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UNIT-III: PHASE RULE AND ALLOYS

Alloys: purpose of alloying - function and effects of alloying elements - properties of alloys -
classification of alloys. Ferrous alloys: nichrome and stainless steel. Non-ferrous alloys: brass
and bronze. Heat treatment of steel (annealing, hardening, tempering, normalising, carburizing
and nitriding). Phase rule: phase - component - degree of freedom - phase rule - phase diagram -
one component system (water system). Reduced phase rule - two component system (lead and
silver system) – Applications.
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ONE MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
1. The hardness property of gold increased by addition of
A. Carbon B. Iron C. Copper D. Nickel
2. The hardness property of silver increased by addition of
A. Carbon B. Iron C. Copper D. Nickel
3. The thermal and electrical conductivity of alloys always ______their compounds.
A. Lesser than B. Higher than C. Equal to D. Remains same with
4. Alloys containing mercury as the constituent metal is known as
A. Blend B. Heterogeneous alloy C. Homogeneous alloy D. Amalgam
5. An alloy is a
A. Pure metal B. Mixture of metals in any proportion
C. Mixture of metals in fixed proportion D. Mixture of two non metals
6. The alloy used for dental filling is
A. Amalgam B. Brass C. Bronze D. Manganin
7. Which one of the following alloy has high electrical resistivity?
A. Nichrome B. Stainless steel C. Brass D. Bronze
8. The type of stainless steel containing maximum Cr content is ------
A. Martensitic B. Ferritic C. Austenitic D. Mild steel
9. Which of the following alloy has copper as a major constituent?
A. Gun metal B. Magnox C. Nichrome D. Satellite
10. Brass is an alloy of
A. Copper and tin B. Copper and nickel C. Copper and aluminium D. Copper and zinc
11. By adding chromium to steel which of the following property is enhanced?
A. Resistance to corrosion B. Electrical characteristics C. Magnetic property D. Ductility
12. The first alloy made by humans was
A. Steel B. Brass C. Bronze D. Mild steel
13. Which of the following is not an alloy?
A. Steel B. Copper C. Brass D. Bronze
14. Find the metal combination to resist the corrosion activity of iron.
A. Chromium and copper B. Chromium and nickel
C. Nickel and copper D. Silver and nickel
15. An example for ferrous alloy is
A. Brass B. Muntz metal C. Bronze D. Nichrome
16. An example of non ferrous alloy is
A. Nichrome B. Invar C. Brass D. Stainless steel
17. Stainless steel is otherwise called as--------steels
A. Corrosion resistant B. Shock resistant C. Crock resistant D. Heat resistant
18. Elements present in Nichrome are
A. Ni and Cr B. Ni and Cu C. Cr and Zn D. Cr and Cu
19. Bronze is a composition of
A. Cu and Zn B.Cu and Sn C. Cu and Al D. Cu and Au
20. Heat treatable stainless steel contain up to _______ carbon and ________ chromium,
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respectively
A. 1 and 16 B. 4 and 32 C. 6 and 10 D. 8 and 10
21. Furnace heating coils can be prepared by using
A. Nichrome B. Brass C. Bronze D. Stainless steel
22. Heating of iron with ammonia at a temperature of 550 0C is called
A. Annealing B. Nitriding C. Carbursing D. Hearding
23. Which of the following heat treatment method is softening of steel?
A. Annealing B. Quenching C. Tempering D. Nitriding
24. The fastest cooling rate is achieved when steel is quenched in
A. Air B. Oil C. Water D. Brine
25. Annealing temperature is
A. Same as normalizing temperature B. Greater than normalizing temperature
C. Less than normalizing temperature D. Lower than boiling temperature
26. A system with zero degree of freedom is known as
A. Monovariant B. Bivariant C. Trivariant D. Invariant
27. The mixture of oil and water is an example of
A. Homogeneous, one phase system B. Heterogeneous, one phase system
C. Homogeneous, two phase system D. Heterogeneous, two phase system
28. The phase rule is applicable to
A. Homogeneous system B. Heterogeneous system C. Reversible system D. Bulk system
29. The PCl5(s) PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) is an example of
A. Two phase one component system B. Three phase two component system
C. Three phase one component system D. Two phase two component system
30. A saturated solution of NaCl is a _______system
A. one-phase B. two-phase C. three-phase D. no phase
31. Which of the following is mono-phase system?
A. Oil in water B. Ice-water System C. Iron-Carbon D. Mixture of gases
32. Water and sulphur systems are ___________systems.
A.3 components B. 2 components C. 1 component D. 4 components
33. Sulphur has _____ phase.
A. 4 B. 2 C. 1 D. 3
34. Water has _____ phase.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
35. A mixture of O2 and N2 has ______ system.
A. 1 component B. 3 components C. 4 components D. 2 components
36. Solution of sodium chloride or any other solute is a _______ system.
A. 2 components B. 3 components C. 1 component D. 4 components
37. Decomposition of calcium carbonate is a _______ system.
A. 4 components B. 2 components C. 1 component D. 3 components
38. Dissociation of ammonium chloride is a _______ system.
A. 4 components B. 3 components C. 1 component D. 2 components
38. The decomposition of NH4Cl is represented by the equation NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
The number of components present in the system is
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
39. System containing a pure gas has ______degrees of freedom.
A. 0 B. 2 C. 1 D. 3
40. A saturated solution of NaCl in water has degrees of freedom equal to.
A. 2 B. 1 C. 0 D. 3
41. A mixture of two miscible liquids has the number of phases equal to
A. zero B. one C. two D. three
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42. At a triple point
A. three phases co-exist in equilibrium B. there are three components in equilibrium
C. Vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure D. there are three degrees of freedom
43. For one component system, at triple point the number of degrees of freedom is
A. zero B. one C. two D. three
44. The temperature at which three phases of alloy system is in equilibrium is called ______
A. Eutetic point B. Melting point C. Freezing point D. Triple point
45. When lead is added to silver progressively, the melting point of the resulting alloy is
A. increased B. decreased C. unchanged D. cannot be predicted
46. Desilverisation of lead takes place in _____ process
A. Baeyer‟s B. Pattionsons C. Haeber‟s D. Doctor‟s
47. The composition of eutectic mixture Pb-Ag system is
A. 97.4% Ag, 2.6% Pb B. 96% Ag, 4% Pb C. 97.4% Pb, 2.6% Ag D. 98% Pb, 2% Ag
48. A solid-liquid system without gas phase is called ________system.
A. condensed B. complete C. univariant D. bivariant
49. Eutectic mixture melt at
A. temperature other than eutectic point B. absolute temperature
C. eutectic point D. room temperature
50. The reduced phase rule for a condensed system is
A. F' = C – P + 2 B. F' = C – P + 1 C. F' = C + P + 1 D. F' = C + P + 2
51. The silver–lead system has ___
A. Two component and three phases B. Two components and four phases
C. Two components and two phases D. Two components and one phases
52. The degree of freedom of Solid Pb—Melt system is ------
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
53. The degree of freedom of Solid Pb+Solid Ag--- Melt system is ----
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
54. Process of raising the relative proportion of Ag in the alloy is known as the______
A. Gibb‟s Phase rule B. Pattinson‟s process C. Reduced phase rule D. Eutectic mixture
55. The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases, having the same composition, are
in equilibrium is called ____
A. Eutectic point B. Melting point C. Freezing point D. Triple point

TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1. What are alloys?


An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. The metal which is predominant in
an alloy is called base metal and the minor elements are called impurities (or) alloying elements.
2. Mention some important properties of alloys.
1. Alloys are harder, less malleable and possess lower melting points than their component
metals. 2. Alloys possess low electrical conductivity. 3. Alloys resist corrosion and the
action of acids
3. Write the purpose of making alloys.
The purpose of making alloys is to improve the mechanical properties (strength, toughness,
hardness, wear resistance, workability etc), chemical properties (electrode potential, corrosion
resistance), electrical properties (electrical conductivity) etc.
4. What is stainless steel?
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron and chromium along with other elements such as
molybdenum, nickel etc. It is very effective against corrosion if it contains more than 16%
chromium.
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5. What is the role of chromium in stainless steel?
Presence of chromium in stainless steel produces an exceptionally tough and coherent dense
film of chromium oxide at the surface of alloy which gives complete protection aganist
atmospheric corrosion.
6. What is the nichrome? Mention its applications.
Nichrome is a type of steel, which contains 10% nickel and 20% chromium.
Applications: If finds applications in boiler parts, gas turbines,
7. What are brasses? Mention their applications.
The alloys containing 60-90% copper and 40-10% zinc are generally known as brasses.
Applications: They find applications in making cheap jewelry, musical instruments,
locomotive and condenser tupes,marine propellers etc.
8. What are bronzes? Mention their applications.
1. Common bronze: Contains 89-92% Cu and 11-8% Sn. It is soft, ductile and durable. It is
used in pumps, valves, coins statues, ornaments etc.
2. Gun metal: If zinc is added to bronze, gun metal is formed. It has the composition 85%
Cu,5%, Sn,5%, Zn and 5% Pb. It is hard, tough and so strong that it can resist the force of
explosion. It is used for hydraulic fittings, water fillings, marine pumps etc.
3. Phosphor bronze: If phosphorous is added to bronze phosphor bronze is formed. It has the
composition 7% Sn, 0.4-1.0% P and Rest copper. It possesses good strength, resistance to
corrosion especially under sea water. It finds use in boiler fitting, bearing plates, for
making bushes, springs, turbine blades, etc.
9. Distinguish between brasses and bronzes.
1. Brasses are essentially alloys of copper and zinc whereas bronzes are alloys of copper with
any element other than zinc and nickel.
2. Brasses have higher strength than copper while bronzes have higher strength than both
copper and brasses.
3. Brasses have good resistance to atmospheric corrosion and fair resistance to marine
corrosion. Bronzes, in general, have better corrosion resistance than brasses.
10. What is the purpose of heat treatment of alloys?
Heat treatement of alloys is generally carried out in order to
(i) Improve the mechanical properties such as strength,hardness,ductility etc.
(ii) To increase the resistance to wear,abrasion,and corrosion
(iii) To reduce the stresses induced during welding,casting,forging etc.
(iv) To improve machinability etc.
11. What is the basic of heat treatment processes?
Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals or alloys to alter their physical
and mechanical properties without changing the product shape.
12. What is meant by quenching in heat treatment of metals?
It is the process of heating steel beyond the critical temperature and then suddenly cooling it
either in oil or brine-water or some other fluid.
13. What is the need of tempering of alloys?
Tempering relieves the internal stresses produced during hardening of alloys,to reduce the
brittleness of alloys and to make them more ductile.
14. What is meant by hardening of alloys?
Hardening is the heat treatment of alloys which consists of heating the alloy to set of
temperature and then cooling it rapidly by plunging it into oil, water, or brine.Hardening
increases the strength and hardness of the alloy, but makes it less ductile.Hardening of most
of alloys always to be followed by tempering in order to relieve the internal stresses and
reduce brittleness.

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15. Mention the various type of case hardening process.
(i) Carburizing (ii) Cyaniding (iii) Nitriding
16. What is annealing? Explain its types.
Annealing means softening. This is done by heating the metal to high temperature, followed
by slow cooling in a furnace. Annealing can be done in two ways,
1. Low temperature annealing (or) process annealing.
2. High temperature annealing (or) full annealing.
17. What is normalizing? Why is it done?
It is the process of heating steal to a definite temperature (above its higher critical
temperature) and allowing it to cool gradually in air.
Purpose
1. It recovers the homogeneity of the steel structure.
2. It refines grains.
3. It removes the internal stresses.
4. It increases the toughness.
5. Normalized steel is suitable for the use in engineering works.
the force of explosion. It is used for hydraulic fittings, water fillings, marine pumps etc.
18. Mention the various application of stainless steel.
(i) Applications of heat treatable stainless steel: It finds use in making blades, cutlery,
scissors and surgical instruments.
(ii) Applications of non-heat treatable stainless steel: Magnetic stainless steel finds use in
chemical equipments and automobile parts. Non-magnetic stainless steel finds use in
making sinks, utensils, dental and surgical instruments.
19. Give the composition of gun metal.
Cu = 85%; Zn = 4%; Sn = 8&; Pb = 3%
20. What is wood’s metal?
It is an alloy of lead, bismuth, tin and cadmium
21. What is meant by 18/8 stainless steel?
If it contains 18% Cr and 8% Ni, it is referred to as 18/8 stainless steel. It is the most widely
used stainless steel.
22. State mathematical statement of phase rule (Or) State phase rule and explain the terms
involved. (Or) State phase rule.
F=C-P+2
P-is number of phases; C-is number of components;
F-is number of degrees of freedom.
23. Define phase (P)
Phase is defined as, “any homogeneous physically distinct and mechanically separable
portion of a system which is separable from other parts of the system by definite boundaries”.
24. What is meant by degree of freedom (F)?
Degree of freedom is defined as, “the minimum number of independent variable factors such
as temperature, pressure and concentration, which must be fixed in order to define the
system completely”.
25. Calculate the number of phases present in the following systems.
(a) MgCO3(S) MgO(S) + CO2 (g)
Three phases.
(b) Rhombic sulphur(S) Monoclinic sulphur(S)
Two phases.
(c) Ice(S) Water (I) Water vapour (g)

Three phases.
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26. How many phases, components and degrees of freedom are available in the following
systems?
(i) CaCO3(S) --------- CaO(S) + CO2(g)
(ii)NH4Cl(S) -------- NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(i) It consists of two solid phases and one gaseous phase.
P = 3; C = 2; F = C - P + 2 = 2 – 3 + 2 = 1.
(ii) This system consists of two phases and one component
P = 2; C = 1; F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 2 + 2 = 1.
27. What is phase diagram? What is the use of studying such diagrams?
Phase diagram is a graph obtained by plotting one of freedom against another. It is possible
to predict from the phase diagrams whether an eutectic alloy or a solid solution is formed on
cooling a homogeneous liquid containing mixture of two metals.
28. What are the types of phase diagrams?
(i) P – T diagram
If the phase diagram is plotted between temperatures against pressure, the diagram is called
P–T diagram. P–T diagram is used for one component system.
(ii) T – C diagram
If the –phase diagram is drawn between temperatures against composition; the diagram is
called T–C diagram. T–C diagram is used for two component system.
29. State reduced phase rule.
For solid-liquid alloy system, the variable factor pressure is ignored because of absence of
gaseous phase. For such system the phase rule equation is F=C-P+1
30. State the conditions under which two substances can form a simple eutectic.
(i) Two substances should be completely miscible in liquid state and completely immiscible
in solid state. (ii)They should not react chemically with each other.
31. Define the terms: melting point, triple point and eutectic point. (June 2006)
Melting point: It is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases, having the same
composition, are in equilibrium.
Solid A Liquid A
Eutectic point: It is the temperature at which two solids and a liquid phase are in equilibrium.
Solid A + Solid B Liquid
Triple point: It is the temperature at which three phases are in equilibrium.
Solid Liquid Vapour
32. Eutectic is a mixture and not a compound. Explain.
Since the two solids are completely miscible in liquid state and are completely immiscible in
solid state, eutectic is a mixture of two solids and not a compound.
33. What are the limitations of phase rule?
(i) The influence of factors such as electric, magnetic gravitional,surface forces are ignored
in phase rule. (ii) Phase rule is applicable only to heterogenous systems in equilibrium.
34. What are the advantages of phase rule?
(i) The phase rule takes no account of the nature oramount of substances.
(ii) Phase rule is applicable only to macroscopic systems Information about molecular
structure is not required.
35. A system consists of benzene and water. What is the number of phases? (Dec 2007)
liquid phases and one vapour phase.
36. What are the uses (or) significance of eutectic mixture? (Dec 2008)
1. Suitable alloy composition can be predicated with the help of eutectic systems.
2. Eutectic systems are used in preparing solders, used for joining two metal pieces
together.
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IMPORTANT BIG QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER
1. Draw a neat phase diagram for one component water system and explain
Phase diagram for one component water
system
Water exists in three possible phases namely
solid, liquid and vapour. Hence, there can be
three forms of equilibria.
Solid Liquid
Liquid Vapour
Solid Vapour
Each of the above equilibrium involves two phases.
The phase diagram for the water system is shown in
the below figure. This phase diagram contains
curves, areas, and triple point.
Curve OA
 The curve OA is called vaporization curve, it
represents the equilibrium between water
and vapour.
 At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
Water Water vapour
The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e., univariant. This is predicted by the phase rule.
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 2 + 2; F = 1
 This equilibrium (i.e. line OA) will extend upto the critical temperature (374°C).
 Beyond the critical temperature the equilibrium will disappear only water vapour will exist
(ii) Curve OB
 The curve OB is called sublimation curve of ice, it represents the equilibrium between ice
and vapour.
 At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
Ice Vapour
 The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e.
 Univariant. This is predicted by the phase rule.
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 2 + 2; F = 1
This equilibrium (line OB) will extend upto the absolute zero (− 273°C), where no vapour can be
present and only ice will exist.
(iii) Curve OC
The curve OC is called melting point curve of ice, it represents the equilibrium between ice and
water. At any point on the curve the following equilibrium will exist.
Ice Water
The curve OC is slightly inclined towards pressure axis. This shows that melting point of ice
decreases with increase of pressure. The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e., univariant.
(iv) Point ‘O’ (Triple point)
The three curves OA, OB and OC meet at a point „O‟, where three phases namely solid, liquid
and vapour are simultaneously at equilibrium. This point is called triple point, at this point the
following equilibrium will exist.
Ice(s) Water (l) Vapour (g)
The degree of freedom of the system is zero i.e., nonvariant. This is predicted by the phase rule.
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 3 + 2; F = 0
Temperature and pressure at the point „O‟ are 0.0075°C and 4.58 mm respectively.

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(v) Curve OB′: (Metastable Equilibrium)
The curve OB′ is called vapour pressure curve of the super-cool water or metastable equilibrium
where the following equilibrium will exist.
Super - cool water Vapour
Sometimes water can be cooled below 0°C without the formation of ice, this water is called
super-cooled water.
Super cooled water is unstable and it can be converted into solid by “seeding” or by slight
disturbance.
(vi) Areas
Area AOC, BOC, AOB represents water, ice and vapour respectively. In order to define the
system at any point in the areas, it is essential to specify both temperature and pressure. The
degree of freedom of the system is two. i.e., Bivariant.
This is predicted by the phase rule
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 1 + 2; F = 2
2. Draw a neat phase diagram and explain the Lead – Silver system. Briefly write about
Pattinson’s Process.
Lead-Silver System
Since the system is studied at constant pressure, the vapour phase is ignored and the
condensed phase rule is used.
F′ = C − P + 1
The phase diagram of lead-silver system is shown in figure. It contains lines, areas and the
eutectic point.
(i) Curve AO
The curve AO is known as freezing point curve of silver. Point A is the melting point of pure
Ag (961°C). The curve AO shows the
melting point depression of Ag by the
successive addition of Pb. Along this
curve AO, solid Ag and the melt are in
equilibrium.
Solid Ag Melt
According to reduced phase rule
equation.
F′ = C − P + 1; F′ = 2 − 2 + 1; F′ = 1
The system is univariant.
(ii) Curve BO
The curve BO is known as freezing
point curve of lead. Point B is the
melting point of pure lead (327°C).
The curve BO shows the melting point
depression of „Pb‟ by the successive addition of „Ag‟. Along this curve „BO‟, solid „Pb‟ and
the melt are in equilibrium.
Solid Pb Melt
According to reduced phase rule equation.
F′ = C − P + 1; F′ = 2 − 2 + 1; F′ = 1
The system is univariant
(iii) Point ‘O’ (Eutectic point)
The curves AO and BO meet at point „O‟ at a temperature of 303°C, where three phases
(solid Ag, solid Pb and their liquid melt) are in equilibrium.
Solid Pb + Solid Ag Melt

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According to reduced phase rule equation.
F′ = C − P + 1; F′ = 2 − 3 + 1; F′ = 0
The system is non-variant
The point „O‟ is called eutectic point or eutectic temperature and its corresponding composition,
97.4% Pb + 2.6% Ag, is called eutectic composition. Below this point the eutectic compound and
the metal solidify.
(iv) Areas
The area above the line AOB has a single phase (molten Pb + Ag). According to reduced phase
rule equation.
F′ = C − P + 1; F′ = 2 − 1 + 1; F′ = 2
The system is bivariant. Both the temperature and composition have to be specified to define the
system completely. The area below the line AO (solid Ag + liquid melt), below the line BO
(solid Pb + liquid melt) and below the point „O‟ (Eutectic compound + solid Ag or solid Pb)
have twophases and hence the system is univariant
F′ = C − P + 1; F′ = 2 − 2 + 1; F′ = 1.
Application of Pattinson’s process for the desilverisation of Argentiferous lead
The argentiferous lead, consisting of a very small amount of silver (say 0.1%), is heated to a
temperature above its melting point, so that the system consisting of only the liquid phase
represented by the point „p‟ in the figure. It is then allowed to cool. The temperature falls down
along the line „pq‟. As soon as the point „q‟ is reached. Pb is crystallised out and the solution will
contain relatively increasing amount of „Ag‟. On further cooling, more and more „Pb‟ is
separated along the line „BO‟ the melt continues to be richer and richer in silver until the point O
is reached, where the percentage of Ag rises to 2.6%. Thus, the process of raising the relative
proportion of Ag in the alloy is known as Pattinson‟s process.

3. Explain the purpose of making alloys


Generally pure metals possess some useful properties such as high melting point, high
densities, malleability, and ductility, good thermal and electrical conductivity. As we seen
above, the properties of a given metal can be improved by alloying it with some other metal
or non-metal.
1. To increase the hardness of the metal
Generally pure metals are soft, but their alloys are hard.
Ex: i) Gold and silver are soft metals; they are alloyed with copper to make them hard.
(ii) Addition of 0.5% arsenic makes lead so hard and used for making bullets.
2. To lower the melting points of the metal
Alloying makes the metal easily fusible.
Ex: Wood‟s metal (an alloy of lead, bismuth, tin and cadmium) melts at 60.5° C, which is far
below the melting points of any of these constituent metals.
3. To resist the corrosion of the metal
Metals, in pure form, are quite reactive and easily corroded by surrounding, thereby their life
is reduced. If a metal is alloyed, it resist corrosion.
Ex: Pure iron gets rusted, but when it is alloyed with carbon or chromium (stainless steel),
resists corrosion.
4. To modify chemical activity of the metal
Chemical activity of the metal can be increased or decreased by alloying.
Ex: Sodium amalgam is less active than sodium, but aluminium amalgam is more active than
aluminium.
5. To modify the colour of the metal
The dull coloured metals are improved by alloying with metals.
Ex: Brass, an alloy of copper (red) and zinc (silver-white), is white in colour.
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6. To Get Good Casting of Metal
Some metals expand on solidification but are soft and brittle. The addition of other metals
produce alloys which are hard, fusible and expand on solidification and thus give good
casting.
Ex: An alloy of lead with 5% tin and 2% antimony is used for casting printing type, due to its
good casting property.

4. Discuss different heat treatment methods and their effects on alloys


The main characteristics and the relevant heat-treatment processes are
1. Annealing 2. Hardening 3. Tempering 4. Normalizing 5. Carburizing
6. Nitriding
1. Annealing
Annealing means softening. This is done by heating the metal to high temperature,
followed by slow cooling in a furnace.
Purpose
(i) It increases the machinability. (ii) It also removes the imprisoned gases.
2. Hardening (or) Quenching
It is the process of heating steel beyond the critical temperature and then suddenly cooling it
either in oil or brine-water or some other fluid. Hardening increases the hardness of steel.
The faster the rate of cooling, harder will be the steel produced. Medium and high-carbon
steels can be hardened, but low-carbon steels cannot be hardened.

Purpose
1. It increases its resistance to wear, ability to cut other metals and strength, but steel
becomes extra brittle.
2. It increases abrasion-resistance, so that it can be used for making cutting tools.
3. Tempering
It is the process of heating the already hardened steel to a temperature lower than its own
hardening temperature and then cooling it slowly. In tempering, the temperature to which
hardened steel is re-heated is of great significance and controls the development of the final
properties. Thus
(i) For retaining strength and hardness, reheating temperature should not exceed 400°C.
(ii) For developing better ductility and toughness, reheating temperature should be within
400 to 600° C.
Purpose
1. It removes any stress and strains that might have developed during quenching.
2. It reduces the brittleness and also some hardness but toughness and ductility are
simultaneously increased.
3. Cutting-tools like blades, cutters, tool-bites always require tempering.
4. Normalising
It is the process of heating steel to a definite temperature (above its higher critical
temperature) and allowing it to cool gradually in air.
Purpose
1. It recovers the homogeneity of the steel structure. 2. It refines grains. 3. It removes the
internal stresses. 4. It increases the toughness. 5. Normalised steel is suitable for the use in
engineering works.
A normalized steel will not be as soft as an annealed job of the same material. Also
normalizing takes much lesser time than annealing process.
5. Carburizing
The mild steel article is taken in a cast iron box containing small pieces of charcoal (carbon
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material). It is then heated to about 900 to 950°C and allowed to keep it as such for sufficient
time, so that the carbon is absorbed to required depth. The article is then allowed to cool
slowly within the iron box itself. The outer skin of the article is converted into high-carbon
steel containing about 0.8 to 1.2% carbon.
Purpose:
To produce hard-wearing surface on steel article.
6. Nitriding
Nitriding is the process of heating the metal alloy in presence of ammonia at a temperature to
about 550°C. The nitrogen (obtained by the dissociation of ammonia) combines with the
surface of the alloy to form hard nitride.
Purpose:
To get super-hard surface.

5. What is bronze? Explain the properties and uses of important bronzes


Bronze is copper alloy containing copper and tin. They posses,
(i) Lower melting point than steel and are more readily produced from their constituent
metals.
(ii) Better heat and electrical conducting property than most of the steels,
Important Bronzes their properties and uses
Some important bronzes and their compositions, properties and uses are given in the following
table.

Type of Bronzes Composition Properties Uses


Bronze Cu = 80-95%, They are tough, strong
Sn = 20- 5% and corrosion resistant
Main bronze Cu = 89-92% It is ductile and durable Pumps, valves, wires,
1.Coinage- Bronze Sn = 11-8% utensils, coins, statues,
(or) etc.,
Common bronze
2.Gun-metal Cu = 85% It is hard, Foundry works, heavy-load
Zn=4% tough, and strong to bearings, steam plants,
Sn=8% resist the force of water fittings,
Pb=3% explosion. etc.,
3.Aluminium bronze Cu = 90 to (i) It is in golden Bushes, jewellery,
93% yellow utensils, coins and
Al = 10-7% colour. photoframes, etc.,
(ii). It is quite readily
fusible and resistant to
corrosion.
(iii). It also possesses good
abrasion-resistance
3. High phosphorous Sn = 10-13% (i) It is hard, brittle and Bearing gears, taps. Bushes,
bronze P = 0.4 to 1% abrasion resistant springs, turbine blades,
Cu = rest (ii).It possess low fuses, etc.,
co-efficient of
friction
4. Nickel bronze Cu = 90% It is hard & better tensile For rolling purposes, valves
Ni = 9% strength and corrosion and general purpose semi-
Fe = 1% resistant than Cu hard bearings.

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6. Discuss the composition, characteristics and uses of Brass
Brass is an important copper alloy, contain ing mainly copper and zinc. They posses,
(i) Greater strength, durability and machinability than copper,
(ii) Lower melting points than Cu and Zn,
(ii) Good corrosion resistance and water resistance property.
Important Brasses their properties and uses
Some important brasses and their composition, properties and uses are given in the
following table.
Type of Brasses Composition Properties Uses
Brass Cu = 60 – 90% They posses greater
Zn = 40 – 10% strength, dura bility and
low M.Pt than Cu.
They are good corrosion
resistant
Main Brasses Cu = 90% It is golden in colour. Forgings, riverts,
Commercial brass Zn = 10% It is stronger and harder hardwares, jewellery,
(or) Guilding metal than pure Cu etc.
(or) French gold.
Dutch metal (or) Cu = 80% It is golden in colour Cheap jewellery,
Low brass Zn = 20% It is suitable for all battery caps, flexiable
drawing and forming hoses, tubes etc.
operations
Cartridge brass (or) Cu = 70% It is soft, ductile, harder Condenser tubes, sheet
spinning brass Zn = 30% and stronger than Cu. fabrication and house
It can be cold deformed hold articles.
like extraction
Special brasses It contains metals other than Cu and Zn
German silver Cu = 25 – 50% It is ductile malleable and Utensils, bolts, screws,
Zn = 10-35% looks like silver. ornaments, coinage
Sn = 5-35% It possesses good strength decorative articles.
and corrosion resistance
to salt water
Admirablly brass or Cu = 59-62% It possesses high It is used in propellers
Jobin brass Sn = 0.5 – corrosion and abrasion and marine works.
1.5% resistances.
Zn = rest

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