Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based

On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

1. INTRODUCTION

In the United States, only the more southerly states have climatic conditions that
provide relative freedom from effects of seasonal frost action. Yet the current Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) criteria for airport pavement design do not account
adequately for the detrimental effects of frost action on pavements.

These criteria do not provide design alternatives based on degree of roughness,

proposed use, or funding available, and they often result in unsatisfactory performance or
excessive life-cycle cost of pavements. In addition, these criteria do not recognize parameters
known to affect the depth of frost penetration, which has a major influence on the severity of
some of the detrimental effects of seasonal frost conditions.

Permafrost is widespread in Alaska and affects pavement design in most of that state,
but the current FAA standards provide no criteria or guidance applicable to the design and
construction of pavements in areas of permafrost. This is a subject for which existing
technology needs further 'development; however, available information could be adapted for
incorporation into FAA design criteria.

Recognizing the need for updating their criteria, the FAA requested that a study be
carried, out that would draw on existing technology and provide the needed adaptation of
currently available guidelines and design. Procedures for application to airports that serve
civil aircraft.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 1 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

2. EFFECTS OF FROST ACTION ON PAVEMENTS

The principal adverse effects of frost action are roughness and cracking, caused by the
upheaval of the pavement surface during freezing and by the weakening of the subgrade and
base course and loss of supporting capacity during thaw. Frost heave, the raising of the
pavement in winter, is caused by the freezing of the soil moisture. In its most damaging form,
it is associated with ice segregation, the formation of lenses of ice in the subgrade or base
course or both.

Frost heave may not be detrimental if adjacent areas of a pavement are heaved by
equal amounts, but non-uniform heave can result in extremely severe roughness and in the
cracking of both flexible and rigid pavements. Small structures inserted in paved areas, such
as fueling hydrants and light bases, may be progressively heaved to levels significantly above
the surrounding pavement.

The degree of uniformity of pavement heave is enhanced by horizontally uniform soil

characteristics and moisture conditions, uniform surface eqosure to sun and wind, and
uniformity of pavement colour and of the thickness and types of materials in adjacent
pavement cross sections. Thaw weakening, which causes a loss in pavement supporting
capacity, is experienced when frozen soil containing a significant amount of ice thaws. The
extreme acceleration in the rate of pavement damage under traffic during the spring
.Pavement roughness and cracking can be caused by severe non-uniform frost heave or by
inability of the pavement to support traffic during the thawing season. Cracking of asphalt
pavements can also be caused by thermal contraction. As the temperature decreases to low
levels, the pavement is partially restrained by friction at the contact with the base course;
consequently, the asphalt mixture, embrittled by the low temperature, fails in tension.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 2 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

3. THICKNESS OF PAVEMENT SECTION

3.1 SEASONAL FROST AREAS

In seasonal frost areas, the design process seeks to determine the minimum combined
thickness of pavement surfacing material, freeze -thaw -durable stabilized base, and clean
granular non-frost-susceptible base that will adequately control heave-related surface
roughness and prevent premature pavement failure caused by thaw weakening of the
subgrade. Two approaches are available to meet this object.

The principle of the first is to limit the advance of the freezing front into the frost
susceptible subgrade to a small amount and thereby restrict differential pavement heave to
small acceptable values. By experience, it has been found that this object will be achieved if
the depth of subgrade freezing does not exceed about one-fourth the base thickness.

Then in cold areas with high freezing indexes, the thickness but if the subgrade soils
are uniform in properties and moisture contents throughout a paved area, a second method of
design may be feasible. This method relies on uniformity of soil conditions to reasonably
restrict differential heave and only determines the minimum combined thickness of pavement
and base for adequate support of aircraft loads during the period when the subgrade is
weakened by thawing.

From traffic tests on airport pavements in the 1940s and experience with pavements
since that time, equivalent-design California bearing ratio values applicable to the design of
flexible pavements for year-round use can be inferred for subgrade soils subject to freezing
and thawing. These inferred values have been used to develop design charts for various civil
aircraft currently in use. For proportioning rigid pavements, the modulus of reaction
necessary for the design equation can be.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 3 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

3.2 Permafrost Areas

Summer and refreeze in winter, and hence pavements must be designed to minimize
the adverse effects of both frost heave and thaw weakening. In arctic areas with low thawing
indexes, the design requirements may be met by making the base thick enough to prevent
seasonal thawing of the subgrade.

However, as the thawing index increases, the thickness needed becomes excessive,
although synthetic insulation can be used to decrease the requirements for the granular base.
If, however, subgrade thawing is expected, the minimum base thickness should be that given
by design charts. The most difficult problem facing the designer is found in subarctic areas
where not only is the depth of seasonal freezing very great, but the depth of thawing beneath
a pavement may exceed the depth of refreezing.

In this case, progressive lowering of the top of the permafrost may be inevitable and
lead to large cumulative settlements as the high-ice-content permafrost thaws. However,
degradation of the permafrost may be slowed or even prevented by the following measures:
(a) use of high- moisture- retaining material such as sand in thebase course, (b) painting the
pavement white to control surface reflectance, or (c) use of polystyrene insulation (which
cannot prevent permafrost degradation, but can beneficially retard it).

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 4 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

4. DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS INCORPORATING EXTRUDED

POLYSTYRENE INSULATION

An insulated pavement system is composed of conventional surfacing, base, and

subbase layers above an insulating material of suitable properties and thickness to restrict or
prevent the advance of subfreezing temperatures into a frost-susceptible subgrade (or, in
permafrost areas, to retard subgrade thawing).

Unless the thickness of insulation and overlaying layers is sufficient to prevent

subgrade freezing, additional layers of granular materials are placed between the insulation
and the subgrade to partially contain the portion of the frost zone that extends below the
insulation. Considering only the thermal efficiency of the insulated pavement system, a given
thickness of granular material placed below the insulating layer is much more effective than
the same thickness of the material placed above the insulation.

Hence, the thickness of the pavement and base above the insulation should be the
minimum that meets structural requirements, and the thickness of the insulation and
additional granular material should be based on the placement of the latter beneath the
insulation. Alternative combinations of thicknesses of insulation and underlying granular
material required to completely contain the zone of freezing can be determined which shows
the total depth of frost for various freezing indexes and thicknesses of insulation; the
thickness of granular material needed to contain the zone of freezing is the total depth of frost
less the total thickness of cover material and insulation.

For pavements in seasonal frost areas, experience has shown, however, that limited
subgrade freezing may not have detrimental consequences. Accordingly, the total depth of
frost may be taken as the value a in and a new combined thickness of pavement, base,
insulation, and subbase determined. The thickness of the granular material needed beneath
the insulation is obtained by subtracting the previously established thicknesses of upper base
and insulation.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 5 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

5. THEORY FOR FROST DAMAGE OF EARLY-AGE

CONCRETE

5.1. Factors behind compressive strength decrease of concrete frozen at an

early age

The factors that affect the decrease in the compressive strength of concrete frozen at
an early age may be divided into two groups. The first group is related to the growth of ice
lenses formed inside the concrete. The ice lenses are formed from water located on the
surface of the aggregate that bleeds into the concrete. Water is extracted from the adjacent
cement paste causing further growth of the lenses. This results in small pores in the cement
paste and creates the onset of separations in the cement paste. In addition, the decrease in
strength is not recoverable when the concrete is re-cured at normal temperatures. Thus, the
formed ice lens melts away and leaves large cavities which separate the aggregate particle
from the surrounding mortar. The second group of factors that affect the strength is related to
the occurrence of fracturing stresses in the concrete generated from the volume dilation of the
ice lens. If the free water is frozen before the hardening of the concrete, the volume
expansion from its phase transition into ice leads to a fracturing stress. If the concrete has not
acquired a sufficient strength that would allow it to resist this stress, the compressive strength
of the concrete is decreased (Bernhardt 1956, George and Alan 1983, Neville 1996).

5.2. Factors influencing compressive strength of concrete frozen at an early

age

It is common knowledge that the frost damage duration, the frost damage
temperature, the onset time of frost damage, the water–cement (w/c) ratio, the cement type,
the air content, and the curing temperature before exposure to frost damage are the pertinent
factors affecting the compressive strength of concrete frozen at an early age. Bernhardt
(1956) performed frost damage tests on early-age concrete using the frost damage duration,
frost damage temperature, onset time of the frost damage and the air content as the main
factors in his work. From the tests, it was found that the important factor is not frost damage
duration or frost damage temperature; rather it is the onset time of frost damage. The reason

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 6 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020
may be explained as follows: after the minimum curing time, the quantity of freezable free
water within the concrete is much lower than that of the fresh concrete. Thus, not much frost
damage duration is needed for the formation of ice lenses. Another factor implicated is the
frost damage temperature. If this temperature falls low enough to freeze the free water in the
concrete, ice lenses form regardless of the frost damage temperature. Several tests regarding
the air content have also been conducted. Bernhardt (1956) and Corr et al. (2002) reported
that an air entraining agent is not effective in preventing performance decreases brought
about by frost damage in early-age concrete. This is due to the fact that, before the hardening
of the concrete, if it is exposed to frost damage the strength of the air void is very low and the
free water located in the area surrounding the void shell forms ice lenses. This pushes the
void shell aside. Moreover, at this point, the air void shell has not yet gained sufficient
strength to prevent the growth of ice lenses in the transition zone and the formation of its
inherent shape is also not easy. Therefore, it is concluded that the most important factors
influencing the compressive strength of the concrete frozen at an early age are the onset time
of the frost damage, the w/c ratio, the cement type, and the curing temperature before
exposure to frost damage.

5.3. Frost resistance of concrete frozen at an early age

Concrete shows resistance to frost damage at an early age. In other words, if the
hydration reaction of the cement has comparatively progressed before the freezing of the
concrete, the decrease in the compressive strength caused by frost damage would not occur.
As stated above, there are several factors influencing the frost resistance of early-age
concrete, and the precise time when the frost resistance develops in concrete is unclear.
However, by taking into account that the main reason for the decrease in compressive
strength is due to the formation of ice lenses in the concrete, the development of frost
resistance depends on the associated conditions related to the formation of ice lenses before
freezing. In other words, the development of frost resistance in concrete is linked to the
hydration progress. As the hydration progresses, the strength of the cement paste against the
dilation pressure of the ice lenses increases, and the content of freezable water decreases as a
result of the hydration. In addition, most of the free water located at the micro-voids will not
freeze readily. Finally, the amount of free water contained in the concrete before freezing is
an important criterion for the development of frost resistance at an early age.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 7 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

5.4. Prediction theory of minimum curing time to prevent frost damage

The estimation of the frost resistance of early-age concrete as a function of critical

strength suggests that when it is frozen after a moderate curing time, the cement paste has a
sufficient strength to resist the expansive pressure associated with an increase in the volume
of water as it goes from a liquid phase to a solid phase. In view of the magnitude of stress that
occurs during the process of frost damage, the existence of resistance to frost damage after a
specific curing time indicates not the development of strength but the decrease of fracturing
stress occurring during the frost damage. The decrease of fracturing stress can be explained
using the decrease of saturation degree in capillary pores within the paste during hardening at
early stages. That is to say, because the freezable free water decreases, the ice lenses cannot
grow easily. Thus, the capillary water-filled spaces become smaller and, finally, the dilation
pressure is decreased. Though it is difficult to precisely estimate the degree of saturation of
the capillary pores, it can be characterised by the hydration degree and w/c ratio based on the
assumption that the hardening part of the cement is composed of unhydrated cement, pores,
and cement gel without the movement of water from an outside source after placement.
Powers (1962) calculated the degree of saturation of the capillary pores of early-age concrete
using a critical saturation coefficient, and expressed as a function of the w/c ratio the
minimum curing time using a critical coefficient of 97% obtained from existing research.
This is expressed as follows:

where t is the minimum curing time. This equation is based on the assumption that the
maturity of early-age concrete can be simply defined as a logarithmic function (Powers
1962). However, the real maturity of early-age concrete changes according to various
situations. Therefore, the validity of this equation is questionable. In fact, there are
differences between the results from the study by Powers (1962) and other researchers
(RILEM 1963, Trub 1968). The reason behind this is due to the fact that the maturity of
earlyage concretes can be different. Therefore, in this study, a method is proposed to predict
the minimum curing time based on the development theory of frost resistance with decrease
of saturation degree of capillary pores and using the hydration degree curves at an early age.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 8 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

Figure 5.1. The inside view of electric freezer

Table 1. Concrete mixture proportion.

Table 2. Material and properties used for concrete mixture

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 9 Al-Azhar Polyechnic College

Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

6. ASPHALT CONCRETE MOISTURE AND FREEZE – THAW

DAMAGES

It has been recognised for a long time that moisture contributes to the premature
degradation of asphalt concrete pavements. Bituminous mixes are composed of aggregates
and bituminous cement. Separation of the aggregates from the mix is a commonly
encountered problem of asphaltic pavements that are exposed to moisture infiltration. The
interaction between moisture weakening and traffic load damage causes a progressive
dislodgement of the aggregates. In some cases, this damage pattern becomes a dominant
mode of failure and results in decreasing road safety. This damage phenomenon is known as
stripping of the asphalt wearing surface. The initial stripping damage can rapidly progress
into more severe degradation of the wearing surface and ultimately lead to formation of
potholes.

Freezing of water or salt solution in asphalt concrete pores may cause severe
deterioration and considerable reduction in service life. It is common knowledge that plain
water freezes at 08C under normal atmospheric pressure. When water freezes, a 9% increase
in volume occurs as the water turns to ice. However, water trapped within the capillary pores
of asphalt concrete does not necessarily freeze at 08C. The temperature at which water
freezes in capillary pores is a function of the size of the pores. As the pore size decreases, the
temperature required to freeze the water also decreases (Hale et al. 2009).

Kaufmann (2004) divided the ice formation process into consecutive steps. First, the
ice formation is initiated at the surface through ice-nucleating germs, such as ice crystals,
snowflakes, white frost or dust. The faster the ice forms, the greater is the induced hydraulic
pressure (Powers and Helmuth 1983). The presence of salt ions also causes rapid freezing,
probably due to the difference in the freezing point between layers. When the ice formation
begins, the pore solution will freeze at a temperature that is dependent on the pore size and
ion concentration. As freezing is mainly initiated from pre-existing ice, an ice front penetrates
the pore system. The pore water only freezes when the pore is connected to the surface.
Under these conditions, the pore solution freezes at a temperature higher than 08C. The next
step in the formation of ice is the redistribution of the pore solution when the temperature
Dept. Of Civil Engineering 10 Al-Azhar Polyechnic
College
Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020
ranges between 258C and the minimum temperature of the frost cycle (Kaufmann 2004).
Local super cooling only occurs if large pores or whole pore regions are connected to the ice
front through smaller pores (Fagerlund 1997).

The existence of water flowing on the pavement surface when the temperature reaches
08C in winter does not allow the ice to form on the pavement surface. According to the ice
formation procedure described by Kaufman, freezing is primarily initiated from pre-existing
ice. As a result, water flow can slow down the formation of ice in asphalt concrete pores
during the freezing cycle Although the freezing mechanism of solutions seems to bethe same
for asphalt concrete and cement, asphalt concrete is different from cement concrete, which
has elastic–plastic properties. When exposed to the complex effects of salt, water flow and
freeze–thaw cycles, asphalt concrete has viscoelastic characteristics. In fact, frost of water in
asphalt concrete is very different from cement concrete. For example, material properties, air
voids distribution and size, among other characteristics, are all different

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 11 Al-Azhar Polyechnic

College
Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

7. CONCLUSION

Airport cement pavement is prone to severe freeze–thaw damage due to the use of
deicing chemicals. There is no unified evaluation parameter for analyzing the relationship
between the concrete meso-structure and its salt-frost resistance. Therefore, industrial
computed tomography (CT) scanning technology was applied in this study to obtain the
meso-structure of concrete and the meso-structural parameters of concrete (air content, air
void surface area per unit volume, air void distance factor, air void volume fractal box
dimension, air void surface area fractal box dimension) that are introduced to characterize its
meso-structure. The relationship between each structural parameter and the salt-frost
resistance of concrete were analyzed, and a gray correlation model was established to
quantitatively compare the significance of each parameter. In addition, the meso-structural
parameters were used to analyze the internal structural changes of concrete under freeze–
thaw cycles; this analysis mainly included three aspects. First, changes in concrete meso-
structure before and after freeze–thaw cycles were analyzed. Second, changes in each meso-
structural parameter of concrete under freeze–thaw cycles were tested and calculated. Third, a
damage degree index, based on the air void surface area fractal box dimension, was proposed
for characterizing the damage degree of concrete. The results showed that air void distance
factor had the most significant influence on the salt-frost resistance of concrete in each
structural parameter and could be used as the characterization parameter. The depth of the
influence of salt frost on the internal structure of non-air-entrained concrete was deeper than
its influence on air-entrained concrete. In addition, the damage degree index can quantify the
degree of deterioration in concrete meso-structure well.

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 12 Al-Azhar Polyechnic

College
Salt Frost Resistance Performance Of Airfield Concrete Based
On Meso-Srtuctural Parameters 2019-2020

REFERENCES

i. Fagerlund, G., 1997. Internal frost attack—State of the art in frost resistance of
concrete. In: M. Setzer and R. Auberg eds. Proceedings of RILEM workshop on frost
resistance of concrete. Essen, Germany: E&FN Spon, 319–338.
ii. Feng, D., et al., 2010. Impact of salt and freeze-thaw cycles on performance of asphalt
mixtures in coastal frozen region of China. Cold Regions Science and Technology,
62, 34–41.
iii. Hassan, Y., et al., 2002. Effects of runway deicers on pavement materials and mixes:
Comparison with road salt. Journal of Transportation Engineering, (ASCE), 128 (4),
385–391.
iv. Hale, M., Freyne, S. and Russell, B., 2009. Examining the frost resistance of high
performance concrete. Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 23, 878–888.
v. Kaufmann, P., 2004. Experimental identification of ice formation in small concrete
pores. Journal of Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 1421–1427
vi. LFV method 2-98, 1998 (rev 2000– 04). Effect of de-icing fluid on the surface
strength of asphalt concrete for airfieldsadhesion test. Swedish Civil Aviation
Authority.
vii. Mallick, B., Pelland, R. and Hugos, F., 2005. Use of accelerated loading equipment
for determination of long term moisture susceptibility of hot mix asphalt. The
International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 6 (2), 125–136

Dept. Of Civil Engineering 13 Al-Azhar Polyechnic

College