Chapter-1

Introduction
The Electromagnetic Welding (EMW) is essentially an impact welding method,
wherein bonding is achieved by penetration of materials into each other. Thus it is
characteristically different than other fusion welding processes. In Explosive Welding
(EXW) process the bonding is again achieved by impact. In the following pages, a brief
summary of other welding techniques along with a detailed comparison of EMW and
EXW is given. This comparison is necessary, considering the similarities between the
two techniques. The advantages of the EMW over the EXW technique are described and
the need for pursuing the R/D efforts in EMW is also emphasized.

1.1 Welding
The process of joining two pieces of metallic bodies in such a way that there
is sufficient penetration of the materials into each other is termed as ‘welding’. In
majority of the established welding processes the welding is achieved by fusion.
During welding, the boundaries disappear and materials get merged into each other.
Welding can be achieved by using heat or pressure or both and with or without use of
addition metal at the interface. In all welding process, atomic bond is established.
Based on the state of welding, the welding can be broadly classified as- i ) Liquid state
welding (Fusion welding), ii) Solid/liquid state welding and iii) Solid state welding.
These are elaborated in the sections to follow.

1.1.1--Liquid state welding

In this process, the material around the joint is melted in both the parts. The
source of energy for fusion is –heat. It may involve the use of filler materials such as
consumable electrode or a wire fed into the weld pool. The process is either autogenous
or heterogeneous. Different type of fusion welding processes can be used depending on
the application. Electric arc welding, induction welding, resistance welding constitute
electrical fusion welding, where as Gas and thermit welding can be categorized as
chemical fusion welding.

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1.1.2—Solid/liquid state welding
The processes such as brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding are classified as
solid/liquid state welding. In these processes the bulk material is not melted. A molten
filler material is used for joint making.

1.1.3—Solid state welding

Solid state welding is a joining process in which time, temperature and pressure
individually or in combination produce coalescence of the base metals without melting of
the base metals. Hence it is often termed as cold welding. Hence the thermal stress
related problems are eliminated. This type of welding is preferred, where the metal
characteristics must remain unchanged after welding. Clean surfaces are required to
achieve the solid state welding. Solid state welding includes the processes like diffusion
welding, friction stir welding, explosive welding, projectile impact welding and
electromagnetic welding. Since, in these processes, there is no bulk melting in the joint
area, the metals retain their original properties. These processes are ideally suited for
joining dissimilar metals with wide difference in their melting points and the thermal
properties do not impose any constraints on the welding parameters.
a) Friction Welding
Friction welding takes place due to heat generated through friction between a
moving work piece and stationary component, with the addition of a lateral force to
plastically displace and fuse the material. This type of welding is used in metals and
thermoplastics.
b) Friction Stir Welding
In friction stir welding, the plates to be welded are clamped together by applying
pressure and a cylindrical tool is rotated at constant speed. The frictional heat, along
with the heat generated by mechanical mixing process, causes the stirred material to get
softened (without melting). The weld is facilitated by severe plastic deformation. This
method could be used for aluminium. The disadvantage of this method is that a hole is
left, when the tool is withdrawn.

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 The solid state welding is achieved by high velocity impact. Hence, it is also
termed as impact welding. Unlike in the liquid state welding, the source of energy for
welding in solid state welding is the kinetic energy.
c) Forge Welding
Forge welding is a solid state welding process, which produces coalescence of
metals by heating them in a forge and by applying pressure. This method was used by
blacksmiths in early days and now is of very little industrial significance.
d) Diffusion Welding
Diffusion welding is a solid state welding process, by which two dissimilar metals
can be bonded together. Diffusion involves migration of atoms across the joint. The
materials are pressed together at an elevated temperature usually between 50 to 70% of
melting point. Filler metals may or may not be used.
The process is used to join refractory metals. Heating is accomplished by
induction, resistance or furnace.
e) Ultrasonic Welding
In this method, high frequency acoustic vibrations are locally applied to work
pieces being held together under pressure to create a solid state weld. It is commonly
used for plastic and for joining dissimilar materials.
Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of plastic due to
absorption of vibration energy. In metals, the ultrasonic welding occurs due to high-
pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of the materials. Although there is
‘heating’, it is not sufficient to melt. Aluminium can be welded by ultrasonic welding.
f) Explosive Welding
Extensive research has been carried out in explosive welding since last few
decades. The welding in this case is accomplished by high velocity impact between
colliding bodies. The velocity is generated by detonating explosive near the flyer plates.
Due to impact, the metals become semi-viscous for a very small interval of time and flow
into each other. The weld interface is few hundreds of microns thick and has a wavy or
smooth pattern. The wavy nature of the interface is attributed to penetration of semi
viscous metals (plastic flow) in to each other and can be compared with wave created on
the surface of water by throwing a stone. The nature of wavy interface depends on the

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parameters like impact velocity, detonation velocity, collision angle etc. If the collision
velocity is low, the weld interface does not have wavy nature. During collision, the oxide
layer breaks down and gets ejected out, which is a great boon in impact welding
processes, considering the fact that this oxide layer is a cause of great concern in all other
conventional welding processes. The welding becomes possible due to availability of
atomically clean surfaces. The heat comes from shock wave associated with the impact.
Heat is also released by plastic deformation. Plastic deformation is more pronounced in
the presence of jetting. By this process welding can be achieved for large areas.
The explosive welding is not popular on industrial scale, as it involves the use of
hazardous explosives. The bonding mechanism of EXW and EMW is similar. The latter
obviously is less hazardous and safer. The impact velocity in EMW is achieved by
acceleration set up by the Lorentz force. This force is created by interaction of induced
currents in the job piece with the magnetic field created by a coil, which is placed in close
vicinity with the job piece to be welded. The magnetic field is created by the discharge of
capacitor bank in the inductive coil. The characteristic wavy interface similar to that in
explosive welding is observed in electromagnetic welding, indicating the similarity in the
bonding mechanisms.

1.1.4 –Comparison of EMW with Explosive Welding (EXW)

As mentioned earlier, the bonding mechanism in EXW and EMW is similar.
Extensive research work has been carried out in EXW. However both methods (EXW
and EMW) have their advantages and limitations. The comparison becomes important in
order to decide the direction of R/D efforts in EMW. Hence an extensive literature
survey was undertaken to understand the similarities and differences between the two.
The literature survey covered various aspects such as behavior of explosives [1,2],
operating parameters of the process [3-5], computational modeling [6-8], collisional
parameters [9-12] nature of weld interface [13-15], dependence of collision angle on
weld interface [16,17] weldability window [18,19]. Based on this information, the
following comparison can be made.
The Explosives with low detonation velocity such as ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate
Fuel Oil) are generally used in EXW. ANFO has the detonation velocity of the order of

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2000 m/s, which can be further controlled by adding sand. Extensive work is done in
EXW on different aspects of the process.
The behavior of the explosives is predicted using semi empirical equations of state
(Williamsburg’s EOS) [6]. The material deformation behavior is calculated using
Johnson Cook constitutive equations [7]. The relation between detonation velocity and
flyer plate velocity is well established [8]. It is observed that the welding is not possible
at sonic and supersonic velocities. The collision velocities in EXW/EMW are of the order
of 500-600 m/s, where as the sonic velocities are in the range of 3000-4000 m/s. The
reason for the non occurrence of weld at sonic/ supersonic velocities is the interference of
sonic pressure waves with the bonding mechanism. The smooth weld interface is
observed at comparatively low collision velocities. The transition between smooth and
wavy interface is defined by Reynolds no. and is similar to transition between laminar
and turbulent flow [13]. As already stated, the bonding mechanism in EXW and EMW is
similar. However when we study these two processes in detail, we find many finer
differences. The similarities and dissimilarities are summarized below.
Similarities between EMW and EXW
1) Both are impact welding methods. Bonding mechanism in both cases is similar.
2) Wavy weld interface is observed in both cases.
3) Welding materials don’t get heated up to melting point and no changes in material
properties are observed due to absence of thermal effects.
4) Since clean surfaces are obtained due to ‘jetting’ action, surface preparations are
not generally required.
5) Since the processes do involve melting, they are suitable for welding of dissimilar
metals (with wide variation in the melting point).
6) Both methods are suitable to weld ‘conventionally difficult’ metals like
aluminium and refractory metals like niobium, titanium, molybdenum etc.
7) Collision velocities in both cases are of the similar order (400-600 m/s).
8) Both are High Energy Rate Forming (HERF) processes.

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 Dissimilarities between EMW and EXW
i) Sources of energy are different (‘explosives’ in case of EXW and ‘capacitive stored
energy’ for EMW)
ii) EMW is more suitable for high electrical conductivity metals, whereas EXW is
suitable for all metals.
iii) In EXW process, extensive work on computational/experimental modelling of
deformation process, jetting, weld interface analysis has been done. In EMW process,
the R/D effort is more concentrated in electromagnetic analysis and system development
and not in jet formation and interface studies.
iv) EXW can handle large size jobs. In fact, handling of small size jobs is a difficult
proposition for EXW applications. The small size jobs are handled by ‘shock
transmission by underwater explosion’. EMW is not suitable for large size jobs
(exceeding 1 meter and thickness of 3 cm). EMW process becomes less efficient for large
size jobs, due to diffusion/leakage of the magnetic field. The diffusion of the magnetic
field is caused by increase of system inductance and consequent decrease in the ringing
frequency due to increase of the job size.
v) Since the operating parameters are electrically controlled, better precision and
reproducibility could be achieved in EMW.
vii) EXW- extensive work has been done on ‘Weldability window’ –upper and lower
energy limits of welding. In EMW not much work is reported on ‘Weldability
window’. This could be due to the reason that stronger coils would be required to
test the higher energy limit for welding.
vii) For EXW process, the space requirement is comparatively more.
viii) EMW could be made automation friendly. However, because of many manual
operations, EXW is not automation friendly.
ix) EXW can be employed for cladding operation of large size objects. EMW is not
suitable for cladding applications
x) EMW is less hazardous, when high voltage safety aspects are taken into
consideration. EXW is more hazardous and has security risks on account of
storing of explosives.

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 xi)Time required for one shot is more in EXW.
xii) EXW is a single shot phenomenon, whereas, EMW could be made repetitive with
a time gap of the order of 1 minute.
xiii) EXW is not used on commercial scale. EMW is being used commercially on
limited scale.
xiv) In EXW, higher temperatures are attained (but lower than melting point) as
compared to EMW.
xv) The conversion efficiency is much higher in case of EMW process as compared to
that for EXW.

1.2 Difficulties and Challenges in contemporary welding techniques

The forming (changing shape) in conventional processes is achieved by the operation
of mechanical tools on the job piece. This often leaves tool marks on the job piece. In
these techniques, surface preparations, lubrication, preheating is necessary. In
Electromagnetic Forming (EMF), the deformation is achieved by non-contact method.
Hence the aforementioned disadvantages are eliminated.
In modern day technology, there are many challenging goals to be achieved so as to
accomplish the specific design requirements. The joining of dissimilar metals is one such
requirement. In automobile and space industry, the use of aluminium is going to increase
due to its light weight. Aluminium is to be joined with stronger metals to achieve the
required strength. The joining of dissimilar metals is a challenging task owing to the large
differences in their physical and chemical properties. The solid state welding process,
which does not involve melting, is a good alternative for joining these materials.

1.2.1 Welding of aluminium

Aluminium has a great affinity for oxygen. In open atmosphere, aluminium oxide
is formed readily on its surface. It is quite cumbersome to weld aluminium due the
entrapment of oxide in the weld zone. The oxide has usually higher melting point than the
parent material. Hence aluminium requires a rigorous surface preparation before its

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welding. Moreover, the change in properties due to heating is also not desirable many a
times.

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1.2.4 Welding of refractory metals
The use of refractory metals like Niobium, Titanium, Molybdenum and Zirconium is
going to increase in future. However, their welding becomes difficult owing to their high
melting points (more than 15000C). Since melting point is not of much consequence in
EMW, these materials could prove to be good candidates for EMW. The EMW being an
impact welding process, the materials to be joined should have good ductility.
Fortunately, these refractory metals have good ductility at room temperatures. Moreover,
the EMW being a cold weld process, the welding temperature rarely exceeds 3000C. It
may be mentioned that the aforementioned refractory metals are prone to oxidation above
3000C. Thus there are many favourable factors for trying the EMW process for refractory
metals. This application is of paramount importance, considering the fact that these
metals are planned to be used in the future ‘Compact High Temperature Reactors
(CHTR), which is one of the challenging programmes of the DAE.

1.2.5 Joining of heat sensitive alloys

The alloys like aluminium are heat sensitive as the alloying element (Li) has lower
melting point than aluminium. It is not possible to join these metals by conventional
fusion welding process, as the alloying element will start vaporizing even before
aluminium starts melting. The solid state welding is the only solution to join these
materials.

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1.3 EM forming for flat sheets and tubes

1.3.1 EM forming for flat sheets

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1.4 Background and necessity of present research work
The welding/joining of dissimilar metals has always proven to be a challenging
task. In automobile industry, the reduction of vehicle weight is the prime concern for
reducing the fuel consumption. The use of aluminium, which is a light weight metal is
preferable. However, the mechanical strength of aluminium is poor. Moreover, it gets
oxidized in open atmosphere, due to which its welding becomes difficult. As a
compromise, one can use the combination of aluminium and other metals. This calls for
the joining process of two dissimilar metals. The welding of dissimilar metals such as
copper, aluminium and S.S. is often required in many engineering applications. This is
also a difficult proposition from conventional welding point of view. EMW offers some
solutions to these problems. Hence in the present work, the R&D effort is focused on
electromagnetic welding of these metals.
The EMW offers the solution to aforementioned problems. Since in this case, the
welding is achieved by impact and not by melting, it is ideally suited for joining
dissimilar metals with wide difference in their melting points. In EMW process, the
oxide layer breaks down due to impact, which eliminates the need for the procedures for
oxidation prevention. The EMW has many other advantages such as high production
rate, reproducibility, ease of automation, no need of preparatory methods etc. These
features attract the industrial exploration of EMW. However, it has some disadvantages,
viz- i) It is less suitable for low electrical conductivity metals and ii) It is not efficient
for large size jobs (jobs of more than one meter dimension).

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 The explosive welding is also suited for the joining/welding of dissimilar metals.
However, the use of explosive welding brings in serious constraints for the commercial
adoption, due to the problem of safety and space requirement. Thus EMW has an edge
over explosive welding as far as commercial adoption is concerned.
There is a need to harness the potential of EMW process considering its
advantages and limitations. The EMW process is presently used in limited applications.
Hence there is the need for generation of the data base as regards the equipment and the
process. We have carried out the analysis of the system parameters and their dependence
on the EMW process. This includes the dependence of capacitance of the capacitor bank,
operating voltage, conductor section of the coil, inductance of the coil etc. on the
generation of force required for the impact. This analysis is followed by the analysis for
the dependence of collision velocity on geometrical parameters of the system.
The disadvantage of welding of low electrical conductivity metals can be
overcome by using conducting drivers. Detailed analysis is included on this aspect. In
EMW process, enough data is not available on standardization of input energy for the
jobs of different sizes. Extensive data is given for similar and dissimilar welding
combinations of Al, Cu and SS and for different values capacitor bank parameters such
as voltage and ringing frequency.

1.5 Major contributions of present research work

The research work in the areas of EMF and EMW technologies has been reported
for more than 25 years and there are some efforts made to make it adaptable for
industrial usage. Extensive R&D work has been reported in the literature. Research
papers are available in EMW for tubular geometries, which have been summarized
under the literature survey. The dependence of electromagnetic parameters on the
welding process has been studied to certain extent for tubular geometries. However, the
work on welding of flat strips is reported comparatively recently. The literature on
welding of flat strips is scarce. The R&D work has to be focused on data generation,
which could help in standardization of the system and process parameters.
In the present work, we have concentrated our efforts in the weld analysis of flat
strips. Needless to say the conclusions drawn here are applicable to tubular job pieces as

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well. We have used the softwares like MATLAB, MAXWELL-SV and ANSYS for the
computational work and 10 kJ, 10 kV capacitor bank is used for the experimental work.
The influence of parameters like input energy, ringing frequency, conductor cross
section, coil and job piece geometry etc on the quality of weld has been studied. These
aspects have not been covered by earlier researchers.
The collision velocity is identified as the most crucial parameter in EMW. It is
found from our experimental experience and from the data available in the literature that
the welding is achieved at 400 m/s for most of the metals. The input energy to achieve
this velocity can change depending on the dimension and the material of the job pieces.
The dependence of the collision velocity on the Lorentz force and other geometrical
parameters is studied. The measurement of collision velocity by Laser intensity method
is also described.
As mentioned earlier, the efficiency of the EMW process is low for the low
electrical conductivity metals. However this disadvantage could be partially overcome
by the use of conducting drivers. It is observed that the efficiency of the process can be
improved by the use of aluminium drivers. A good amount of quantitative information
regarding the dimensions of the driver and the selection of operating frequency etc is
reported for the first time in this work.
Apart from the work on aluminium welding, the welding of dissimilar metals
such as aluminium, copper and S.S and their similar and dissimilar combinations has
been studied in depth, considering its industrial importance. The dependence of the
aforementioned electromagnetic parameters, on the welding process is also analyzed in
detail.
As a small step in the process of standardization, attempt has been made to carry
out the computation of input energy for the welding of flat jobs of different dimensions.
These values are calculated for aluminium, copper and S.S. in similar and dissimilar
combinations. The computed results are verified (computationally as well as
experimentally) for samples of small sizes and results are extrapolated for larger sizes.
The computational model is also validated for some data available in the literature. This
information could be of immense help for the system designer and for the study of the
process.

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 The main difference between EMF and EMW regarding utilization is that in the
former process, the whole kinetic energy is utilized in deformation. In EMW process,
partly it is used in deformation and partly for the impact welding. The EMW is often
referred as welding achieved through forming. Hence the analysis about the Lorentz
force, design of drivers and energy scaling is applicable for the EMF process as well.
Thus the scope of applicability of this analysis increases further.
The major emphasis of this research being Electromagnetic analysis, other
investigations such as mechanical and metallurgical analysis are carried out to
substantiate the findings. The detailed study of microstructure is out of the scope of the
present work.

1.6 Literature survey

Very often than not, the EM forming precedes the EM welding. This is so because
the EMW is mostly used for lap joints and the pieces to be joined have to be deformed
before they collide and get welded. Hence the EM welding is rightly termed as
deformation bond. Obviously the energy required for welding is higher than forming, as
the two colliding pieces should have sufficient velocity to get impact welded. In order to
understand EMW, the knowledge of EMF is essential and hence the literature survey is
incomplete without inclusion of literature on EMF.
The literature survey is broadly subdivided under following categories
1) Literature on EM forming
2) Literature on solid state welding other than EM welding
3) Literature on EM welding

1.6.1 Literature on EM forming

The literature on EM forming can be further categorized in to following headings-
a) Literature on EM forming operation, equipment and process
b) Literature on High Strain rate behaviour of the materials
c) Literature on Mathematical modeling
The details for the above are as under --
a) Literature on EM forming-- operation, equipment and process

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 EM forming is the high energy rate forming process, which uses the electromagnetic
force, which is generated by discharge of capacitive stored energy in a solenoid coil. The
basic information about the EM forming such as the principle of operation, equipment
details and details regarding the process analysis are discussed at length in [24 & 25].
S.T.S. Al-Hassani et al have discussed about the system parameters on the EM forming
process [26 & 27]. The effect of plastic buckling of thin walled tubes is discussed S.T.S.
Al-Hassani et al [28]. Zhang H. et al have discussed the effect of various working
conditions on bulging of tube by EM forming [29]. Similar type of work is done by Song
FM et al [30]. Mamalis A.G. et al have discussed trends and developments in EM
forming and powder processing [31 & 32]. The electrodynamics of Electromagnetic
forming using the circuit analysis approach coupled with the hydrodynamic behaviour of
the materials is discussed by G.K. Lal et al [33]. The EM forming using special type of
coils called field concentrator is reported in [34]. The analytical study of the EM process
was done by Jablonski et al [35]. Takatsu N et al have described the forming process for
metal sheets, in detail [36].
Plum [24] has depicted the EM forming process, field shapers along with their
applications for expansion and compression of tubes. The efficiency of EM forming
process depends on magnitude of the magnetic field, current skin depth and mechanical
properties of the job piece. In addition time varying inductance, circuit resistance and the
irreversible plastic work done on the work piece are the significant parameters. Apart
from expansion and compression, the EM forming has many applications like
simultaneous forming and assembly, joints with high torque and load capability,
compressing rings into groves, assembly after heat shrinking etc.[37]. The analysis of the
effect of position of the coil with reference to the work piece is analyzed in [30].
Some literature is reported on the bond formed between copper tube and ceramic
tubes [38 & 39]. This can find wide utility for the fabrication of feed throughs in the
particle accelerator fabrication technology. It is reported that these joints have qualified
the leak test and the mechanical strength test.

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 b) Literature on High Strain rate behaviour of the materials
The EM forming is a high strain rate forming process involving hyper plastic
behaviour of the materials. Many investigators have studied this aspect in detail. Gourdin
WH has done the analysis of an expanding ring as a high strain rate technique [40 &41].
Balanethiram VS et al have studied the enhanced formability at high strain rates [20&42].

c) Literature on mathematical modelling

Mathematical modelling is essential for getting insight into the behaviour of the
system and for the design improvement. Most of the modelling work is based on Finite
Element Method (FEM) and pertains to tubular geometries [43]. Initial models are based
on the assumption on infinite length of the tube and the work piece. Lee [44] has
investigated the effect of geometry and resistivity of the work piece on the magnetic
pressure by considering finite length of the tube and the coil. The conclusion of this study
was-the pressure magnitude depends on the resistivity of the work piece. The magnetic
pressure decreases as the tube length increases. However, it is found that the limiting
value is found when the tube length is equal to length of the coil. During EM forming
process, the work piece moves with velocity of the order of few hundreds of m/s. Hence
in principle, the EM field should be calculated with Maxwell’s equations with moving
media. These equations contain additional terms. Chunfeng [45] has explored the
magnetic pressure distribution along the thickness of the work piece using FEM. He
confirmed the correctness of the results by measuring the magnetic field in the gap
between the coil and job piece and has observed that the pressure reduces very quickly
along the thickness.
Vandevelde [46] has calculated the magnetic force distribution in a magnetized
material by using classical method. In this case, the magnetic and elastic equations are
solved using 2D FEM. Manea [47] has taken in to account the job piece motion and has
concluded that the EM field calculated for stationary media is a good approximation of
the EM field in the actual configuration. Hainsworth [48] has developed a link between
the electromagnetic and structural code for modelling the rail gun components. This
model can be employed for modelling of aluminium pipe swaging on steel. Andersen
[49] has formulated a soft ware which simulates the skin effect and eddy current

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problems, for 2-D analysis of planer and tubular geometries. Z. Ren [50] has reported the
computation of the force by Maxwell stress tensor in 3D hybrid finite element boundary
integral formulation. He has observed that when variational formulation is used the
boundary matrices obtained by the source method and by Green’s identity are both
transposes of each other.
Mamalis [31] has simulated the sheet metal forming process with a multipurpose
commercial Finite Element code using the weak coupling approach. The coupling
between the impact loading and the material response poses difficulties for modelling.
Olieveira et al. [51] have also developed FEM code to compute transient forces taking
into account the time varying currents. Imbert et al. [21] have numerically formulated the
high rate deformation and the impact during the EM forming process and has validated
the results experimentally. G.K.Fenton [52] has concluded that two dimensional arbitrary
Lagrangian Eulerian FD code can accurately predict the dynamics of sheet metal
forming. Imbert [22] has done a numerical study of a corner fill operation using AA 5754
aluminium sheet and also carried out analysis for deformation history and damage
development [23]. El Azab et.al [53] have described model for process simulation of
sheet metals. Olieveira et al. [54] have carried out FEM analysis of electromagnetic and
mechanical behaviour using tight coupling. This is important from the point of view of
achieving accurate pressure distribution.

1.6.2 –Literature on solid state welding (other than EM welding)

Since the EMW is a solid state weld, the literature survey on solid state welding
was taken up for the sake of completeness. The solid state welding can be achieved by
diffusion bonding or deformation bonding. The plastic deformation is more pronounced
in case of deformation bonding as compared to diffusion bonding. The diffusion is
achieved by varying the temperature and time. Higher the temperature, shorter is the time
required. The processes like diffusion brazing and vacuum bonding are the examples of
diffusion bonding [55]. The classification of the solid state welding has been discussed
in [56-59]. The welding techniques such as ultrasonic, electro-hydraulic, electromagnetic
and explosive fall under the category of deformation bonding.

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 The bonding mechanism of explosive welding is discussed extensively in the
literature. Walsh JM discusses the condition for the formation of jet, which is responsible
for breaking and ejection of oxide layer to get atomically clean surfaces required for
welding [60]. Cowan GR discusses the mechanism of bonding by interlocking of
materials in to each other so as to form a wavy interface [13]. Vaidyanathan PV et al
have estimated the velocity of flyer plate in case of explosive cladding [61]. Olson D.L.
et al have described welding theory and practices [62]. Blazynski TZ has edited the book
which discusses the explosive welding, forming and compaction [63]. In the thermal
compression welding, friction welding and friction stir welding the temperature is the
main controlling parameter. This temperature is below melting temperature. This type of
weld process forms the third category of the solid state welding [64].

1.6.3- Literature on EM welding

a) EM welding for tubular components
The work on Electromagnetic welding of tubular components has started about 25
years ago. W.F. Brown et.al.[ 65] have reported the welding of dissimilar materials like
Stainless Steel, Inconel, Nimonic etc. using a 50 kV, 38 F, 37.5 kJ, capacitor bank. They
have demonstrated the cladding of tubes with end plugs. The peak current was of the
order of 1.25 MA and ringing frequency was 165 kHz. It may be mentioned here that to
achieve welding for similar dimensions for copper and aluminium the current would be
of the order of few hundreds of kA and frequency would be few tens of kHz. Since the
materials like S.S. have poor conductivity as compared to copper and aluminium, a
comparatively higher frequency and higher current is required to achieve the welding.
Higher frequency helps to achieve the confinement of the magnetic field and thereby the
increase of forming/welding force. Masumoto et.al. [66] have analyzed the EM welding
of aluminium tube with core. The cores are of different materials such as cast iron,
copper, phosphor bronze, titanium, molybdenum and aluminum and it’s alloys. The effect
of different parameters on welding is also discussed.
Kojima et al. [67] have studied the effect of taper angle of the core, diameter of
the tube, and the gap between the tube and the core on the feasibility of electromagnetic
welding of tubes. They have observed that the feasibility of welding is also affected by

35
the coil inductance. The position of weld and the width of the weld vary with the taper
angle of the core [68]. Further analysis of the effect of taper angle on the results of
electromagnetic welding of Al tubes have concluded that by selecting an optimum
condition of joint design and taper angle of core, the position and the width of the welded
zone can be controlled [69]. Kozima et. al. [70] have also studied the effect of flow stress,
collision velocity and collision acceleration in electromagnetic welding. They found that,
like collision velocity, collision acceleration also affects the quality of the weld joint.
They have concluded that the minimum collision velocity required for pressure welding
can be reduced by increasing the collision acceleration. Rakesh Kumar et al. [71] have
reported the welding of aluminium tube with aluminium end plug for the fabrication of
fuel pins of a nuclear reactor.

b) EM welding for flat sheets/strips-

Extensive literature is available on welding of tubular components. However, the
welding of flat sheets/strip by EM technique is a recent development. Aizava et al.
[72&73] have reported the welding of aluminium sheets of 1 mm thickness. They have
proposed an H shaped coil, which can concentrate currents in a narrow region and
enhances the magnetic field so as to generate the pressure required for the welding. They
have also reported the welding of dissimilar metals such as Al and Fe sheets [74].
Satendra Kumar et al. [75&76] have reported the welding of aluminium, copper and S.S.
strips. Kore et al. [77] have reported the welding aluminium with aluminium lithium
alloy sheets.
The research gaps and the contribution of our work could be summarized as
follows-
The following research gaps are observed-
1) In spite of abundant literature on EMF/EMW, the literature on flat job pieces
is scarce.
2) Analysis of collision velocity, based on system parameters and material
properties is not available
3) There is not much literature available on ‘Performance of drivers’
4) Standardization of input energy

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 Our contribution vis-a-vis above research gaps could be outlined as follows-
1) We have done analysis for welding of 1 to 3 mm thick strips of Al, Cu and
S.S in similar and dissimilar combinations.
2) Extensive analysis of collision velocity based on electromagnetic
parameters and material properties is carried out.
3) Quantitative data on the performance of the driver is reported. It is
concluded that Al is the best choice..
4) Analysis for input capacitive energy is carried out for similar and
dissimilar combinations, taking 400 m/s as the required velocity to achieve
welding.

1.7 Principle of operation of EMF

In order to understand the Electro Magnetic Welding (EMW), one has to
understand the basics of Electromagnetic Forming (EMF) process. EMF is the state of art
technology for joining or shaping of metallic bodies. The required deformation of the job
takes place on account of the interaction of eddy currents induced in the job piece with
the magnetic field produced by the forming coil. This technique is ideally suited for
electrically conducting materials and for tubular geometries. However, it can be applied
to non -conductors and flat strip configurations as well. A typical EMF set up for the
deformation of tubular job piece in shown in Fig.1.1, below.

Fig. 1.1 Schematic of Electromagnetic Forming equipment

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 The main components of EMF equipment are high voltage charging supply,
capacitor bank, spark gap switch, the forming/welding coil and the job piece. Initially the
capacitor bank is charged to a high voltage (generally in the range 5 to 50 kV).
Subsequently this energy is discharged into forming/welding coil. In the positive half
cycle, the capacitor delivers energy to inductor and in the negative half cycle the inductor
returns the energy back to capacitor. However the current continually goes on decreasing
due to dissipation in the resistance of the circuit. In an under damped circuit, the current
waveform looks as shown in Fig.1.2. The job piece is placed in close proximity with the
coil and has good magnetic coupling with the latter. The coil acts like primary winding of
the air core transformer and the job piece acts as short circuited secondary. In accordance
with the principle of mutual induction of the transformer, the induced currents in the job
piece are predominantly in anti phase with the coil current (as shown in Fig.1.3). The
product of current and magnetic field gives rise to the forming force (Lorentz force),
which is repulsive (away from the coil). It is a well known fact in Electromagnetics, that
the conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other. Fig.1.4 shows the
pressure generated on the job piece. It may be noted that although the coil current and the
induced current are changing sinusoidally, the pressure varies as sine square and hence is
unidirectional. This is obviously desirable, because if the force would not have been
unidirectional, the net deformation would have been much less owing to cancellation
effect of the pulsating pressure pulse. The fact that a repelling force exists between the
coil and the job piece is important when studying the EMF process. For the arrangement
shown in Fig.1.5, the force on the job will create expansion.

Fig 1.2- Damped sinusoidal coil current

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 Fig. 1.3- Job piece current Fig. 1.4- Unidirectional pressure pulse

The explanation for the expansion force in Fig. 1.1 can also be given on the basis
of pressure difference caused by magnetic field. The magnetic field inside tube will be
higher and that outside the tube will be much lower. Thus there is net outside pressure,
which causes the expansion of the tube.
Fig. 1.5 shows the radial forming force on a tube. In this figure, the direction of the
magnetic field is longitudinal. The induced currents are azimuthal and the JxB force is
along radial direction. Hence, to produce contraction, the coil has to be placed outside the
tube (job piece) as shown in Fig.1.6 and to produce expansion, the coil has to be placed
inside the tube as shown in Fig.1.7. The job has to be placed between the coil and a die,
to produce the contours as shown in Fig.1.8. If the job piece is not constrained then it can
move freely. Thus this technique could be used to achieve remote displacement of the
objects in inaccessible locations. In place of a die if another job piece is placed, at a
specific separation distance, they can collide with each other and if the velocity is high
enough, they can get welded.

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Fig.1.5- Showing radial expanding force on the job piece

Fig. 1.6- Showing the tube contraction

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 Fig.1.7- Showing tube expansion

Fig. 1.8- Showing contour formation

1.8 Advantages and limitations of EMF

EMF technique has the following salient advantages –
a) No tool marks- In EMF, the force is produced by the magnetic field, hence there is no
physical contact of the tool with the job.
b) High speed of operation – EMF is high energy rate forming process. The deformation
takes place in few tens of microseconds. However, the total time taken for this process
has to account for loading and unloading of the job on the machine. This time can be
further reduced by automation.
c) Repeatability- Since the EMF process is governed by the precisely controlled electrical
parameters, the repeatability of the process is very good.

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d) Automation ease- Automation is easier because there is no manual operation involved.
e) High production rates – could be realized due to faster control of governing parameters
and automation.
f) Elimination of manual errors- Since no manual operation is involved, the manual errors
are minimized.
g) No need of preparatory methods- The EMF process does not need the preparatory
methods such as preheating, lubrication, cleaning etc.
h) No spring back effect- Since in EMF process, the material is plastically loaded at very
fast rate, there are no spring back effects.
i) Vacuum not required- EMF does not need vacuum during operation.

1.9 Principle of operation and salient features of EMW

The equipment used for EMW is similar to that used for EMF which is shown in
Fig.1.9. In this set up, the coil and the job are in flat strip form. The job pieces are
sandwiched between the two coil halves. As mentioned earlier, the two job pieces get
accelerated towards each other to form a weld, due to impact bond.

Fig.1.9- Schematic of EMW set up

1.9.1 Salient features

1) EMW is achieved by impact bond.
2) During collision a thin layer gets ejected out and a clean surface is available for
bonding.

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3) Materials become semi viscous and penetrate into each other.
4) A characteristic wavy interface is observed similar to that in explosive welding.
5) Collision velocity is an important parameter. For effective welding, the collision
velocity should be around 400 m/s.
6) No bulk melting (fusion) of the materials—Because of this feature, it is possible to
weld dissimilar metals with widely varying melting points. This advantage is generally
not available in other welding techniques.

1.9.2- Advantages
1) EMW has an edge over other competing techniques such as EB welding, Laser
welding and Explosive welding under certain applications. The mechanism of welding in
explosive and EMW is similar but explosive technique has the drawbacks such as --
safety & space requirement.
2) Since in EMW the welding is achieved by impact bond, it is most suitable for metals
with widely varying melting points and thickness (this is possible with EB welding and
Laser welding, but it is cumbersome). EMW is cold weld and there is no bulk melting of
the material. The problems of stress relieving due to heat are eliminated.
3) No vacuum required for EMW.
4) Job preparation procedures (such as cleaning and lubrication) can be eliminated in
EMW.
5) The capital cost for EMW equipment is comparatively low in comparison with EB
welding for similar applications. .
6) Wrinkling/warping problems could be eliminated (especially for thin sheets)
7) The welding of materials such as Titanium, Molybdenum, Zirconium, Niobium etc.
poses challenges even for EB and Laser welding. This however could be tried with
EMW.
1.9.3 - Limitations
1) Since the efficiency of the EMW depends on the electrical conductivity of the job
material, it is more suitable for good electrical conductivity metals. This drawback can be
partially overcome by using conducting drivers.
2) Depth of penetration is less (50-100 microns)

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3) Since in EMW, the weld is achieved by impact of two plates, it is suitable for ‘Lap
joints’ and not suitable for ‘Butt joints’.
4) EMW becomes efficient when specific requirements of ringing frequency are met. It
is not practicable for large size objects (exceeding 1metre). With the increase in the size
of the circuit, the circuit inductance increases. Due to large value of inductance, the
ringing frequency gets lowered. At lower frequency, more magnetic field gets diffused
out of the job, which eventually lowers the Lorentz force.

1.10 Practical applications of EMW

As mentioned earlier, the EMW is in its infancy as far as its commercial application
is concerned. However, many applications could be foreseen, with due consideration of
the advantages and limitations of the process. In tubular geometry, many applications
could be explored for various engineering machine parts. The sealing of tube with end
plugs and welding of a tubular collar on a rod are such applications.
As far as flat geometries are concerned, there are many potential applications in
automobile and aerospace industries. The EMW could be attempted to reduce the weight
of the vehicle. The main body of the vehicle could be made up of light weight metal and
the frame is made up of stronger metal. Since the joining of dissimilar metals is
comparatively easy with EMW, it is worth exploring.
Since the EMW process does depend on melting point, it could be attempted for
welding of refractory metals such as Nb, Ti, Mo, Zr etc. These metals have high melting
point. This application is of great significance, considering the fact that, these metals are
considered suitable in ‘Compact High Temperature Reactors (CHTR), which is one the
futuristic projects of the DAE.

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