alike 355; media messengers 91; monarchy
and 200, 202; pornography 172; Reds and
Yellows 196; self-censorship 185; sufficiency
economy participation needed from 389;
Thailand’s active media 181; tourism, on 124
Metro Forest Project 315
middle-income trap 108, 148, 151, 409
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 166,
168, 186, 188
Mitr Phol Bio-Power 348
Monarchy 200–3; absolute to constitutional
180, 184, 192; Ayudhya rice fields 59;
Chinese and 135; health projects promoted
by 168; rituals 212; school curricula and 163;
steering Thailand’s development 199; Thai
flag and 206; timelines 111, 165, 203
N 217; freedom of paramount importance
natural gas 46–7; discoveries of 69; global
investment 53; Gulf of Thailand 70, 85;
major driver of economy, a 68; monopo-
listic buyers and sellers of 112; NGVs 396;
percentage fuel mix in power generation 52,
53; reduction in dependency on 338, 357,
395; shadow over its future, a 334
New Theory 264; brainchild of King Bhumibol
248, 262; Mab Ueang and 268; Maha Yu and
265; principles of 253, 262; schools project
384; timelines 99
NGOs 404–5
North Korea see Korea
O health insurance and 167; medical tourism
Ocean of Life, The: The Fate of Man and the Sea
414
(Callum Roberts) 293
oceans and seas 68–73, 292–3
oil 46–51; Bangchak Petroleum 322; biomass
equivalent 376; declining production 77;
69, 70; local protests 71; motor oil 234; na-
tional grid and 377; oil spills 82; post World
War II Copenhagen 399; price instability
335; reduction targets 392; reserves 68;
shadow over its future 334; Standard Oil
408; statistics 17; Thaioil 372–3
One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to
Natural Farming (Masanobu Fukuoka) 248
Oxfam 406
P ment Plan 52; feed-in tariffs (FIT) 47, 331;
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) 351
Pak Phanang River Basin Royal Development
Project 301
Panya Project 260
Phuket 402
Plan Toys 339
Plant Banana Trees to Save the World 273
pollution 82–7, 372; air pollution 54, 55, 226,
334; Bangkok 78; biodiversity threatened by
74; coastal resource management and 298;
dust pollution 322; energy discoveries and
44; key factors 402; mangrove degradation
and 65; motor vehicles 395, 397; nocturnal
light 310; Organic Revolution 254; Pollution
Control Department 233, 402; pollution-free
power 53; reduction of 345, 371, 377, 401;
water pollution 121, 124, 301; wind turbines
53
poverty 176–9; alleviation 286; community
forests 278, 279; conservation and
287; Doi Tung 250; ethnic minorities 251;
free market economics and 342; integrated
farming and 263, 265; New Theory farming
264; Oxfam 406; remote border villages 285;
rice farmers 256; rural poverty 142; statistics
16; Thais lifted out of 10, 158, 340, 368;
workforce suffer from 146
Prasan Sangpaitoon 296
Prayuth Chan-Ocha, General 102, 115, 117, 163
preservation 302–5 see also heritage
press, the: see also media first printing press
183; on polluted rivers 297; press freedom
survey 195; restrictions on 185, 194; Smart
Buyer 242
Princess Mother 168, 247, 250, 251
private sector 316–23
Priyanut Dharmapiya 389
provinces 14, 14
Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) 39
PTT 51, 315, 373; assists with energy problem
46–7; green buildings 324, 325; Map Ta Phut
project 85; Metro Forest 311, 315; monopo-
lies 112; timelines 48, 111; top five SOE 108
public health: biomass energy and 53:
ChangeFusion 360; Dr Carlos Dora 82;
123; monarchy supports 168, 201; obesity
166; pollution and 84; Rockefeller Founda-
tion 404, 408, 409; sexual abuse and domes-
tic violence 186; timelines 169: Universal
Coverage Scheme 170; water system 403
Pun Pun Center for Self-Reliance 259
R SOEs 108–13
Raitong Organics Farm 257
Rama V, King see Chulalongkorn, King
Rama IX, King see Bhumibol Adulyadej, King
religion 206–11
renewable energy 47, 371, 390–1; adder pro
grammes 330, 332; Bangchak Petroleum 330,
391; biomass energy 53; business incentives
382; CO2 emissions and 92; Develop-
global investment 53; ‘green loans’ for 367;
KASIKORNBANK 369, 370; leading resources
for 376; palm oil 391; percentage use 52;
power plants 51; recent emphasis on 46;
regional leader in 390; solar energy and 47,
223, 330; statistics 17
restaurants 362–7
Rockefeller Foundation 404, 404, 408–9
Royal Project, The 11, 99
royally initiated projects see also King Bhumibol
Adulyadej; The Royal Project decades of
leadership 10; Doi Tung 249; farming 55;
villages 248; water security 60; wide variety
of 199, 200, 204
Rubesch, Edward 361
rural development 248–53
S farming 263; labor 142; manufacturing 102,
Satree Manda Pitak School 387
seas and oceans 68–73, 292–3
Seub Nakhasathien 281
Siam Cement Group (SCG) 322–3, 326–7, 349,
377, 381; 100th Year Building 324, 326–7;
anti-corruption policies 381; green manufac-
turing initiatives 324, 336; Map Ta Phut 85;
paper packaging 336–7; photograph of plant
104; quality standards 232; soil treatment
projects 56; waste heat recovery 377
Siam Commercial Bank (SCB) 127, 131, 365
Singapore 399; Bangkok and 334; decline in
birth rate 173; Ease of Doing Business Index
133; electronic road pricing (ERP) 139; green
space 310, 312; high speed train routes to
152; IT systems 134; Local Alike 355; logistic
costs 138; medical tourism 123; organic
product accreditation 257; Sakari Resources
51; Singapore Airlines 112; statistics 17–18;
sustainable transport 399; Temasek Holding
113; Thailand’s teenage pregnancies and
171; timelines 153; Toshiba 338
Singh Intrachooto 328
Sirikit Kitiyakara, Queen 285, 311, 407
Sirindhorn, Princess Maha Chakri 292
SMART Patrol 288
SMEs 114–19
social media see also media
Banjong Nasae 299; Big Trees 312, 313;
Blue Whale campaign 244; Facebook 245;
Green World Foundation 236; Mark Kushner
329; new generation using 221; percentage
using 241; preservation of heritage through
213; raising public awareness through 243;
restrictions on 185
Socialgiver.com 231
soil 54–7, 261; biomass energy and 53; central
region 248; compost 226; conservation of
285; diversity of crops 262; dry and alkaline
268; filtering waste 297; forests and 62–3;
monarch’s huge contribution 45; naturally
fermented manure 268; organic revolution
254; pollution of 84; quality of 100, 200, 204,
258, 259, 315; rainwater 326; restoring fer-
tility 265; soil erosion see below soil erosion;
soil testing 256; timelines 99; types of 55;
weed control 277
soil erosion: mangrove forests 292; monocul
ture and 262; plants and grass preventing
315; royal project 60; tree planting 270,
273, 276
Solar Power Company Group (SPCG) 332
Somsak “Pai” Boontam 355
Somsook Boonyabancha 307
Soontorn Boonyatikarn 334
Starbucks Coffee Company 343
State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) 108–13
statistics 16–19; commodities 98;
competitiveness 148, 149; corruption 155;
e-banking 374; education 160; families 172;
finance 128; forests 271; gender 186, 187;
green spaces 312; health 166, 167; integrated
103; organic farming 255; poverty 177, 178;
private sector 319; religion 207, 208; rice
farming 96; SMEs 114, 115; State Owned
Enterprises (SOEs) 108, 110; tourism 120,
122; trade 132; transport 137; wildlife 286
Stock Exchange of Thailand: alternative for
smaller firms 115; countering corruption
378; establishment of 126; Khon Thai Jai Dee
fund 360; listings 114, 372; starts trading 131
South Korea see Korea
Srinagarindra see Princess Mother
Sufficiency Economy Philosophy (SEP) 11, 34–5,
384–7, 389; educational system in 384–7,
389; formalized 205; interest, relevance and
inclusiveness 11; Mab Ueang 268; Maha
Yu 265; royal project, a 10; sustainable
cities and 401; Twelve Core Values 163; UN
recognition 205
Sukhothai Historical Park 304
Sustaina Organic Restaurant 364
Sustainable Cities and Society (SCS) 402
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 11, 28,
139
T lectual Property Office (WIPO) 60; World
Tetra Pak 345
Thaioil 48, 376, 377
ThaiPublica 243
Thanyarat Doksone 238
The Royal Project 11, 99 see also royally initiated
projects
timelines: agriculture 99; competitiveness 153;
education 165; energy 48; families 175;
finance 131; forestry 67; health 169; heritage
215; labor 144; monarchy 200, 203; religion
209; State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) 111;
tourism 125
Toshiba Semiconductor 338
tourism 120–5, 350–5; 2004 tsunami 88;
advertising campaign 102; Ban Mae
Kampong 279; ChangeFusion listings 360;
coastal communities 298, 299; coral reefs,
effect on 296; deep sea ports threaten 69;
development plan with China 135; Doi
Tung 250, 251; forest ecosystems and 275;
goldsmiths 304; heritage factor 213, 304;
hotspots 70, 137; huge employer, a 45,
68; import and export and 134; mangrove
destruction 65; mass tourism 302–4; medical
tourism 123; Mutual Recognition Arrange-
ments (MRA) 147; Phuket 402; political
upheaval 194; power stations that might
affect 52; resilience of 95; revenue from 70;
ruins 304; Songkram River wetlands 407;
Southern Seaboard Development Plan and
71; Sri Lanna Natural Park 224; timelines
153; transport requirements 138; Vietnam
305; water, importance of for 58; wildlife
tourism 289
trade 132–5
transport 136–41, 234–9, 394–401; air travel
347; Chiang Mai 78; Chiva-Som’s initiative
320; commuting 234–9, 327; energy targets
392; Green Bonds 369; high speed trains
140; LEED requirements 329; mass transit
lines 383; Ministry of Transport responsi-
bilities 110; Phuket 402; ribbon develop-
ment 79; SOEs and private enterprise 113;
Songkram River wetlands 407; sourcing local
foods 350; statistics 18; Thailand a transport
hub 133; two-stroke motorcycles 83
Tree Bank 283
Tul Pinkaew 244
U ment 253; micro-reservoirs 56; monarch’s
United Nations (UN) 10–11; Agenda for
Sustainable Development 11, 13; Ban
Ki-moon quoted 383; climate change
summit 271; development practices 200;
Development Programme 178; disaster risk
reduction 88; Doi Tung hailed by 247; King
Bhumibol’s Lifetime Achievement Award
205, 205; Industrial Development arm 103;
mangrove report 65; Millennium Develop-
ment Goals 166, 186; Office on Drugs and
Crime 251; statistics 16–17; sustainable cities
400; Thailand admitted 10; UNCTAD 133;
UNESCO 164, 388; UNICEF 174; World Intel-
Soil Day 56
urban development 78–81, 306–15, 394,
400–3; air conditioning 225; Bangkok
81, 178, 311; biodiversity and 74; climate
change and 408, 409; concentration of
services in 178; consumer culture 176; cost
of transport 138; density 225; documentary
review 308; encroachment on rural areas
142, 301; farmers’ markets 229, 362; flooding
45, 59, 89, 92; gardening in 257; green spaces
310–14; habitat loss and 75; healthcare
system 171; historic cities and districts 199,
212, 217, 302, 304; megacities 238, 399; mi-
gration from rural areas 142, 172, 178, 253,
298; percentage of population 16; rapidity of
urbanization 394; renewal 383; Rockefeller
Foundation 409; timelines 99; transport
links to rural area 137; transport projects
236, 395, 396; unregulated sprawl 88, 89;
urban-rural divide 164, 177, 244
Urbanized (Gary Hustwit) 308
W
waste 82–7, 344–9, 402; agricultural 330, 391;
bagasse 230; composites from 339; docu-
mentary 337; domestic 87; energy wasted
222; Environment Loans 371; filtering 70;
garbage bins 399; generating power from
335; green buildings 324; healthcare pur-
chased through 356; heat 37, 53, 377; illegal
dumping 75; industrial 85; lean manufactur-
ing 336; precision farming 261; recycling and
composting 32, 226, 260; restaurants 362–7;
seed quality 277; sustainability practices 377;
Toshiba semiconductor 338; waste collectors
403; waste management 344–9, 391, 402;
wastewater 71, 73, 78, 297–8, 301, 320; ‘Zero
waste to landfill’ 322
Waste = Food (Rob van Hattum) 337
Waste Land (Lucy Walker) 346
Wat Khanon Shadow Puppet Troupe 305
water 58–61, 253; access to 166, 176; agencies
409; Bangkok’s consumption 78, 81; Chiang
Rai 403; Chiva-Som 320; coastal areas
298–301; elephants 289, 290; flooding
88–93, 338; forests and 52–7, 270–7, 279,
285; green buildings 324, 327; industrial
dishwashers 362, 367; insect farms 101; inte-
grated farming 262, 265; irrigation manage-
role 45, 56, 200, 204–5, 264; oceans and seas
68–73, 292–3; pollution 344, 371; Provincial
Water Authority 109; quality of 83, 401;
roofing 223; saltwater penetration 57; soil
types 55; wastewater see above waste; water
treatment systems 237, 297, 338, 377
Who Killed the Electric Car? (Chris Paine) 398
wildlife 286–91
Wolf Totem ( Jiang Rong) 291
Wongpanit Recycling 346–7
World Bank Green Bonds 369
World Wide Fund for Nature 407
Y
YAK01 225
415
 PICTURE CREDITS
Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders
of images in this book. In the event of error or
omissions, appropriate credit will be made in future
editions of Thailand’s Sustainable Development
Sourcebook.
Adams Organic Bangkok CSA: 267
Agence France – Presse (AFP): 91 top left
Akkaraych Petchampai/Rice Department: 98, 350-
351, 355 center
Amanuensis – Bureau Bangkok / Dominic Faulder: 48
Angelo Cavalli/Photolibrary: 209 bottom left
Apiradee Treerutkuarkul: 278 bottom left, 299 right,
310 left, 397 top right
Architects 49: 227 top
Associated Press: 205
Athit Perawongmetha: 179 bottom left, 196 top
Ayutt and Associates Design: 225
Bangkok Post: 41, 52, 66 top, 80 top, 83, 88, 93 top
left & bottom right, 125, 153, 156 top left, 157, 161,
204 top right, 297, 395 right
Ben Simmons: 79, 137
Big Trees Project: 278-279, 312, 313
Bo.Lan: 365 all
Bohnchang Koo: 118
Bruno Barbey: 124 bottom left
Catherine Karnow: 191 right, 302-303
ChangeFusion: 360 all, 361 bottom
Charoon Thongnual: 167, 194, 197
Chawalit Poompo/Rice Department: 254-255, 256
bottom left
Chien-Chi Chang/Magnum Photos: 145
Chiva-Som: 320 all
Community Organization Development Institute: 80
bottom left, 306 all, 307 all, 308 right
Corbis: 25 right, 131 bottom left
Crown Property Bureau: 35, 277 top, 301 bottom right,
303 right
D.Light Design (DivatUSAID): 357 right
Daoruek Communications Co., Ltd.: 292
Darunsikkhalai School: 388 left
Doi Tung Development Project: 251 all
Dome Pratumthong/WWF-Thailand: 407 bottom right
Dow Wasiksiri: 168 bottom right, 210 top
Dr. Chalermpol Kirdmanee: 55 bottom
Earth Net Foundation/Udomsak Bhatiyasevi: 70, 366
Eat Me Restaurant: 367 all
Eco-community Vigor Foundation: 57 bottom right,
261 all
Electricity Generation Authority of Thailand: 47 bottom
right
EnerGaia: 314 all
Ernest Goh: 115
Evan Gershkowich: 272 bottom right, 273 bottom,
282 left center
Farmers’ Friends Rice Project: 258 all
Forest Stewardship Council: 232 center top
FORRU-CMU: 274 all, 275 all, 282 bottom right
Foundation for Consumers: 242 all
Foundation for Virtuous Youth: 386 all, 387 all, 389
Freeland Foundation: 66 bottom left, 75, 290 center
left, 291 top
Friends of the Asian Elephant Foundation: 290 top left
Getty Images: 25 left, 32, 36, 49, 58, 54-55, 64 top
right, 74 top left, bottom left, top center & bottom
center, 77 bottom right, 82, 91 bottom right, 100,
106 all, 107, 112 center, 116, 117, 121 top right, 123
416
all, 124 top right, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131 top right,
135, 139 left, 140 right, 143, 147 bottom left & top
right, 151, 152, 155, 156 bottom right, 162 all, 163,
164, 170 top right, 171, 173, 174, 175 bottom left,
181, 182 bottom, 183, 184, 189 right, 193, 195 top
right & left, 201, 206, 211 bottom, 213, 216, 245, 290
bottom right335, 344-345 top
Gilles Sabrie: 177
Global Social Venture Competition: 359 all, 361 top
Green Peace: 71
Green World Foundation: 236 top & bottom
Greg Gorman: 191 left
Huai Hong Khrai Royal Development Study Center: 61,
265 bottom left, 276, 285 bottom right
Integrated Tribal Development Program: 343 all
Ittikun Kanokkantrakom: 388 right
Jinnawat Pumpoung: 67
JOMPA: 65 left
Josef Polleross: 38, 81
KASIKORNBANK: 325 bottom center, 329 top, 370
Khao Kwan Foundation: 256 top & bottom center
Khiri Travel: 354 bottom left
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi
(KMUTT): 237 right center & bottom right
Kittitawat-Cherngchai Plubpibool: 190
Klongdinsor: 358 all
Lisu Lodge: 352 all, 353 right
Local Alike: 355 left & bottom, 356-357
Luca Tettoni/Robert Harding/World Imagery/Corbis: 202
Mab Ueang Agri-nature Center: 268 all
Mae Fah Luang Foundation: 250 bottom right
Maejo Baan Din (Earth Home Village): 224 all
Maythavee Matchantika: 170 bottom left
Melisa Teo: 363 top
Michael Freeman: 72, 222-223
Michael Yamashita: 207
Mick Elmore: 332 bottom, 334 top
Nat Sumanatemeya: 68, 293 top
National Archive of Thailand: 209 center, 405
Nina Wegner: 259 all
North Forest Studio: 227 left center
Office of His Majesty’s Principal Private Secretary: 60,
168 top left, 285 top
Office of the Royal Development Projects Board: 34, 56
both, 169, 262-263, 264
Organic Agriculture Organization Thailand (ACT): 232
bottom left
Oxfam Asia-Thailand: 406 all
Panya Project: 260 all
PATA Gold Awards 2015: 351 right
Petchpanom Jitman/Nitinarth Charoenpokaraj/Suan
Sunandha Rajabhat University: 295 bottom left &
right, 300 top right & bottom
Plan Creations Company Limited: 339 all
Prasarn Sangpaitoon/Rambhai Barni Rajabhat Universi-
ty: 295 center bottom, 296 all
Prasit Rodklai: 325 bottom left
PTT Metro Forest: 315 center right
PTT Public Company Limited: 46-47, 51 top left, 53
Raitong Organics: 257 all
RECOFTC The Center for People and Forests: 295 top
Robert McLeod/Lantern Photography Co., Ltd.: 127
top
Romeo Gacad: 31, 175 top right
Roong Aroon School: 385
Royal Chitralada Projects: 99
Royal Project Foundation: 204 bottom left
S.C. Shekar: 210 bottom, 214 top
Sal Forest: 243 bottom, 321 all
Shutterstock: 65 bottom right, 73 all, 74 right, 76, 77
top left, 84, 85, 86, 90, 92 top right, 101 all, 103, 104
left, 105, 109 all, 112 bottom right, 113, 119, 122
bottom right, 127 bottom, 133, 134, 138, 139 right,
140 left, 146, 147 bottom right, 149, 179 center, 182
top, 185, 196 bottom left, 215, 217, 223 right, 226
all, 228, 229, 230, 233 top right, 234 bottom left,
234-235, 236 center, 238 bottom, 239, 240-241, 244
bottom, 250 left, 270-271, 272 top, 273 top, 284 all,
287 right, 304, 305, 311 right, 374-375, 330-331, 332
top right, 333, 344 left, 353 top, 354 top, 371 right,
372, 373 all, 391 right, 394-395, 396 all, 397 bottom
left, 407 top
Siam Cement Group: 57 top, 104 right, 318-319, 322,
323, 326, 327, 349, 381 top
Siam Cement Group/Athit Perawongmetha: 233
bottom left, 340 bottom left, 340-341, 336-337, 337
right, 349
Siam Piwat Company Limited: 189 bottom left
Sidekick: 244 top
Singh Intrachooto: 328 top left
Siripas Chayopas: 238 top
Socialgiver: 231 all
Sueb Nakasathien Foundation: 63, 280 all, 281 all
Surasak Glahan: 300 left
Surat Osathanugrah: 214 bottom
Sustaina: 254 bottom left, 364 all
Tawan Thintawornkul: 237 left
Tetra Pack (Thailand) Limited: 345 right, 346 right center
Thai Airways International Public Company Limited: 111
Thai Airways International Public Company Limited/
Athit Perawongmetha: 141
Thai Creative Design Center: 243 top
Thai Health Center: 325 top, 328 bottom left & right
Thaipat Institute: 376
The Anti Corruption Organization of Thailand: 378-379
all
The Crown Property Bureau/Kritsada Prathonsuriyakul:
59, 269, 301 top
The Human Development Foundation (Mercy Centre):
309 all
The Private Sector Collection Action Coalition Against
Corruption: 380, 381 bottom
The Rockefeller Foundation: 404 all, 408 all, 409 all
The Royal Discovery Initiative Foundation: 252, 253
all, 265 top
The Thai Silk Company: 341 top right, 342 top &
center
The Village Social Development Center
(Wanakaset): 266 all
Timothy Auger: 368-369
Tom Metcalfe: 347 all, 348 all
Toshiba Semiconductor (Thailand) Company Limited:
338 all
Tree Bank: 283 all
U.S. Marine Corps photo by Cpl. Jessica Olivas:
91 top center
United Nations: 28
Univentures Public Company Limited: 325 bottom right
Wayuphong Jitvijak/WWF-Thailand: 289
Weerakarn Satitniramai: 310-311 top, 390-391, 392
Wildlife Conservation Society Thailand: 288 all
Winniwat Traitrongsat/Rice Department: 249
WWF-Thailand & Department of National Parks, Wild-
life and Plant Conservation: 282 bottom left, 286-287
WWF-Thailand: 407 bottom left
Yann Arthus-Bertrand: 2 (13°45’5.96”N
-100°29’33.06”E), 5 (14°00’N, 100°36’E), 7 (19°36’
N, 99°41’ E), 12 (18°44’ N - 98°57’ E), 22 (13°59’
N, 100°25’ E), 69 (8°00’ N, 98°22’ E), 89 (8°02’ N,
98°18’ E), 92 left (14°21’ N - 100°38’ E), 97 (19°32’N,
99°43’E), 120-121 (7°53’ N, 98°17’ E), 122 top left
(16°30’ N, 99°31’ E), 298-299 (8°20’ N, 98°30’ E)