Vdocuments - MX - Curs Limbaje Formale Si Automate PDF

7/16/2019 Curs Limbaje Formale si Automate
Limbaje Formale si Automate
˘
Instructor Andrei P AUN
Semestrul II 2009-2010
Departmentul de Infomrmatica
Universitatea Bucuresti
Bucuresti, Romania
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/curs-limbaje-formale-si-automate 1/114
Structura cursului:
1. Cunostinte de baza
multimi, multiseturi, secvente, functii,
relatii, metode si tehnici de demonstratie,
alfabet, cuvinte, limbaje
2. Automate finite
automate finite nedeterministe (NFA),
automate finite deterministe (DFA),
transformarea de la NFA la DFA,
proprietati pentru limbajele acceptate de
automate,
lema de pompare
3. Expresii regulate
echivalenta dintre expresiile regulate si au-
tomatele finite
(in definirea limbajelor)
4. Gramatici independente de context (CFG)

simplificare si forme normale,
algoritmi de parsare, lema de pompare si
alte proprietati
2
5. Automate pushdown (PDA)

nondeterministic pushdown automata (NPDA),
deterministic pushdown automata (DPDA),
PDA vs. CFGs
6. Masini Turing (TM)
diverse tipuri de TM, TM universale,
decidabilitate si nedecidabilitate,
complexitate de timp si spatiu
Motivare pentru curs
Programming AI
Database Graphics
Compiler VLSI
Theory of Computing
(1) Putere de calcul
(2) Complexitate
(3) Software design
(4) Circuit design
.....................
I. Cunostinte de baza
1. Multimi
1) O multime este o colectie de elemente luate
dintr-un univers.
2) O multime este finita daca contine un nu-

mar finit de elemente, si este infinita in caz
contrar.
3) Cardinalitatea unei multimi este numarul sau

de elemente si se noteaza cu # sau ∣∣ (pen-
tru multimea ).
– Cum specificam o multime:
(1) Listam toate elementele sale:

{} (or ∅),
 = {2, 3, 5, 7},
 = {3, 2, 2, 7, 5, 7}
(2) Precizam o proprietate: { ∣  ()}

 = { ∣  este numar prim},
 = { ∣  este un cuvant in romana si 
este si palindrom},
 = { ∣  este un intreg divizibil cu
3 si mai mic decat 10 }
(3) Definite recursiv:

Forma generala:
i) Anumite elemente initiale sau de baza
sunt in 
ii) Daca ,  ∈ , atunci  ∘  ∈ 
iii) Nici un alt element nu apartine lui 
Exemplu Definirea lui A:

i) 2 ∈ 
ii) Daca ,  ∈ , atunci  +  ∈ 
iii) Nici un alt element nu apartine lui 
(4) Inchiderea la operatii
∙ Spunem ca o multime  este inchisa la o op-

eratie binara ∘ daca pentru toate ,  ∈ ,
∘∈
∙ Fie  ⊇  si  este inchisa la ∘. Spunem ca
 este o inchidere a lui  la operatia ∘ daca
nu exista  ′ astfel incat  ⊆  ′ ⊂  si  ′ este
inchisa la ∘.
∙ Forma generala (pentru multimi definite prin

inchidere)
 este cea mai mica multime care contine an-
umite elemente initiale (de baza) si care este
inchisa la operatia ∘.
∙ Exemplu
 este cea mai mica multime care il contine
pe  si este inchisa la “+”.
— Operatii cu multimi
Daca se dau  si  doua multimi:
 ∪  = { ∣  este in  sau  este in  }
 ∩  = { ∣  este in  si  este si in  }
 −  = { ∣  este in  si  nu este in  }
∪=1 = { ∣  este in , pentru un , 1 ≤  ≤

}
∩=1 = { ∣  este in , 1 ≤  ≤ }
— Proprietati ale operatiilor cu multimi
Distributivitate
 ∩ ( ∪  ) = ( ∩ ) ∪ ( ∩  )
 ∪ ( ∩  ) = ( ∪ ) ∩ ( ∪  )
Indempotenta
 ∪  = ;  ∩  = 
Involutie
¬(¬) = 
Comutativitate
 ∩  =  ∩ ;  ∪  =  ∪ 
Asociativitate
 ∪ ( ∪  ) = ( ∪ ) ∪ 
 ∩ ( ∩  ) = ( ∩ ) ∩ 
Regulile lui De Morgan

¬( ∪ ) = ¬ ∩ ¬
¬( ∩ ) = ¬ ∪ ¬
— Multimea submultimilor
Multimea tuturor submultimilor unei mul-
timi  (“power set” of ) se noteaza cu 2.
Exemplu:
 = {2, 3, 5}
2 = {∅, {2}, {3}, {5}, {2, 3}, {2, 5}, {3, 5}, {2, 3, 5}}
— Cateva multimi speciale:

∅: multimea vida;
 : multimea intregilor;
 : multimea intregilor pozitivi;
 0: multimea intregilor care nu sunt negativi;
ℛ: multimea numerelor reale.
...............
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2. Multiseturi
Un multiset este o colectie de elemente
dintr-un univers oarecare, colectie in care
repetitiile nu sunt ignorate.
3. Secvente
O secventa de elemente dintr-un univers oare-
care este o lista de elemente care sunt
ordonate (fiecare element are o pozitie).
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4. Functii
Definitie Daca se dau doua multimi  si  , o

functie (partiala) de la  la  asociaza cu
fiecare  din  (cel mult) un element  din  .
Notatii:
functie  :  → 
asocierea  () = 
nedefinita  () = 
Functii speciale:
functia identitate:
 :  →  si
 () =  pentru toti  ∈ 
Functia caracteristica a lui  pentru  :

⊆
 :  → {,  }
 () = ,   ∈ 
 () = ,   ∈  − 
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Cateva proprietati ale functiilor  :  → 
totala:
 () este definita pentru toate elementele 
din 
surjectiva:
pentru toate elementele  din  exista un 
din  astfel incat  () = 
injectiva:
, ′ ∈ ,  ∕
= ′ implica faptul ca  () ∕
=  (′)
bijectiva:
in acelasi timp si surjectiva si injectiva
Notatia big-O
 () = (()) daca exista  > 0 si intregul poz-

itiv  astfel incat pentru toate  ≥ 
 () ≤ ()
 () = Ω(()) daca
 () ≥ ()
 () = Θ(()) daca
 () = (()) si  () = Ω(())
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functie (partiala) ,
 : 1 × 2 × . . . ×  → 1 × . . . × 
 (1, 2, . . . , ) = (1, . . . , )
sau  (1, 2, . . . , ) = 
14
5. Relatii
O relatie -ara ,  ≥ 1, pentru multimile

1, . . . ,  este orice submultime  a produsu-
lui cartezian 1 × . . . × .
Exemplu
 = {  ,  },  = { ,  ,  ,  }
 ⊆  1× 
2 1 2 3 4
 = {( 1, 1), ( 1, 2), ( 1, 3), ( 2, 1), ( 2, 4)}
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Compunerea relatiilor
Fie  ⊆  ×  si  ⊆  ×  doua relatii. Atunci

compunerea lui  cu  , notata prin  ∘  , este
relatia  ∘  ⊆  ×  , definita prin:
 ∘  = {(, ) ∣ (, ) este in  si (, ) este in 
pentru un  din  }
Compunerea unei relatii  :  ×  cu ea insasi
0 : {(, ) ∣  este in }
1 : 
, ≥1 :  ∘ −1
+ = ∪ =1 inchiderea tranzitiva a lui 
∞
 ∗ = ∪∞ 
=0 inchiderea reflexiva si tranzitiva a
lui 
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Proprietatile relatiei  ⊆  × 
∙ reflexiva:  pentru toti  din 
∙ simetrica:  implica 
∙ antisimetrica: ,  implica  = 
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∙ tranzitiva: ,  implica 
△ O relatie binara  peste  este o

relatie de echivalenta daca este
∙ reflexiva,
∙ simetrica, si
∙ tranzitiva.
△ O relatie de echivalenta  peste 

defineste submultimi disjuncte ale lui ,
numite clase de echivalenta.
[] = { ∣  este in  si }
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∙ Fie  o relatie binara de echivalenta peste 

si  ⊆ .
Spunem ca  este -inchisa daca pentru toti
 din ,  implica faptul ca  este in  .
Exemplu  : multimea intregilor;
 :=
 {9, 4,patratul
“este 3, 2}; lui” (“is the square
of”)
Atunci  este -inchisa.
∙  este o relatie n-ara peste .  ⊆  este

-inchisa daca pentru toate 1, . . . , −1 din  ,
avem ca daca (1, . . . , −1, ) este in  atunci
 este in  .
Exemplu  : multimea tuturor intregilor;

 = {(,,) ∣  ×  = };

Atunci = {este
 ∣ ≥ 1} pentru un intreg 
-inchisa.
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Lema Fie  o relatie de echivalenta peste .

Atunci pentru toti ,  din  avem sau [] =
[] sau [] ∩ [] = ∅
△ O relatie binara  peste  este o ordine par-

tiala daca este
∙∙ reflexiva,
tranzitiva, si
∙ antisimetrica.
△ Inchidere
– + este inchiderea tranzitiva a lui 

– O reprezentare in digraf pentru o inchidere
tranzitiva:
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6. Cardinalitate
△ Daca se dau doua multimi  si  , spunem

ca ele au cardinalitate egala daca exista o
bijectie  :  →  .
Exemplu # = #  0

 () = −2 − 1,  < 0
 () = 2,  ≥ 0
△ O multime este numarabila sau enumerabila

daca este ori finita ori infinita, caz in care are
aceeasi cardinalitate cu  .
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7. Metode de demonstratie
— demonstratie directa
— demonstratie prin contradictie
— demonstratie prin inductie
△ Demonstratie directa
Enumeram toate cazurile pentru a arata ca
proprietatea este adevarate.
Exemplu Orice numar par dintre 4 si 232 este

suma a doua numere prime.
△ Demonstratie prin contradictie

Stabilim validitatea propozitiei presupunand
ca nu este adevarata si inferam o contradictie.
Exemplu Exista un numar infinit de numere

impare.
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△ Demonstratia prin inductie
– baza
– ipoteza inductiva
– pasul inductiv
– concluzie
Two forms:
(1) — Prove it holds for a basis value ,
— Hypothesize it holds for value ,
— Prove it holds for value  + 1.
(2) — Prove it holds for basis values,

— Hypothesize it holds for all values
less than  and greater than basis
value,
— Prove it holds for value .
23
Example (proof by induction)
(i) no two lines are parallel;
(ii) no three lines have a common intersec-

tion point.
Prove that the number of regions in an

arrangement of  lines is
1 + ( + 1)/2
24
8. Proof Techniques
— pigeonhole principle
— counting
— diagonalisation
The Pigeonhole Principle

Let  ≥ 1 be an integer, let there be 
pigeonholes, and there be  + 1 items of mail
to be placed in the pigeonholes. Then, how-
ever the the items are placed, at least one
pigeonhole will contain at least two items.
The Pigeonhole Principle(Extended version)
Let  1, . . . ,  ≥ 1. There exists a positive inte-
ger  ( 1, . . . ,  ). If  ≥  ( 1, . . . ,  ), then how-
ever  items are placed into  pigeonholes,
,   
there existscontains
pigeonhole 1 ≤ at≤least such  1 +that the -th
1 items.
25
Example Let  = (,  ) be a digraph with

# =  ≥ 1. Then  has a cycle if and only if
 has a path of length at least .

 
 
 
 


 
  
  
 
 
 
26
9. Alphabets, Words, and Languages
△ An alphabet is a finite, nonempty set of

elements.
The elements of the alphabet are called
symbols or letters.
△ A word over an alphabet Σ is a finite se-

quence of symbols from Σ.
△ A language is a set of words.
Examples:
(1) English alphabet, words and language.
(2) Alphabet: {, }

words: ,  ,  ,   ,   , ......
language: {, , , , ......}
i.e. { ∣  ≥ 0}
(3) Alphabet : Fortran reserved words and

identifiers
words : a Fortran program
Language : the set of all Fortran
programs.
27
△ Empty word is a word over every alphabet.

△ The length of a word is the number of sym-
bols in the given word.
Example: ∣∣ = 0
∣∣ = 4
△ The -length of a word  is the number of
times  occurs in .
Example: ∣01101∣0 = 2
∣∣ = 0
28
△ The catenation of two words  and  , de-

noted by  , is the word obtained by append-
ing the word  to .
Example  = 
 = 
 = 
 = 
 =  = 
 = 
△ Catenation is associative:
() = ( )
△ ∣ ∣ = ∣∣ + ∣ ∣
△ 0 =  (Power of a word)
 −1
 =  ,  ≥ 1
Example ()0 = 
()3 = 
29
△ Prefix:  is a prefix of  if ∃ such that

 = 
Example ∙  is a prefix of 
∙  is a prefix of any word
∙ Any word is a prefix of itself
△ Suffix:  is a suffix of  if ∃ such that

 = 
Example ∙  is a suffix of 
∙  is a suffix of any word
∙ 01011 is a suffix of 01011
△ Subword:  is a subword of  if ∃,  s.t.

 = 
Example The subwords of  are:
, , , , , , , , , , 
△ Proper prefix (suffix, subword):

 is a proper prefix (suffix, subword) of 
if  is a prefix (suffix, subword) of 
and  ∕ =  and  ∕
= .
30
△ Reversal:
(i)  = , if  = ;
(ii)  =   , if  =  for  ∈ Σ,
 is a word
Lemma If  = 1 . . .  for some  ≥ 0, then

 =  . . . 1.
Proof: By induction on ∣∣.
Basis: ∣∣ = 0.  =  by (i).
I.H.: Assume Lemma holds for all 
with ∣∣ = .
I.S.: Consider a word  with ∣∣ =  + 1.
Then  = 1 . . . +1 = 1, where
 = 2 . . . +1.
Then  =  1.
But ∣∣ = , by I.H.,  = +1 . . . 2,
so we get
 = +1 . . . 1. 

△ Universal Language over Σ: Σ∗
Σ = {0, 1}, Σ∗ = {, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, . . .}
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△ Mappings (Morphism and Substitution)
Definition Let Σ and Δ be two alphabets.

Then a mapping ℎ : Σ∗ → Δ∗ is said to be
a morphism if
(i) ℎ() = ;
∗
(ii) ℎ() = ℎ()ℎ(), for all ,  in Σ .
Note: (ii) implies that we need only define
the images of letters to define the images of
words.
Example:
Σ = {0, 1}, Δ = {, , , },
ℎ(0) = , ℎ(1) = .
Then ℎ(1001) = ℎ(1)ℎ(0)ℎ(0)ℎ(1) =  =

A morphism ℎ is said to be -free if, for all

= , ℎ() ∕
∕ = .
32
Definition Let Σ and Δ be two alphabets. A

mapping  : Σ∗ → 2Δ∗ is said to be a
substitution if
i) () = {};
ii) () = ()(), for all ,  ∈ Σ∗.
Example:
Σ1 = {, }, Δ1 = {, , },
a substitution 1:
1() = {, , };
1() = {, }.
Then 1() =
Example:
Σ2 = {0, 1, 2}, Δ2 = {, },
2(0) = { ∣  ≥ 1}
2(1) = { ∣  ≥ 1}
2(2) = {}
Then 2(1020) =
33
△ Given an alphabet Σ, Σ∗ is defined as fol-

lows:
(i)  ∈ Σ∗;
(ii) if  ∈ Σ∗, then  ∈ Σ∗ for all  ∈ Σ.
△ A language  over an alphabet Σ is a subset

∗ ∗
of Σ , i.e., ⊆Σ .
Example:
 is a language over every alphabet .
{} is a language over every alphabet.
{ ∣  ≥ 0} is a language over {, }
{ ∣  ≥ 0} is a language over {, , }
34
△ Catenation of Languages
1 ∘ 2 = {1 ∘ 2 ∣ 1 in 1, 2 in 2},

usually written as 12.
Examples
1 = {, }; 2 = {, }
12 = {, , }
(Note that 1 × 2 = {(,), (, ), (, ), (,)})
1 =
{}1 =
{} =
 = {, };  = {, }
 =
35
△ Powers of Languages:
0 = {}
+1 =  ∘ ,  ≥ 1
△ Plus
+ = ∪∞
=1  
△ Star∗ = ∪∞  0 ∪ 1 ∪ 2 ∪ . . . . . .
=0
Examples
 = {, }. Then
0 = {}
1 =  = {, }
2 = {, , , }
0 = {} ∕
=
{}0 = {}
∗ = {, , , , , , , ...... }
(Note  ∈ 4)
36
△ Reversal of Languages
 = { ∣  is in }
Examples
 = {, , };
 = {, , }
 = { ∣  >  > 0}
  

= {  ∣  >  > 0}
— properties of reversal
( ∪ ) =  ∪  
( ∩ ) =  ∩  
() =   
(+) = ()+
(∗) = ()∗
△ Complementation of Languages
Given a language  over Σ,
 = Σ∗ − 
∗ ∗  
Σ
 =={ ∣  ≥ 0Σ ? {}Σ = {, ()
} over } = 
=
37
△ Alternative definition of + and ∗
+ = { in Σ∗ ∣  = 12 . . . , for

1, 2, . . . ,  ∈  and  ≥ 1}
∗ = { in Σ∗ ∣  = 12 . . . , for
1, 2, . . . ,  ∈  and  ≥ 0}
△ Given a word  in Σ∗, and a language  ⊆ Σ∗

to test if  is in ∗ we use ∗ = ∪∞
=0  
and test
if  is in 0, 1, . . . .
38
△ Property Summaries
— properties of catenation (of languages)
Associativity — 1(23) = (12)3
Identity — {} = {} = 
Zero —  =  = 
Distributivity — 1(2 ∪ 3) = 12 ∪ 13
w.r. ∪ — (1 ∪ 2)3 = 13 ∪ 23
Distributivity does not hold with respect to
∩
— properties of Plus and Star

∗ + + ∗
+ =
=∗∪ {} ( But  =  − {}?)

(+)+ =+, (∗)∗ = ∗
+ =, ∗ = {}, 0 = {}
{}+ ={}, {}∗ = {}, 2 = 
+  =+, ∗ = ∗
⊆ ⇒ + ⊆  + and ∗ ⊆  ∗
39
Chapter 2. FINITE AUTOMATA

Example Design a “sequential lock”. The
lock has 1-bit sequential input. Initially the
lock is closed. If the lock is closed it will open
when the last three input signals are “1”, “0”,
“1”, and then remains open.
— state (transition) diagram
— state (or transition) table
40
state set : {0, 1, 2, 3}

input alphabet : {0, 1}
Transition function :  (0, 0) = 0,  (0, 1) = 1, . . .
Start state : 0
Final state set : {3}
Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA)

 = (, Σ, ,  ,  ) where
 is a finite nonempty set of states
Σ is the input alphabet
 :  × Σ →  transition function
s start state
 ⊆  final state set
41
A computer is a finite state system (i.e. FA)

which has millions of states.
There are many examples of FINITE
STATE SYSTEMS. A finite automaton is an
ABSTRACTION of them.
View a DFA as a machine
42
Specifying 
1)
State diagram
(Transition diagram)
Start state
Final state
2)
43
Configurations
a word in Σ∗

where  is the present state, and
 is the remaining input
Example:
0 ... 1 ... 2

(start configuration) (final configuration)
Moves of a DFA
0 ⊢ 1  ⊢ 
1 ⊢ 2 if  =  and  ( , ) = 
Configuration sequence
0 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 2
⊢+ and ⊢∗
⊢ is a binary relation over Σ∗.
⊢+ : transitive closure of ⊢.
⊢∗ : reflexive transitive closure of ⊢.
44
0 ⊢+ 2
0 ⊢∗ 2
0 ⊢∗ 0
0 ⊢2 2
 ⊢ 
if  ⊢ 1 1 ⊢ 2 2 ⊢ . . . ⊢ 
  
 steps
Accepting Configuration Sequence
⊢ 0
can ⊢ 1be
also 2
⊢ viewed as a function
⊢ : Σ∗ → Σ∗,
since the next configuration is determined
uniquely for a given configuration.
The DFA stops when:

(i) we have no more input,
or (ii) the next configuration is undefined.
45
A word  is said to be accepted by a DFA 

if  ⊢∗ ,  ∈  .
The language of a DFA  , ( ), is defined
as:
( ) = { ∣  ⊢∗ , for some  ∈  }
Examples
( ) =
( ) =
46
DFA membership problem
DFA MEMBERSHIP
INSTANCE: A DFA,  = (, Σ,, , )
and a word  ∈ Σ∗.
QUESTION: Is  in ( ) ?
Run the DFA  with input .
In at most ∣∣ steps it accepts, rejects or
aborts.
Examples
Checking for words that

contain  as subword.
Check: 

47
Let  denote any letter of English alphabet

and  any decimal digit; the form of
PASCAL IDENTIFIERS can be specified
by
Recognizing comments that may go over

several lines.
/*................*/
Δ: symbols other than ” ∗ ” and ”/”

48
A DFA which has a total  is said

to be complete; if  is nontotal it is
incomplete.
Theorem. Every incomplete DFA 

can be ”completed” by adding one
new state (”sink”) to give DFA  ’
such that ( ′) = ( ).
Example:
( ) is the set of all words that

do not contain two consecutive ’s.
49
△ Two DFA  1 and  2 are equivalent

if ( 1) = ( 2).
△ The collection of languages accepted

by DFA’s is denoted by
ℒ .
It is called the family of DFA languages

and it is defined as:
ℒ  = { ∣  = ( ) for some DFA  }
△
 = { ∣  ≥ 1} is not accepted
by any DFA.
50
Proof: Use contradiction and

Pigeonhole principle.
Assume  = ( ), for some DFA
 = (, {, },, , ).

Let  = #. Consider the accepting
configuration sequence for ,
0 ⊢ 1−1 ⊢ . . . ⊢  ⊢ . . . ⊢ 2
where 0 =  and 2 ∈  . Now  + 1 states

appear during the reading of , but
there are only  distinct states in .
By Pigeonhole principle at least one
state must appear at least twice during
the reading of ’s.
Assume  =   , 0 ≤  <  ≤ .
Then
0−(  −) ⊢ . . . ⊢ −  
−   
   ⊢ 2 ⊢ . . . ⊢  ⊢ . . . ⊢
Therefore −(  −) ∈  .

This is a contradiction.
51
△  = {},  ≥ 1.
For any  ≥ 1, is  a DFA language?
△   = { : 0 ≤  ≤  },  ≥ 1.
For any  ≥ 1, is   a DFA language ?
52
Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)

 = (, Σ,, , )
same as a DFA except
 ⊆  × Σ × .
 is a finite transition relation.
In a DFA
 is a transition function:
 :  × Σ → 
It can be viewed as a relation
 :  × Σ × 
In a NFA,  can be be viewed as a function:
 :  × Σ → 2
Examples:
NFA for words in {, }∗ that contain three
consecutive a’s.
53
Both (0, , 1) and (0, , 3) are in  .
We define acceptance by existence

of a computation that leads to a final
state.
Conversely, we define rejection by
the nonexistence of any computation
that leads to a final state.
The language of an NFA  = (, Σ,, , )
is defined by ∗
( ) = { ∣  ⊢  , for some  in  }.
54
The family of NFA languages ℒ 

is defined by:
ℒ   = { ∣  = ( ), for some NFA  }.
Two NFAs  1, and  2 are equivalent if

( 1) = ( 2).
Why NFA?
(i) easy to construct;
(ii) useful theoretically;
(iii) are of same power as DFA.
Note:
configurations are defined in the same way
Transition (move)
 
if  =  , for some  ⊢
∈ Σ, and ( , ,  ) ∈  .
55
Transforming NFA to DFA

Consider the NFA  1 again
There are only limited number of choices.

For example:
0 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 2
0 ⊢ 3 ⊢ 3
{0} ⊢ {1, 3} ⊢ {1, 3} ⊢ {2}
Why limited number of choices?
The state set is finite.
We summarize the choices at each step

by combining all configuration sequences
into one ”super-conf. sequence”.
{0} ⊢ {1, 3} ⊢ {1, 3} ⊢ {2}.
56
We now have a set of all possible

states at each step. From this point
of view the computation of the NFA
on an input word is deterministic.
A super-configuration has the form

where  ⊆  and  ∈ Σ∗.
Note that ∅ is a super-conf.,
it means that the NFA cannot be
in any state at that point, i.e.,
an abort has occured.
We say that
 ⊢  
if  =  , for some  ∈ Σ, and

 = { ∣ ( , ,  ) ∈  , for some  ∈  }
57
More examples on super-configurations

 : ( ) is the set of all words
that have “” as a subword.
The super-configuration sequence

on input word “” is as follows:
{0} ⊢ {0} ⊢ {0, 1} ⊢ {0, 1}

⊢ {0, 2} ⊢ {0, 2}
58
Notice that given a set  ⊆  and

an input symbol  ∈ Σ, the set  ⊆ 
s.t.  ⊢  is uniquely determined.
Lemma (2.3.1) (Determinism Lemma)

Let  = (, Σ,, , ) be an NFA.
∗
Then for all words  in Σ and for
all  ⊆ .
 ⊢∗  and  ⊢∗ 
implies
 =  .
Lemma (2.3.2) Let  = (, Σ,, , )
be an NFA. Then for all words  in Σ∗
and for all  in ,
 ⊢∗ 
iff { } ⊢∗  , for some  with  in  .
59
Example (Transformation of an NFA to a DFA)

 = (, Σ,, , ) where
 ==00,
 , 1, 2, Σ=
 = {,2}
 ′ = (′, Σ,  ′, ′,  ′) where

′ = 2 = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}
 ′(, ) = { ∣ ( , ,  ) ∈  and  ∈  }

60
′ = {0}
 ′ = {
Algorithm NFA to DFA
—The Subset Construction
On entry: An NFA  = (, Σ,, , ).
On exit: A DFA  ′ = (′, Σ,  ′, ′,  ′)
satisfying ( ) = ( ′).
begin Let ′ = 2, ′ = {} and
 ′ = { ∣  ∈ ′, and  ∩  =
∕ ∅}
We define  ′ : ′ × Σ → ′ by
For  ∈ ′ and for all  ∈ Σ,
′(,all =
 )  , if  ⊢  in  .
end of Algorithm
if  = { ∣ ( , ,  ) ∈  and  ∈  }
61
′ = {0}
Algorithm NFA to DFA 2

—The Iterative Subset Construction
62
Theorem Given an NFA  = (, Σ,, , ), then

the DFA  ′ = (′, Σ′,  ′, ′,  ′) obtained by ei-
ther subset construction satisfies
( ′) = ( ).
Proof:
∗
By Lemma 2.3.2, for all  ∈ Σ in 
 ⊢∗ , iff {} ⊢∗  for some  with  ∈ 
By the construction of  ′,

{} ⊢∗  in  iff
{} ⊢∗  in  ′.
 ∈ ( ) ⇔  ⊢∗ , for some  ∈ 

⇔ {} ⊢∗ ,  ∈ , in 
∗ ′
=∅
⇔ {′} ∗⊢ , in  and  ∩  ∕
⇔   ⊢ ,  ∈ 
⇔  ∈ ( ′)
63
Theorem
Every NFA Language is a DFA language and
conversely.
(ℒ  = ℒ )
Example
Every finite language is accepted by a DFA.
64
–NFA
It is useful to loosen the definition of NFA

even more by allowing the read head to re-
main over the same symbol of the input and
read nothing.
Example
 
1 = {  ∣  ≥ 0,  ≥ 0}
M:
( ) = 1
 : (0, , 0)
(0, , 1)  − 
(1, , 1)
0 ⊢ 0 ⊢ 0 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 1
0 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 1
0 ⊢ 0 ⊢ 1
65
Formally, a -NFA  = (, Σ,, , )
where , Σ,transition
 is a finite  ,  are as before, but
relation
for which
 ⊆  × (Σ ∪ {}) × 
Configurations are as before.

⊢ is defined by
 ⊢ 
if either  =  for  ∈ Σ and ( , ,  ) ∈ 
or  =  and ( , ,  ) ∈ 
Example
Given FA  1 and  2, construct
a FA  3 such that
( 3) = ( 1) ∪ ( 2)
66
Transforming -NFA to NFA
Two steps:
Step I: − completion
Step II: − transition removal
(I). -Completion
Given a -NFA  = (, Σ,, , )
perform the following process:
For all ,, ∈ :

whenever ( , ,  ), (,,) are in 
add ( , , ) to 
until no new transitions are added to 
and let this be  ′.
Let the new −NFA be

 ′ = (, Σ,  ′,  ,  ′)
where  ′ =  ∪ {  ∣ ( , ,  ) ∈  and  ∈  }
and  ′ =  ∪ {( , ,  ) ∣  ⊢+  }
Example:
67
Claim 1: For any ,  ∈ ,

  if and only if  ⊢ ′ 
 ⊢+
Claim 2: For any ,  ∈ ,  ∈ Σ∗,
 ⊢∗  if and only if  ⊢∗ ′ 
Theorem: ( ′) = ( )
Example:
68
(II) –Transition Removal
Given a -completed -NFA

 = (, Σ, ,  ,  ),
perform the following process:
(0)  ′ =  ;

() For all ,, ∈ ,
if ( , ,  ) and (,,) in 
then add ( , , ) to  ′;
() Delete all -transitions from  ′.
Now we got  ′ = (, Σ,  ′,  ,  )

where  ′ = ( ∪ {( , , ) ∣ ( , ,  ), (,,) ∈  })
−{( , ,  ) ∣ ,  ∈ }
Example
69
Claim Whenever
 ⊢∗ 
for some  ∈  , we have
 ⊢∗ ′ 
and vice versa.
′
Claim ( ) = ( )
Theorem
ℒ−  = ℒ  
70
Properties of FA Languages
I. Closure Properties
Union: The union of two DFA languages
is a DFA language.
Proof: Given 1 = ( 1) and 2 = ( 2),
1, 2 are generic DFA languages.
 1 = (1, Σ1,  1, 1,  1) and

 2 = (2, Σ2,  2, 2,  2).
Construct a -NFA  = (, Σ, , ,  ) where
 = 1 ∪ 2 ∪ {}
Σ = Σ1 ∪ Σ2
 =  1 ∪  2 ∪ {(,,1), (,,2)}

 =  1 ∪  2
71
Now we claim that ( ) = 1 ∪ 2
(1) Let  be a generic word in ( ).

 ∈ ( ) implies
 ⊢+   for some  ∈  1 or  ∈  2.
If  ∈  1, then  ⊢ 1 ⊢∗  and then
1 ⊢∗ 1  . We know that  ∈ ( 1).
If  ∈  2,∗ then  ⊢ 2 ⊢∗  . Since
2 ⊢ 2  , we know that  ∈ ( 2),
therefore  ∈ ( 1) ∪ ( 2), i.e.,  ∈ 1 ∪ 2.
So ( ) ⊆ 1 ∪ 2.
(2) Let  be a generic word in 1 ∪ 2.
Without losing of generality we can assume
that  ∈ 1, i.e.,  ∈ ( 1).
Then 1 ⊢∗ 1  , for some  ∈  1.
Then  ⊢ 1 ⊢∗  . Therefore  ∈ ( ).
So, 1 ∪ 2 ⊆ ( ).
(3) By the results of (1) and (2), we conclude
( ) = 1 ∪ 2.
Since every -NFA language is a DFA language,
( ) is a DFA language.
72
2. Complementation:
The complement of a DFA language  ⊆ Σ∗
is a DFA language.
Proof: There is a complete DFA
 = (, Σ,  ,  ,  ) with  = ( ). Define
 = (, Σ, ,  ,  −  )
3. Intersection:
1 and 2
 = 1 ∩ 2 = 1 ∪ 2
73
4. Catenation:
The catenation of two DFA languages is a

DFA language:
 1 = (1, Σ1,  1, 1,  1);
 2 = (2, Σ2,  2, 2,  2).
( ) = ( 1)( 2)
 = (1 ∪ 2, Σ1 ∪ Σ2,  , 1,  2),
 =  1 ∪  2 ∪ {( ,,2) ∣  ∈  1}
 = (, Σ, ,  ,  ) where

 = 1 ∪ 2
Σ = Σ1 ∪ Σ2
 =  1 ∪  2 ∪ {( ,,2) ∣  ∈  1}
 = 
1
 =  2
74
5. Star:
The star of a DFA language is a DFA language
 = ( ) where  = (, Σ, ,  ,  )
∗ = ( ′)
 ′ = (′, Σ′,  ′, ′,  ′) where
′ =  ∪ {′}
Σ′ = Σ
 ′ =  ∪ {(′,  , )} ∪ {( ,,′) ∣  ∈  }
 ′ =  ∪ {′}  ′ = {′}
6. Plus:
75
II. Decidability Properties
A decision problem is a problem each in-

stance of which is either false or true.
A decision algorithm is an algorithm whose

result for each possible input is either false
or true.
A decision problem is decidable if there ex-
ists a decision algorithm for it. Otherwise it
is undecidable.
1. DFA membership
INSTANCE: A DFA  = (, Σ, ,  ,  )
and a word  ∈ Σ∗.
QUESTION: Is  ∈ ( ) ?
Theorem: DFA membership is decidable.
76
Proof: Compute for the given  and  the ter-

minating state  such that  ⊢∗  . If  ∈ 
then answer “True” else answer “false”.
2. DFA Emptiness
INSTANCE: A DFA  = (, Σ, ,  ,  ).

QUESTION: Is ( ) = ∅ ?
Theorem DFA emptiness is decidable.
Proof: ( ) = ∅ iff there is no path in the

state diagram of  from  to a final state. If
 = ∅, then this holds immediately.
Otherwise, enumerate the states that can be
reached from . (Mark . Now mark all states
reachable by one transition from one of the
marked states. Repeat this until no newly
marked state is introduced.
The marked states are the reachable states).
77
3. DFA Universality
INSTANCE: A DFA  = (, Σ, ,  ,  ).

QUESTION: Is ( ) = Σ∗ ?
Theorem DFA universality is decidable.

Proof:
4. DFA Containment
INSTANCE: Two DFA

 1 = (1, Σ1, 1, 1,  1) and
 2 = (2, Σ2, 2, 2,  2).
QUESTION: Is ( 1) ⊆ ( 2) ?
Theorem DFA containment is decidable.
Proof:
( 1) ∩ ( 2) = ∅ means that ( 1) ⊆ ( 2)
78
5. DFA Equivalence
INSTANCE: Two DFA

 1 = (1, Σ1, 1, 1,  1) and
 2 = (2, Σ2, 2, 2,  2).
QUESTION: Is ( 1) = ( 2) ?
Theorem DFA equivalence is decidable.
( 1) ⊆ ( 2) ? yes

( 2) ⊆ ( 1) ? yes
79
Pumping Lemma and Non-DFA Language.
The DFA Pumping Lemma

Let  = (, Σ,  ,  ,  ) be a DFA and let
 = #. For all words  in ( ) such that
∣∣ ≥ ,  can be decomposed into , for
some ,  , and  in Σ∗ such that
(i) ∣ ∣ ≤ ;
(ii) ∣ ∣ ≥ 1; and
(iii) for all  ≥ 0,   is in ( ).
Example  = (, Σ,, , ) where
 = {, ,  }, Σ = {, },
 = { }. # = 3
Let  be an arbitrary word of length ≥ #

in ( ), e.g.  = . The accepting conf.
sequence for  is:
 ⊢  ⊢  ⊢  ⊢  .
So,  = ,  = ,  =  and () ∈ ( ) for
all  ≥ 0.
80
Proof of DFA Pumping Lemma:
Let  be in ( ) with ∣∣ ≥ .

Then  has an accepting configuration se-
quence
 012 . . .  ⊢  12 . . .  ⊢ . . . ⊢  −1 ⊢  
where  0 = ,   ∈  .

Consider the first  transitions. ,  1, . . . ,  
cannot all be distinct since there are only 
distinct states (by pigeonhole principle).
This means that   =   for some 0 ≤  <  ≤ .
Let
 = 1 . . . ,
 = +1 . . .   ,
 =   +1 . . .  .
So, we have  0 ⊢∗  
  ⊢∗   (  =   )
   ⊢∗   .
Since   =   ,    ⊢∗   for any  ≥ 0
81
() ∣ ∣ ≤ , since  ≤ 

() ∣ ∣ ≥ 1, since  < 
()    ∈ ( ) for all  ≥ 0, since
 0   ⊢∗     ⊢∗    ⊢   ∈ 
qed.
Re-state Pumping Lemma

If  is a DFA Language
then
( = ( ) for some  of  states;)
for every word  of length ≥  in ,
there exists one decomposition  = 
which satisfies
() ∣ ∣ ≤ ,
() ∣ ∣ ≥ 1,

()   ∈ ( ) for all  ≥ 0.
82
Comments: The DFA pumping lemma shows

a property of DFA languages. It can be used
possitively; but it is mainly used negatively
to show that some languages are not in ℒ .
The DFA pumping lemma gives a necessary
condition for DFA languages. The condition
is not sufficient.
Review of logic:
if  then  ⇔ if ¬ then ¬
if  then  ∕
⇔ if  then 
if  then  ∕
⇔ if ¬ then ¬
Example
if
if it
it is
is sugar thenthen
not sweet it is it
sweet.
is not sugar.
if it is sweet then it is sugar.
So, pumping lemma can be used to show

that a language is not a DFA language, but
cannot be used to show that a language is a
DFA language.
83
Non-DFA Language
 = { ∣  ≥ 0} is not a DFA Language

Proof (I):
Assume  is a DFA language. Then  = ( )

for some DFA  = (, Σ, , ,  ) with ∣∣ = .
 
Consider  =   , ∣lemma,
By DFA pumping ∣ ≥ . there is a decom-
position
 = 
which satisfies (i), (ii), and (iii).
Consider all the possible decompositions
Case 1 :  =  ,  ≥ 1.  ≤ 
But  0 = −  ∕∈ .
Case 2 :  =  ,  ≥ 1.
 0 = − ∕∈ .
 
Case 3 : Then
=  
, 2, =≥1.
   
  ∕ ∈ .
All the possible decompositions fail.
Therefore,  is not a DFA language.
84
Proof (II):
..................
∣∣ = .
Consider  =    in . Obviously, ∣∣ ≥ .
By DFA pumping lemma, there is a decom-
position
 = 
that
Thesatisfies (i), (ii), and (iii).
only decompositions that satisfy
(i) and (ii) are the following:
 =  for  ≥  ≥ 1.
But  0 =  −   ∕
∈ .
So, there is no such decomposition.
 is not a DFA language.
(i) ∣ ∣ ≤ ;
(ii) ∣ ∣ ≥ 1;
85
Notes on proving that a language is not

a DFA language by pumping lemma
1) Assume L is a DFA language.

Then we have a constant .
2)
3) Choose
Considera all
word  of length
theinpossible ≥ .
decompositions
of . If none of them satisfy
(i), (ii), and (iii) at the same time,
then conclude that such decomposition
does not exist.
So,  is not a DFA language.
86

 = {2 ∣  ≥ 0} is not a DFA language.
Proof:
(1) Assume  = ( ) for some  = (, Σ,, , )
with ∣∣ = .
2 +1
(2) Consider  =  , ∣∣ ≥ .
(3) By DFA P.L., there is a decomposition
 = 
satisfying (i), (ii), and (iii).
The only decompositions of  which satisfy
(i) and (ii) are the following:
 =  ,  ≥  ≥ 1.
+1
Notice that  = 2 − .
2 +1 > 2 +1 −  ≥ 2 +1 −  > 2 +1 − 2  = 2 
i.e., 2 +1 > 2 +1 −  > 2 .
2 +1 2 
∣ ∣ > ∣∣ > ∣ ∣.
So,  ∈
/ . It is contrary to (iii), so  is
not a DFA language.
87
6. DFA Finiteness
INSTANCE: A DFA  = (, Σ,, , )

QUESTION: Is ( ) finite?
It is decidable.
Theorem ( ) is finite iff
 accepts no words  that satisfy
∣∣ ≤ ∣∣ < 2∣∣

Proof: If: Assume  accepts no words  with
∣∣ ≤ ∣∣ < 2∣∣ and ( ) is infinite. Since
( ) is infinite, it must accept some word
 with ∣∣ ≥ 2∣∣. By P.L.,  =  with
∣∣ ≥ ∣ ∣ ≥ 1, and ′ =  is in ( ). No-
tice that ∣∣ > ∣′∣ ≥ ∣∣ − ∣∣. If ∣′∣ ≥ 2∣∣,
then repeat this process.
Otherwise 2∣∣ > ∣′∣ ≥ ∣∣. (i.e., 2∣∣ − ∣∣).
This is a contradiction.
Only if: By P.L.,  = , ∣ ∣ ≥ 1.
Since   ∈ ( ) for all  ≥ 0, ( ) is infi-
nite.
88
Theorem The family of DFA languages is

closed under morphisms.
Proof:
Let  ⊆ Σ∗ be a DFA language. Then there is

a DFA  = (, Σ,, , ) such that ( ) = .
∗ ∗
Let  : Σ → Δ be a morphism.
We are going to show that
 () = { () ∣  ∈ } is a DFA language.
Construct  ′ = (, Δ,  ′,  ,  ) by defining
( ,  (),  ) is in  ′ iff  ( , ) =  .
 ′ is a lazy FA. So, L(M’) is a DFA language.
It is not difficult to show that ( ′) =  ().
Therefore,  () is a DFA language. 
89
Finite Transducers and Finite Transductions

(Translations)
In automata and language theory, a machine
with input and output is called a transducer.
I in Σ∗ O in Δ∗ 
A transducer is single-valued if it produces

at most one output word for each input word.
It is multi-valued otherwise.
A transducer defines
— a function  : Σ∗ → Δ∗, if it is single-valued,
—a relation  ⊆ Σ∗ × Δ∗, otherwise.
A function or a relation that is defined by a
transducer is called a transduction (transla-
tion).
90
Specifically, a finite automaton with output

is called a finite transducer.
FA(DFA, NFA, or -NFA)
+ output (output alphabet, output tape)
= FT
Input tape

read-only head
Finite control
write-only head

Output tape
Formally, a finite transducer (FT)  is a six-

tuple (, Σ, Δ,, , ) where
Δ is an output alphabet;
 ⊆  × (Σ ∪ {}) ×  × Δ∗ is a finite transition
relation;
the others are the same as in a FA.
91
A configuration  is a word in Δ∗Σ∗.
 — output till now;

 — current state;
 — remaining input.
We write
 ⊢ 
if ( , , ,  ) is in  .
⊢, ⊢+, ⊢∗ are defined as usual.
Given  ∈ Σ∗, we say that  is an output for

 w.r.t.  if
 ⊢∗ 
for some  ∈  .
Let  () be the set of all outputs for , then
 () = { ∣  ⊢∗  for some  ∈  }.
The transduction or translation defined by 
is  ( ) = {(, ) ∣  ∈ Σ∗ and  ∈  ()}
92
Example  :
0 ⊢ 0 ⊢ 1 ⊢ 1

⊢ 1 ⊢ 2 ⊢ 2
i.e. 0 ⊢∗ 2
Since 2 ∈  , we say  ∈  (),
and (, ) ∈  ( ).
We can see that
 ( ) = {(   ,   ) ∣ ,, ≥ 0}
Example
Let ℎ() = 101, ℎ() = 11.
Encoding:
Decoding:
93
REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
— The Second Model for Defining Languages
Example:
Consider the language of all the words that
consist of ’s and ’s and have  as a sub-
word.
We can formally define this language by the
following:
(1)  = { ∣  ∈ {, }∗ and  has  as a
subword};
(2)  = ( ) where  is an NFA given by
the following diagram:
Both of the above definitions are lengthy.

It can also be expressed by
([ ∪ ]∗[ ∪ ]∗)
94
Definition Let Σ be an alphabet.

A regular expression over Σ is defined recur-
sively:
Basis: (1) ∅,
(2) ,
(3) , where  ∈ Σ
are R.E.’s over Σ
Induction Step:
If  1 and  2 are R.E.’s over Σ, then
(4) [ 1 ∪  2],
(5) [ 1 ⋅  2],
(6)  1∗
are R.E.’s over Σ
We usually omit ⋅.
The set of all regular expressions over Σ is
denoted by
ℛΣ
95
[[ + ]]∗ is the same as [[ ∪ ]]∗

Example:
 1  2

[[  ∪  ]  ]∗ is a R.E. over {, }



  
 3  4
  
 5
We display
expression the “parsing” by an
tree:
∗
⋅
∪
  
What language does an R.E. define?

∗ {, }∗
⋅ {, }
{, } ∪ {}
{} {}
96
Definition Given a regular expression  , the

language ( ) denoted by  is defined as fol-
lows:
Basis: (1) if  = ∅, then ∅;
(2) if  = , then {};
(3) if  = , then {};
Induction Step:
(4) if  = [ 1 ∪  2], then ( 1) ∪ ( 2);
(5) if  = [ 1 2], then ( 1)( 2);
(6) if  =  1∗, then (( 1))∗.
Properties of R.E.’s
∪: 1 ∪  2 ≡  2 ∪  1 ;

[ 
1 ∪  2] ∪  3 ≡  1 ∪ [ 2 ∪  3];
So, [ 1 ∪  2] ∪  3 ⇒  1 ∪  2 ∪  3.
⋅: [ 1 2] 3 ≡  1[ 2 3];
So, [ 1 2] 3 ⇒  1 2 3.
..........................................
97
Definition A language  is regular iff there is
a regular expression  such that  = ( ).
The family of (all) regular languages is

denoted by ℒ.
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Example ∣ =in[ {
 = {  , ]}∗and
.  contains an even
number of ′}.
Claim: ( ) = 
Proof:
(i) ( ) ⊆ , since every word in ( )
contains an even number of ’s.
(ii)Let  ∈ . Then  can be written as
0 1  . . . . . .  2 , 0, 1, . . . , 2 ≥ 0.
So,  = (0 1 )(2 3 ) . . . . . . (2−2 2−1 )2 .
 ∈ ([∗∗]∗)(∗) = ( ). ...
98
Examples Σ = {, }.

1 = { ∣  = ,  ∈ Σ∗}.
2 = { ∣ ∣∣ ≡ 0 mod 3}.

[[]]∗
3 = { ∣  has 2 or 3 ′ with the last two

appearances nonconsecutive }
4 = { ∣  = ,  ≥ 1}
99
Examples
What are the languages denoted by the fol-
lowing R.E.’s ?
 1 = ∗∗
 2 = [ ∪ ]∗
 3 = [ ∪ ]∗
 = [ ∪  ∪  ∪ ]∗
4
100
How many languages over Σ do R.E.’s define?

Σ = {, }
(1) Infinitely many ?
(2) Countable ?
101
Regular Expression into Finite Automata
Let  be a regular expression over Σ. Then

we can construct a -NFA  such that
( ) = ( ), using the following rules:
(i)  = ∅.
Construct  such that ( ) = ∅
 

 
(ii)  = .
Construct  such that ( ) = {}
 

 
 
 
(iii)  = ,  ∈ Σ.
Construct  such that ( ) = {}

# 
   

   
" !
102
(iv)  = [ 1 ∪  2].

Construct  such that ( ) = ( 1) ∪ ( 2).
(v)  = [ 1 2].
Construct  such that ( ) = ( 1)( 2).
(vi) =  1∗.
Construct  such that ( ) = ( 1)∗.
103
Example
∗ ∗ ∗
 = [ [ ∪ [
Construct ]] ]  such that ( ) = ( ).
a FA
△ , ,  by (iii)
∗
△  by (vi)
△ [∗] by (v)
△ [ ∪ ∗] by (iv)
△ [ ∪ ∗]∗ by (vi)
△ [∗[ ∪ ∗]∗] by (v)
104
Theorem For  , an arbitrary regular expres-

sion over Σ, the -NFA,  , constructed as
above satisfies ( ) = ( ).
Proof: Let ( ) be the total number of ∪, ⋅,
and ∗ operations in  . We prove this theorem
by induction on ( ).
Basis: ( ) = 0. Then  = ∅, , or  ∈ Σ.

Then clearly we have ( ) = ( ).
Induction Hypothesis:
Assume the claim holds for all  with ( ) ≤
 , for some  ≥ 0.
Induction Step:
Consider an arbitrary regular expression 
with ( ) =  + 1. Since  + 1 ≥ 1,  contains
at least one operator ∪, ⋅, or ∗.
Case I:  =  1 ∪  2. Then ( 1) ≤ 
and ( 2) ≤ . So, ( 1) = ( 1) and ( 2) =
( 2) by I.H.. We know the construction of
 =  1 ∪  2 satisfies ( ) = ( 1) ∪ ( 2),
and ( ) = ( 1) ∪ ( 2)
105
Therefore, ( ) = ( ).

Case II:  =  1 2
....................................
Case III:  =  1∗
....................................
In each of the three cases, we have shown

that ( ) = ( ). Therefore this holds for
all regular expressions by the principle of in-
duction. ...
106
Finite Automata into Regular Expressions
To prove that every DFA language is regular
we introduce an extension of finite automata.
Definition An extended finite automaton

(EFA),  , is a quintuple (, Σ, , ,  ) where
, Σ,  are as in -NFA,
 is the only final state,  ∕
= ,
 :  ×  → Σ is a total extended transition
function.
Example of an EFA:
 (( ,
 ) =
,  ) = ∅∅
......
One final state  ∕
=
107
△ A configuration is in Σ∗
△ Move
 ⊢  if
(i)  = ,  ∈ Σ∗,
(ii)  ( ,  ) = , and
(iii)  ∈ ( ).
△ ⊢∗, ⊢+ are defined similarly as before.
Lemma If  is a DFA, Then there is an EFA

 ′ with ( ′) = ( ).
Example DFA into EFA.
108
Example:
An
M:extended finite Automaton (EFA).
Check if the following words are in ( )
(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
109
State Elimination Technique

Goal of the technique:
i.e.:
(1) EFA has 2 states
Example
110
(2) EFA  has  + 1 states,  ≥ 2.

′
 : eliminate a state from  to form  :

Then
Note:  ∈  − {,  }

Consider all transitions ( ,   ,  )
and (,   , )
′
 :
 ′( ,   ) =  ( ,   ) ∪  ( ,  )( (,  ))∗ (,   )

111
Example
∗[ ∪ ∗]∗
112
Example
113
Summary of the State Elimination Technique
(0)
(1) Change FA start
Add a new into EFA
state if the original one
has incoming transitions.
(2) Add a new final state if there are more
than one final states originally. Old final
states become non-final states.
(3) Eliminate the states in  − {,  }
one by one.
(4) Eliminate the transition  (,  ).

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7/16/2019 Curs Limbaje Formale si Automate

Limbaje Formale si Automate

4. Gramatici independente de context (CFG)

5. Automate pushdown (PDA)

Motivare pentru curs

(3) Software design

(4) Circuit design

2) O multime este ﬁnita daca contine un nu-

3) Cardinalitatea unei multimi este numarul sau

– Cum speciﬁcam o multime:

(1) Listam toate elementele sale:

(2) Precizam o proprietate: { ∣  ()}

(3) Deﬁnite recursiv:

Exemplu Deﬁnirea lui A:

(4) Inchiderea la operatii

∙ Spunem ca o multime  este inchisa la o op-

∙ Forma generala (pentru multimi deﬁnite prin

 ∪  = { ∣  este in  sau  este in  }

∪=1 = { ∣  este in , pentru un , 1 ≤  ≤

— Proprietati ale operatiilor cu multimi

Regulile lui De Morgan

— Cateva multimi speciale:

Deﬁnitie Daca se dau doua multimi  si  , o

Functia caracteristica a lui  pentru  :

Cateva proprietati ale functiilor  :  → 

 () = (()) daca exista  > 0 si intregul poz-

functie (partiala) ,

O relatie -ara ,  ≥ 1, pentru multimile

Fie  ⊆  ×  si  ⊆  ×  doua relatii. Atunci

Compunerea unei relatii  :  ×  cu ea insasi

∙ reﬂexiva:  pentru toti  din 

∙ simetrica:  implica 

∙ antisimetrica: ,  implica  = 

∙ tranzitiva: ,  implica 

△ O relatie binara  peste  este o

△ O relatie de echivalenta  peste 

[] = { ∣  este in  si }

∙ Fie  o relatie binara de echivalenta peste 

Exemplu  : multimea intregilor;

∙  este o relatie n-ara peste .  ⊆  este

Exemplu  : multimea tuturor intregilor;

Lema Fie  o relatie de echivalenta peste .

△ O relatie binara  peste  este o ordine par-

– + este inchiderea tranzitiva a lui 

△ Daca se dau doua multimi  si  , spunem

Exemplu # = #  0

△ O multime este numarabila sau enumerabila

— demonstratie prin contradictie

— demonstratie prin inductie

Exemplu Orice numar par dintre 4 si 232 este

△ Demonstratie prin contradictie

Exemplu Exista un numar inﬁnit de numere

△ Demonstratia prin inductie

(2) — Prove it holds for basis values,

Example (proof by induction)

(i) no two lines are parallel;

(ii) no three lines have a common intersec-

Prove that the number of regions in an

The Pigeonhole Principle

Example Let  = (,  ) be a digraph with

9. Alphabets, Words, and Languages

△ An alphabet is a ﬁnite, nonempty set of

△ A word over an alphabet Σ is a ﬁnite se-