Building Engineering Fundamentals

Course 2

Structural action:
- Redundancy of structures
- Cables and arches
Course notes are available for download at
http://cemsig.ct.upt.ro/astratan/didactic/bef/

Structural action

Structural action: the way in which a structure of a given
type and configuration resists the loads acting on it

Types of structures:
– Cables

– Arches

– Trusses

– Beams

– Plates and shells

– Frames

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 Redundancy

Statically determinate
structures
– internal forces are determined
only from equilibrium
– internal forces do not depend on
relative stiffness of its parts
– redistribution of stresses is not
possible

Statically indeterminate
(redundant) structures
– internal forces are determined
from equilibrium and
compatibility of deformations
– internal forces depend on
relative stiffness of its parts
– redistribution of stresses is
possible

Statically determinate structures

A statically determinate structure has the minimum
number of members, supports, and constraints between
the supports necessary to preserve its shape and keep it
stable and at rest under load

If any one
member,
constraint or
support is
removed, the
structure collapses.

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 Statically indeterminate structures

Forces in different members depend on the relative
stiffness of its elements

In statically indeterminate structures an increase of
stiffness in one of its parts, will attract forces to that part

Internal forces are more difficult to be obtained than in
the case of a statically determinate structures, requiring
solution of a system of algebraic equation

Statically indeterminate structures

Generally, in statically indeterminate structures, removal
of one member, constraint or support does not lead to
collapse of the structure

It is desirable to design structures that will collapse only
after a significant number of members are removed
– robust structures, resistant to accidental loads (blasts,
explosions) and exceptional loads (earthquake)

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 Cable / chain structures

Cable and chains:
– excellent tensile strength
– no strength/stiffness in compression
– no strength/stiffness in bending

Cable and chain structures exploit the benefits of high
tensile strength of natural fibres and steel

Especially useful in large-span structures

Cable / chain structures

The form of a chain under its own weight?

The form of a chain under equal loads applied in the
pins?

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 A chain subjected to a single force

The simplest chain structure:
– links connected by pins
– load W acts on the central pin

Solution (equilibrium of node C):
– the pin C is acted by three forces: load W, and to tensile internal
forces T
– the vectors representing the three forces can be represented as a
a triangle of forces 012 (W=12, T=20, T=01)
– length of lines 20 and 01 gives the tensions in the chain

A chain carrying two vertical forces

Weights W1 and W2 attached to pins D and E

Tensions T1, T2 and T3 will be set up in three parts of the
chain

Problem: determine magnitudes of T1, T2 and T3 if
deformed shape is known

Solution (equilibrium of nodes D and E)

Node D
– node D is acted by three forces:
load W1, and to tensile internal
forces T1 and T2
– the vectors representing the
three forces can be represented
as a a triangle of forces 012
(W1=12, T1=20, T2=01)
– length of lines 20 and 01 gives
the tensions in the chain

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 A chain carrying two vertical forces

Node E
– node E is acted by three forces:
load W2, and to tensile internal
forces T2 and T3
– the vectors representing the
three forces can be represented
as a a triangle of forces 023
(W2=23, T2=02, T3=30)
– length of lines 02 and 30 gives
the tensions in the chain

The two triangles can be combined
to get a force diagram

A chain carrying four vertical forces

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 A chain carrying equal weight at each pin

The chain hangs symmetrically about point C

Each inclined line in the force diagram gives the
magnitude and inclination of the force in the
corresponding link

Starting from the midspan, the slope of the links
increases in proportion to the horizontal distance from
the midspan ⇒ parabola

A chain carrying equal weight at each pin

The slope at the sides: twice the average slope ⇒
tangents at the ends A and B will intersect at point F
(GF=2GC)

Considering the equilibrium of the chain as a whole, the
chain is acted by the tensions T1, T16 and the total weight
W.

Provided the chain sag is known (GC), end tensions can
be determined from triangle of forces 120

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 Deformed shape of a cable / chain

Actual deformed shape of a cable or chain hanging under
its own weight: catenary (slightly ≠ from parabola)

Parabola: the shape of a chain carrying uniform loads for
each horizontal span

Catenary:
– the shape of a chain hanging under its own weight
– weight of the chain per unit horizontal span increases toward the
sides due to increasing slope of the chain

Parabola:
– easier to calculate
– differences between parabola and catenary negligible for small
spans

Arches

The simplest chain structure

(material working in tension):

If the load direction is reversed

(material working in compression)
⇒ an arch is obtained

Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch

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 Three-bar linear arch
Three-bar chain Three-bar arch

Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch

Linear arch (funicular shape) - the shape for which under

loads acting on it (including its own weight), the thrust in
the arch acts along the axis of members at all points

Three-bar linear arch

The forces in an arch can be deduced from those in a
chain of the same shape (first to be realised by Robert
Hook)

An essential difference between a chain and an arch:
– a change in the relative values of loads W1 and W2 in a chain leads
to a new position of equilibrium
– a change in the relative values of loads W1 and W2 in an hinged
arch leads to collapse of the structure

Collapse of the arch due to small changes of loading can
be avoided by connecting the bars rigidly together

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 Arches: line of thrust

Linear arch gives the
smallest stresses

Shape of the arch is
not important for small
arches: own weight
has a small
contribution to
stresses in
comparison with
imposed (traffic) loads

Shape of the arch is
very important for
large arches: own
weight has a major
contribution to
stresses

Arches: forms

Perfect arch: shape of catenary (example: Taq-e Kisra
Palace, Ctesiphon, Irag - built 220 B.C.)

10
 Arches: forms

The first civilisation to
make extensive use of
arches: Romans

Shape of Roman arches:
semicircular

why?

Circle - the easiest way

to set out

Semicircular arch

A cable takes a
circular form
when subjected
to a uniform
radial load

A linear
semicircular
arch: loaded by
uniform radial
pressure

Loading in
bridges and
buildings quite
different from the
condition above

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 Romanesque semi-circular arches and vaults

Semi-circular arch used
extensively in the
Romanesque period

Severe architectural
restrictions:
– Romanesque barrel vault
requires continuous support
and makes the interior dark
when used for roofs
– groined arch: enables light to
enter from all sides but allows
only square bays to be covered

Gothic arches

Gothic period - pointed
arches

Rectangular spans can be
covered by varying the
ratio of rise to span

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 Gothic arches

A kink in an weightless cable implies a concentrated
force at the kink, as well as a distributed load along the
two sides ⇒ corresponding shape of linear Gothic arch

This condition is not present in almost all Gothic arches,
which requires support from the adjoining masonry

Gothic arches

Correct use of pointed arch: Font Pedrouse viaduct in
France

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 Arches: design

A stone arch
(no strength
in tension)
will fail when
the thrust lie
reaches the
extrados and
intrados in
four points,
becoming a
mechanism

Arches: design

19th century approach - avoid cracking (tensile stresses)
under service loads - keep the thrust line within the
middle third of the arch cross-section

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 Arches: design

Thrusts at
springings
(reactions at
supports) are
inclined:
– vertical component
– horizontal
component

Horizontal
reactions tend to
spread the
supports apart ⇒
buttresses can be
used, especially for
arches/vaults on
high walls

Arches: buttresses

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