Typography, Headlines and Infographics

Chapter 16
Typography,
Headlines and
Infographics
Graphical excellence is that which gives to
the viewer the greatest number of ideas in
the shortest time with the least ink in the
smallest space.
—Edward R. Tufte, professor of graphic design

at Yale and president of Graphics Press
354
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: In this chapter, you will learn
• identify the two major type families, the meaning of these terms:
• use good typography to make a publication more readable, typography
typeface
• create five different kinds of headlines,
font
• design an infographic. serif type
sans serif type
leading
tracking
I
t’s one thing to visualize the big picture. It’s quite another to sweat
the details. In the previous chapter, you learned about page design, kerning
or combining large elements such as stories, headlines and photo- set width
graphs into a complete layout. In this chapter, you’ll be asked to pull flush left
out your magnifying glass to see what’s going on inside the design. In justified
particular, you’ll be introduced to the nuances of lettering styles and flush right
arrangements. widow
You’ll learn about typography and printing specifications. You’ll
orphan
also learn how to write and design different kinds of headlines. You’ll
banner
become familiar with one of the most interesting features in journal-
ism—the infographic. Along the way, you’ll gain some valuable tips on kicker
how to take advantage of desktop publishing technology. scale
skew
layer
reverse
MAKING GOOD TYPOGRAPHIC CHOICES slammer
raw wrap
Unless you’re a musician, you probably don’t analyze every note hammer
you hear; you simply settle back and listen. When you read a story, you tripod
probably don’t scrutinize every letter, either. Like most readers, you surf sidesaddle head
across those waves of words, oblivious to typographic details. But those
fever chart
details, like notes to a musician, are critically important to the successful
pie graph
communication of a message.
Typography is the art of arranging letters in a pleasing and appropri- bar chart
ate manner. Readers don’t worry much about how the letters of the alpha- table
bet look, but designers do. They fret over the size, shape and spacing of
their letters as they seek just the right look. Designers worry for a reason.
typography
Good typographic design makes the difference between attractive, read-
able type and type that looks like a ransom note from a kidnapper. the art of choosing and
arranging letters in a pleas-
ing and appropriate manner
Typefaces and Fonts
Letters can have many different appearances. The letter A, for exam-
ple, can look like A, A, A, A or A. Over the years, designers have produced
thousands of different typefaces, which are sometimes even named after
them—Bodoni or Zapf, for instance. Typeface refers to a distinctive typeface
set of letters, both uppercase and lowercase. The set is distinctive in the a distinctive set of letters
same sense that your handwriting is unique. No two sets of letters, or (both uppercase and lower-
typefaces, are exactly alike. case)
TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 355

Designers often talk about typefaces as if they had personalities.
FIGURE 16.1
Times, for example, is thought to be conservative, traditional and for-
FONT FOR 14-POINT HELVETICA
mal, while Biffo is funky, bizarre and unpredictable. Your computer is
likely to have a good sampling of some of the more popular typefaces.
These may include Times, Avant Garde, Helvetica and Palatino, to name
just a few.
In a particular typeface and size, a complete alphabet plus numbers
and punctuation marks is called a font. Figure 16.1 shows the font for
14-point Helvetica.
Most typefaces can be grouped into two main families: serif and sans
serif. Serif type (type “with feet”) has tiny strokes, or serifs, at the tips
of each letter. Inspired by the letters chiseled in granite by the ancient
Romans, type designers have used serif styles to create some of the
world’s most elegant type families, including Times and Palatino. Serif
type tends to create a feeling of tradition and conservatism. It seems to
say, “We’ve been here a long time; you can trust us.” Most newspaper
and magazine stories are set in serif styles.
Sans serif type (“type without feet”), on the other hand, has no
serifs. These typefaces tend to have a more modern feel. They say to the
reader, “Look at us: we’re fresh and new.” Helvetica is a popular sans
serif typeface with school publication staffs. It is most often used in
headlines, bylines and cutlines.
You won’t have to look very long in magazines or newspapers to find
an enormous number of typefaces. It’s easy to see from that intimidat-
ing variety that typography can be a complex subject. Practically speak-
ing, however, good design is a straightforward matter of judgment and
taste. Your artistic intuition, combined with knowledge and skill, makes
typography work. Like any other art or craft, you can master it through
practice and trial and error.
Here is one tip, though, that may make your life as a designer less
crazy. Stick to a few typefaces. Choose one for text (preferably a serif
typeface) and one for headlines and cutlines (preferably a sans serif
typeface). You can add a third typeface for the flag, standing heads,
font column titles and other special uses. By limiting your type choices to a
a complete alphabet plus reasonable few, you can spare yourself time for other design tasks and
numbers and punctuation avoid creating a publication that looks erratic.
marks in a particular typeface
and style such as bold, italic Changing Type to Fit Your Needs
or bold italic
Using type right out of your computer software is like wearing a shirt
right out of the dryer—it won’t look its best until you iron it a bit. By
serif type
modifying type, you can adjust your letters to particular design needs
type with tiny strokes, or and improve the readability of your publication in the process. As a
serifs, at the tips of each letter designer, you have the option of changing type in two different dimen-
sions: vertically and horizontally.
sans serif type Changing Type Vertically Changing the point size of
type without tiny strokes, or a typeface changes the height of the letters. The greater the number of
serifs, at the tips of each letter points, the taller the letters (see Figure 16.2). Small type sizes are used
for copy. Many schools use 12-point type for stories, although 10- or
356 PRODUCING THE NEWS

FIGURE 16.2
LETTER HEIGHT (POINTS)
Aa
30 Point Type
Aa
60 Point Type
Aa 90 Point Type
11-point type is also a reasonable choice. Headlines require larger sizes,

ranging from 18 to 72 points or more, to achieve a dramatic look.
The space between two lines of type is called leading (pronounced leading
“ledding”). The term comes from the days of hot-metal typesetting, the space between two lines of
when thin bands of metal, usually lead, separated the rows of type. type; pronounced “ledding”
Leading can greatly affect the readability of your publication.
Leading can be loosened by adding more space between lines or tight-
ened until the letters nearly touch or even overlap. Tight leading saves
space, but it also tends to make a page looked cramped and uninviting.
Designers for alternative magazines and Nike ads have used overlapping
type to suggest an attitude that breaks the rules. Note that leading, like
type size, is measured in points.
The following example is 24-point type with 18 points of leading (it
is tight):
Neck massage may zap

pain of headaches
This is 24-point type with 26 points of leading, which is normal:

pain of headaches
Here is 24-point type with 42 points of leading (it is loose):

pain of headaches
Portrait of a Young Journalist
Dennis Ortiz-Lopez, Type Designer
"
Y
ou have maybe two & Associates as a designer. these faces and then licens-
seconds for someone In 1979, Rolling Stone hired ing them for sale. Rather than
to see something that him on staff for hand let- scanning and tracing the old
catches her eye and pick up tering. Two years later, he characters, he often redraws
the magazine.” That’s the chal- switched to full-time freelance the entire alphabet from
lenge Dennis Ortiz-Lopez and work, specializing in maga- scratch. In the process, he cor-
other professional typographers zine logos and custom fonts. rects type problems that have
face when they design special Ortiz-Lopez regards type stymied other designers.
lettering for a magazine cover. as “an ornamented glyph that As a career-long perfection-
Ortiz-Lopez has created spe- makes a thought into a graphic ist, Ortiz-Lopez has come to
cial cover letters (often called that other people can translate appreciate the precision of
logotypes) for many popular into a thought.” He says he computerized design tools.
magazines, including Parade, favors serif fonts and hates any But he also worries about the
Premiere, Rolling Stone, Spy, gimmick that draws attention unprecedented typographic
Self, Texas Monthly and US. to the type itself rather than to control they put in the hands of
Most of his lettering styles the words. “Words on a page art directors. Ortiz-Lopez says
are specially adapted for one- should flow smoothly into the he flinches when he sees type
time use on a cover. As such, mind of the reader, not stutter taboos broken or his own fonts
they are typically condensed as barely decipherable knots handled in ways he never imag-
and tightly kerned, although passing for letters,” he said. ined. These are, he notes, “the
some can be adapted for use Many of the older, elegant best of times and the worst of
as a copy style inside the typefaces that fell out of use times for type fanatics like me.”
magazine. Trained at Compton in the 1970s and 1980s have Source: Adapted from “Dennis Ortiz-Lopez,”
College and California State– come in for some retooling. Aldus Magazine, March/April, p. 28.
Long Beach, Ortiz-Lopez left Ortiz-Lopez has been produc-
school early and joined Gould ing computerized versions of
Changing Type Horizontally You can also adjust the

tracking horizontal spacing between letters. This adjustment is called track-
adjusting the horizontal space ing. Tracking enables you to squeeze copy to fit it into a single line or
between letters to stretch it out to cover a large area. Be sure to exercise caution, how-
ever. Even slight changes in tracking can affect the type’s readability.
Take this example of normal tracking, with no extra spacing between
characters:
Grandmother of eight makes hole in one
Here is the same example with loose tracking:
The following has tight tracking:
Note that the example of normal tracking is easiest to read.

Tight tracking is often used when a designer needs to conserve
space—for example, by making a six-line paragraph fit on five lines.
Loose tracking is sometimes used to help cover some undesirable white
space.
Designers use a special version of tracking called kerning when they kerning
want to bring a particular pair of letters together. This sometimes is neces- a special kind of tracking that
sary in headlines when an unsightly gap appears between certain pairs of brings pairs of letters closer
letters (for example, A and W ). If the two letters look like this: together to prevent unsightly
AW gaps
the designer could kern them (reduce the distance between them) to
look like this:
AW
Kerning is not done on body copy, but it makes large headlines look
much better.
A third way to control letter spacing is by controlling the set width. set width
The set width control changes the width of the letters, stretching or a means of scaling the width
squeezing them as though they’re made of rubber. The set width con- of letters. A line of type could
trol actually changes the shapes of the letters themselves. It is usually be slightly condensed by
expressed as a percentage of the font’s original width. For example, here choosing a set width of 95%.
is a headline with normal set width (100 percent of the font’s original
width):
Wind whips, strips, tips through town
Here is the same headline in a narrow set width (70 percent of normal):
The following shows the headline in a wide set width (130 percent of
normal):
Set width control is most useful for headlines, especially unusual
ones you might want to use for feature stories. If you change one line
of a headline, however, be sure to change the others in that same
headline.
Alignment flush left

Let’s turn our attention from letters, words and lines to larger chunks the alignment of type that
of copy. Copy in the hands of an unimaginative designer can be gray and runs flush with the left edge
dull. Fortunately, you can give your copy personality by the shapes and of the column; also called
contours it fills on the page. For example, a designer can vary the sides ragged right
of a story, or alignments, to create three different looks. The three types
of alignments are: justified
• Flush left. Flush left type runs flush with the left edge of a description of copy with
the column. It is also called ragged right, because the right straight margins at both the
edge of the column is uneven. Flush left alignment is typi- right and left column edges
cally used for headlines.
• Justified. Justified copy has straight margins on both the
right and left edges. It is the usual alignment setting for flush right
most stories. the alignment of type that
• Flush right. Flush right type runs flush with the right runs flush with the right edge
edge of the column. It’s often used for photo credit lines. of the column

Dateline
UNITED STATES, 1970–1990—A rev- page. By the mid-1980s, photos were
olution in newspaper production began being placed directly on the page either
when the computer began replacing from the wire or from scanned photos.
typewriters in newsrooms in the 1970s. Color graphics soon followed.
The television-like screen sitting Newsrooms today are completely
atop a keyboard allowed reporters to computerized. From the time a story
type, edit and store their stories in a is composed at the keyboard until it
central file. From another computer, comes off the press on the page, it is
the editor could retrieve the story, edit processed electronically. In addition to
it and send it to the typesetter. interviewing and writing skills, report-
By the early 1980s, pagination pro- ers must have editing and pagination
grams and photocomposition machines skills. Editors must be able to solve
made it possible to set copy in type on computer problems as well as spot
photographic film and send the nega- misspellings and grammatical errors.
tives directly to the platemaker, thus Photographers work with digital cam-
eliminating the need to paste copy onto eras, crop photos on screen and write
page layouts by hand. cutlines at the keyboard.
Wire service stories could be called
up, edited and placed directly on the
Alignment adjustments can help avoid two major design problems:

widow widows and orphans. A widow is an unacceptably short line of type
an unacceptably short line of (often just a single word) at the end of a paragraph. The white space that
type (often just one word) at follows the widow looks unplanned and unnecessary. Consequently,
the end of a paragraph most designers try to eliminate widows. An orphan is a partial line (end
of a paragraph) that appears at the top of a column or page. Both widows
and orphans can be quickly eliminated by a little tracking or rewording,
orphan
or even a slight bit of editing.
a partial line of type (the end Some desktop publishing programs have their own built-in dam-
of a paragraph) that appears age control. Damage in this case refers to widows and orphans. Adobe
at the top of a page or column PageMaker, for example, has menu options for “Widow control” and
“Orphan control.”
Typographic Special Effects

Most desktop publishing programs are loaded with unique typo-
graphic features called special effects. Like photos and illustrations, spe-
cial effects can break up text-heavy layouts to enliven even the blandest
of pages. Special effects are often used to spruce up headlines and pull
quotes, but they can also add emphasis to certain letters or words within
the body of an article. Better yet, unlike journalists of old, today's design-
ers can view and alter their desired special effects on computers before
the publications go to print.
The most commonly used special effects thicken or transform the
appearance of the letters. In the last chapter we mentioned an effect

called boldface, which makes letters appear darker and thicker than
regular text, and one called italic, which slants letters to resemble hand-
written ones. Another special effect feature is the skew tool. The skew skew
special effect allows more flexibility than the italicized effect. a special effect that slants
letters to the left and right
For example, italicized letters slant only to the right:
Spartans beat Cougars to become state champs
The skew effect can slant letters to both the left and right:
Almost all these effects can be combined. Bold and italic can be com-
bined as follows:
Another popular special effect is scale. The scale feature allows designers scale
to stretch the height and width of letters:] a special effect that stretches
the height and width of letters
Many production programs also allow users to layer words, letters, or layer
blocks of text. When correctly positioned, layered text can produce a a special effect that layers
3-D effect: words, letters or blocks of
texts to create a 3-D effect
LL A
AYY EE R
R SS
Two other special effects help designers place words on top of pictures and
illustrations. If you want to place text on top of dark or black backgrounds,
you can use a reverse. With this effect, the letters appear white: reverse
a special effect in which white
This is a reverse.
text is placed on dark or
black backgrounds or over
It is often best to use these effects sparingly. Too many special effects can
pictures
clutter pages and distract readers from the body of an article.
Your Beat
1. Look through a magazine and find three different 2. Compare a font list in a word-processing program to
kinds of serif type and three different kinds of sans determine what typefaces are used in your school
serif type. Ads are a good place to look. Notice yearbook and newspaper.
whether serif and sans serif typefaces are used to 3. Create a new typeface by designing all the letters of
provide contrast with one another. Then find three the alphabet in a special style all your own. Compare
examples of special type effects. your work with that of other students.

Out Take WRITING AND DESIGNING HEADLINES
Headline Humor In the days before computer technology, most newspaper headlines
were quite narrow. That was partly because the printing presses used
Headlines are often written
metal type locked into blocks. Type that was set too wide tended to come
as if they were short telegrams.
loose and fly off the cylinder as the presses spun around. Consequently,
Because writers are so intent
headlines were usually centered inside a single column. Often, headlines
on compressing a great deal of
were printed with each word capitalized. Many were stacked in layers,
information into a very few words,
with one deck on top of another.
they sometimes forget to see
Today’s headlines, by comparison, are run as wide as possible, posi-
the forest for the trees. In other
tioned flush left and usually capitalized in normal sentence form. This
words, headline writers some-
is called down style in newspaper parlance. The old-fashioned up style
times create unexpected humor.
capitalized each word in a headline:
Here are some classic head-
line bloopers. See if you can Attack Parrot Sends Thug Running for His Life
imagine what the actual story was
about. (All the headlines actu- Here is the same headline in today’s down style:
ally ran in professional papers.)
Attack parrot sends thug running for his life
Dealers will hear car talk
Friday noon In an ideal world, designers would never have to worry about the con-
Salesman says he left four tent of headlines. They could leave that to section editors or copy edi-
large rings in motel bathtub tors. But the truth is that designers are often left with the job of writing
Rock star hit with sick child headlines, because they’re the last people who work on the paper before
Police discover crack in it goes to the printer. For that reason, we’ll digress briefly from the topic
Australia of design to discuss how headlines should be written.
Here’s how you can lick
Doberman’s leg sores
Crowd keeps police from Headlines Tell and Sell a Story
stabbing victim
Man with two broken legs A savvy editor once gave a writer this advice: if you have 10 days to
saves one from drowning create a story, spend nine of them working on the headline. The edi-
Crook escapes by turning into tor meant that the headline is crucial, because it both summarizes and
drug store advertises the story. Too often, headline writers top a story with a “ho
Calf born to farmer with two hum” headline, thus burying the story on the page instead of saying
heads “Please read me!” The challenge becomes how to write a headline that
Ban on nude dancing on both tells and sells the story.
governor’s desk Essentially, a headline is a short, telegraphic sentence giving the gist of
Computer center turns on the story. “Man jumps off building,” reads the headline, not “A man has
students just jumped off the top of a building.” The grammar of the sentence—its
Woman better after being subject and verb—remains, but several words are missing. Headline writ-
thrown from high-rise ers use a sort of Western Union–style shorthand to trim away nonessen-
Ritter, Silverman butt heads tial words. Headline writers also use present tense for past actions. That
strategy gives headlines more punch and immediacy.
Good headlines help readers find what they want to read. Headlines
should both catch the eye and guide the readers’ attention to the main
idea. For the headline writer, discovering the main idea shouldn’t be a
problem if the story is well written. The main idea should be located in the

story’s lead, which is where the headline writer, who won’t have time to
read the entire story anyway, should look to find out what’s news.
Headlines can be creative and fun. Sometimes our favorite headlines
are the ones that break the rules. But for beginners, it’s probably best to
start with a few standard guidelines. Here are some commonly accepted
rules for headline writing:
• Give every headline an action verb: “Candidates debate
issues”
• Use present tense for past events: “Club chooses presi-
dent,” not “Club chose president yesterday”
• Use an infinitive for future events: “Governor to
sign bill”
• Use short, positive words: “Some like it hot: Spring Break
hot spots”
• Use a comma for and and a semicolon for a period:
“Learning moves out of school beyond U-High, across
oceans” and “Soccerdogs beat Edison; host Lodi
tomorrow”
• Use single quotation marks within a headline: “Critics say
‘malice’ rule puts public safety at risk”
Some rules warn writers about what not to do:
• Avoid forms of to be: “Teen boot camp—‘strictly’ a good
idea,” not “Teen boot camp is ‘strictly’ a good idea”
• Omit articles (a, an and the): “Habitat workers bring hope
to homeless”
• Avoid the use of negatives (no and not): “Athletic depart-
ment too lenient with drug offenders,” instead of
“Athletic department not harsh enough”
• Avoid excess abbreviation (one acronym per headline is
probably plenty)
• Omit a period at the end of a headline
• Most important, don’t use headlines to express the writ-
er’s opinion
Headlines should tell something specific and newsy. They should not
be mere labels. Watch out, too, for generic headlines that could fit any
of several stories: “Student meeting Wednesday,” “Committee plans
announced” or “Team seeks victory,” for example. These headlines could
be used over and over, but who would read those stories? Create a head-
line to fit one and only one story.
Finally, the headline should reflect the tone of a story. Use a serious
tone for a serious story—for example,
Storm flattens fields, rips roof

For less somber stories, headline writers can enjoy using puns and plays
on words:
Many possible ways to heal heel pain

Designer builds motorcycles wheely well or
It isn’t easy being orange
Headline Styles
banner The most popular and basic of modern headline styles is the banner.
a headline that runs across A banner runs across the entire width of a page. Banners are great
the entire width of a page for breaking news and big events, such as prom or awards night. A
steady diet of banners, however, would soon become monotonous.
Fortunately, designers have a number of alternative headline styles to
kicker
choose from.
a clever word or phrase that A kicker is a clever word or phrase that runs above the main headline
runs above the main head- and is usually set in italics.
line; usually set in italics A slammer is a two-part headline that uses a boldface word or phrase
to lead into the main headline.
slammer A raw wrap lets the story wrap around the headline on two sides.
a two-part headline that Use this headline style sparingly.
uses a boldface word or A hammer head uses a big, bold phrase to catch the reader’s eye and
phrase leading into the main then adds a lengthier main headline below. It’s like an upside-down
headline kicker.
Tripods are headlines that come in three parts: a boldface word or
phrase (often in all caps) with two smaller lines set alongside it.
raw wrap The sidesaddle head style puts the headline beside the story. It’s
a headline style in which used to squeeze a story—preferably one that’s boxed—into a shallow
the story wraps around the horizontal space. Figure 16.3 illustrates these six headline styles.
headline on two sides Headlines that are two or three lines deep can create a tricky prob-
lem—line breaks, or the place where one line ends and another begins.
Line breaks can lead to miscommunication if a designer isn’t careful.
hammer
Avoid bad splits caused by dangling verbs, adjectives or prepositions. For
a headline that uses a big, example, instead of
bold phrase to catch the
reader’s eye and then adds Pet rooster pulls drowning
a lengthier main headline
below child from icy pond
use the following:
tripod Pet rooster pulls

a three-part headline that
includes a boldface word drowning child
or phrase (often in all caps)
with two smaller lines set
from icy pond
alongside it
sidesaddle head Headline Sizes

a headline style that sets the Bigger stories usually get bigger headlines. The largest headlines
headline beside the story range upward from 48 points. Medium headlines range from 24 to 48
points. Small headlines range from 18 to 24 points. Designers gener-
ally put the larger headlines at the top of the page (sometimes in
boldface) and then move down the page with smaller, lighter or italic
headlines.
Designers communicate the kind of headline they want by using a
special code. The code lists first the column width, next the point size
and finally the number of lines in the headline. Using that formula, a

FIGURE 16.3
HEADLINE STYLES
BANNERBANNERBANNERBA Kicker Kicker Kicker

Main headline main headline main
Raw wrap raw wrap

SLAMMER: Main headline main headline raw wrap raw wrap raw
wrap raw wrap raw wrap
HAMMER HAMMER Main headline

Main headline main headline main headline TRIPOD: main headline main
Sidesaddle head
sidesaddle head
sidesaddle
3-24-1 headline would be a three-column, 24-point headline that runs

on one line, like this:
Six ways to tell if he’s really Mr. Right

If that headline needed to fit in a single, narrow column, it could be
rewritten as a 1-18-3 headline (one column, 18-point type, three lines
deep). It would look like this:
Six ways to tell

if he’s really
Mr. Right

Out Take
Designers often write each headline’s code above the story it belongs
with on the dummy. The person responsible for writing the headline—
Dingbats and Bullets either the copy editor or the designer—then consults a chart showing
how many letters will fit each column in various type sizes. This sounds
Not for monks only. That’s complicated, but it simply means that different letters take up different
what you’ll be thinking once you amounts of space.
have a taste of the fascinating Publishing software makes it possible to adjust each headline to fit,
decorative ornaments available but only at the expense of type consistency. If a headline written in 30-
in some special typefaces. point type won’t fit, for example, the designer can shrink the headline to
In the days of old, the scribes 28 points with a single keystroke. But many designers prefer to work in
who toiled over their parchment regular increments of 18, 24, 36 and 48 points. If they stick to their plan,
with pen and brush were basi- it is the writer and not the software that makes the adjustment. For that
cally copying words. But they reason, it’s a good idea to at least understand why some headlines take
didn’t stop there. They also illumi- more space than others.
nated their pages with decorative Wide letters, such as M and W, take up more room than do skinny
letters, scrolls and borders. A letters, such as I and J. Headline writers take these differences into
manuscript became a work of art. account in calculating how much space a headline will take up by using
Today, many of those same a headline count chart. Most professional count charts are now digital
decorations are being used to and measure the width of letters to tenths or even hundredths of units.
make text look more visually However, here’s a simpler method you can use quite efficiently to deter-
interesting. Dingbats are those mine a headline’s length:
little pictures and symbols used • Count all lowercase letters as one unit, except for five slen-
to break up otherwise dreary der ones, f, l, i, t and j (think “flit-jay” as a memory device)
copy. You can find some of these and two wide ones, m and w. Count the slender letters as
decorations in a typeface called 0.5 units and the wide ones as 1.5 units.
Zapf Dingbats. Here, for example, • Count all uppercase letters as 1.5 units except for two slen-
are some of those characters: der ones, I and J (count these as one unit) and two wide
uVMU S \ x ones, M and W (count these as two units).
Try using dingbats as bul- • Count punctuation marks as 0.5 units except for the ques-
lets, to separate paragraphs, or tion mark, double quotation mark and dash (count each
as borders to take up space. as one unit).
• Count each space as one unit.
• Count all numbers as one unit except for the number 1
(count it as 0.5 units).
If the headline count chart says you can fit 30 units in a 3-36-1 head-
line, then the following 29.5-unit headline would work:
Wild West town found on Venus

However, this 35-unit headline would not fit:
Scientists find Western town on Venus

Ideally, the copy editor creates headlines for your publication. But if
you, as designer, have the job of writing headlines, you’re now prepared
to do it.

Your Beat
1. Try writing a headline for each of the following sto- Neither the dog nor the man was believed to be
ries. Use a banner style with five to seven words. seriously injured. The dog’s owner said the dog
a. At the age of four, a girl named Christian was an Airedale terrier.
Banerjee in Midland, Texas, could speak two 2. Imagine what Mother Goose rhymes might look like
languages fluently. She is now a university stu- if they were written in the style of a newspaper head-
dent at the age of 11. Banerjee is a genius with line. For example, “Pumpkin shell solves marriage
an I.Q. of 165. She walks across campus with question” might cover the marital difficulties of Peter
a laptop covered with stickers of kittens. At her Pumpkin Eater. Can you identify the popular rhyme
current rate of academic progress, she hopes represented by each of the following headlines?
to complete a medical degree by age 17. a. Boy kisses girl, flees
b. A man in Nashville was not seriously injured this b. Blind rodents attack farmer’s wife
morning when he was struck from above by a c. Men and horses fail to revive crash victim
dog. The dog apparently jumped out of a fourth- d. Lamb follows mistress everywhere
story window and landed on the man’s head. e. Man’s request for taste of pastry denied
CREATING VISUAL NEWS:

INFOGRAPHICS
A look at design trends suggests that most readers want specialized
messages with lots of reader-friendly graphics. These readers are looking
for shortcuts that give them the information they want without their
having to read through long passages of text. They want lists, summa-
ries, diagrams, bulleted information and quotations that provide the
heart of the story. Thanks to desktop publishing and the example of USA
Today, an exciting new method to help tell a story has emerged—the
infographic.
The infographic (short for information graphic) is a hybrid of typogra-
phy, design and sheer imagination. Loosely defined, an infographic, as
California yearbook adviser Jim Jordan puts it, “is any graphic presenta-
tion of statistical data.” In other words, an infographic turns numbers
into pictures.
An infographic can be used to supplement a written story or to tell
a story all by itself. It can be as simple as a line drawing of a pizza slice
(to illustrate favorite pizza toppings) or as complicated as a full-page
diagram of the human eye (to show how laser surgery works). What all
infographics have in common is their ability to communicate a message
at a single glance.
Brainstorm, Research and Focus

Freelance illustrator Dale Glasgow had never really thought about
hurricanes until one hit his office. As a graphic artist, Glasgow was an

GEORGE RORICK DIRECTOR OF GRAPHICS FOR KNIGHT-RIDDER
There was a time when the only map appear- director of graphics for Knight-Ridder, one of
ing in most newspapers was on the weather the nation’s largest newspaper chains. “And
page. Graphs and charts were largely found in they are not type in a box. They are the care-
the financial pages. The rest of the information ful and painstaking efforts of professional art-
was presented through words or photographs. ists, illustrators, writers, editors, researchers, art
Today it is difficult to imagine how readers could directors and designers. That’s commitment.”
have grasped such news events as the latest Source: Adapted from “Serving readers through infographics”
Shuttle mission, airplane hijacking or terror- by H. L. Hall, CJET.
ist bombing without the use of infographics.
“Infographics are not simply pretty pictures
to decorate pages,” explained George Rorick,
expert in representing complex events as easy-to-see graphics. That’s

why a magazine editor commissioned him to create an illustration for an
article on the formation of hurricanes.
The assignment set off a flurry of activity in Glasgow’s Woodbridge,
Virginia, studio as he struggled to understand the climatic forces that
produce hurricanes. For days, his fax machine spouted a flood of
background information sent to him by the magazine’s writers. Ideas
swirled in his head, and soon a storm began to brew on the screen of
his computer.
Glasgow’s challenge was to find a way to visualize the essence of a
tumultuous, swirling, ever-changing hurricane. To do so, he worked his
way through a checklist that every infographic artist would do well to
consult:
• Research carefully. You’ve got to be an expert on the sub-
ject, because your readers will be relying on your accuracy.
Do your homework. Read the story, study photos and talk
to experts.
• Focus tightly. Pinpoint precisely what you need to explain
before you begin. What’s most essential? What’s most
interesting? Whatever you choose, the resulting image
must be as clean and simple as possible.
• Design logically. Let your central image give structure to
the design. (In Glasgow’s case, he chose an aerial view of
farmland as his background and placed the hurricane in
the foreground.) If you’re using a sequence of images, find
a perspective that lets you show the steps in the most logi-
cal order.
• Label clearly. Make sure you can identify every detail in
the infographic. Details are often identified with what are
called callouts or factoids, that take the form of words with
arrows, lines, or boxes.

Glasgow broke the hurricane down into several stages and then wrote
a blurb (a brief description) for each stage. “I wrote how I thought a hur-
ricane works based on the information I had researched,” he explained.
After Glasgow focused his thoughts and ideas, he moved quickly from a
few rough sketches on paper to the computer. He decided to use Adobe
FreeHand to create the clouds. Using a combination of drawing tools,
he drew the shape of the cloud as a kind of squiggly line, added some
depth and then placed arrows throughout the illustration to show wind
direction.
The project was almost finished when hurricane experts spotted a
technical error. Because of the direction of the trade winds over the
Atlantic Ocean, Glasgow’s hurricane was headed in the wrong direction.
To solve the problem, Glasgow simply selected the reflection tool and
flip-flopped his cloud, arrows and all.
Finally, Glasgow reversed the type in the darker areas so that words
would be readable. “First and foremost,” he said, “the information has to
communicate to the reader what it is about. If they don’t understand, or
if they can’t read the statistics on the piece of art, then I’ve failed.” Figure
16.4 has three examples of infographics from USA Today.
FIGURE 16.4
INFOGRAPHICS
Most feared Cost of the

threats 33 % federal debt
s
rrorist Per person
Te
21%
na
$28,229
Chi
12%
Iraq
Dow’s milestones
Time it took the industrial
average to go from:
5,168
days
0 $16
2,00
to
,000 365
1
000
days
0,
00 to 1 1900 2006
9,0

Brainstorming in teams might be
a good way to come up with ideas
for your publication’s infographics.
Developing an Infographic for

Your Publication
Many high school publications have started using infographics
as a service to their readers. The Ahlahasa staff at Albert Lea High in
Albert Lea, Minnesota, for example, used a list of facts about tobacco
to create an infographic for a major story on smoking. The Echo staff at
Glenbard East High School in Lombard, Illinois, included a table show-
ing the procedure for a drug test. This infographic supported a front-
page story on the random drug testing of high school athletes.
You might want to create an infographic for your school publication.
Creating an infographic involves developing the concept, devising the
question, gathering information and choosing the format.
Developing the Concept A quick glance at exchange

papers from across the country reveals a wide variety of topics used to
develop infographics. These topics include the growth of youth vio-
lence; a comparison of school, state and national ACT results; and trends
in safety, fashion and consumer purchases. Think of something you’re
genuinely curious about to investigate. Then envision an infographic
that reflects the views of your readers on that topic.
Devising the Question In a brainstorming session with

other students, identify possible survey questions that could be distrib-
uted to students chosen at random. Short answer or multiple choice
questions yield results that are most easily put in graphic form. The
graphic artist can create a visual display of the answers to the questions.
Gathering Information You can gather information

through surveys or polls. Surveys often take the form of person-on-the-
street interviews. Reporters conduct person-on-the-street interviews
by stationing themselves in a hallway and asking a single question of
people as they pass by. Because of the limited number of participants
(as few as 10 or 20), however, surveys give reporters and readers a sense
for the story but have little true statistical value. Polls, in contrast, have
a more substantial statistical base, so their results more accurately reflect
a group’s responses. A poll generally requires a sampling of no less than
10 percent of a group to get a representative sample. Furthermore, great
care must be taken when tabulating the results to ensure accuracy.
Choosing the Best Format Once you or your team has

developed a concept for an infographic and gathered statistics for it,
you’re ready to choose the best format for your infographic. Designers
usually choose from one of four main types: fever chart, pie graph, bar
chart and table. The following examples will give you an idea of what
each type looks like and what each does best.
A fever chart plots numbers recorded over time. It resembles a chart fever chart
tracking the rising and falling temperatures of a person with a fever. The a chart that plots numbers
“fever line” is produced by plotting different points and then connecting recorded over time
the dots. The fever chart works well to illustrate questions about money
or quantities that have changed over a period of months or years. A line
that rises or falls dramatically will make a bigger impression on readers
than one that barely shows a blip.
A pie graph divides a whole into its parts, usually by percentages. pie graph
It looks like a circle with individual wedges, each representing a differ- a circle with individual
ent component. (Imagine a pizza cut into six or eight slices.) As a rule of wedges, each representing
thumb, pie graphs should be divided into no more than eight segments. a different component. A pie
Beyond that, the slices are too thin. To create additional impact, you can graph divides a whole into
make pie graphs from drawings or photos of the items being measured. its parts, usually by percent-
You could slice a dollar bill into sections, for example, to show how the ages.
school district spends its money.
A bar chart consists of parallel, usually vertical, bars whose lengths bar chart
represent different quantities. A bar chart is similar to a fever chart in a chart or graph that consists
that it represents quantities over time. Unlike a fever chart, however, of parallel, usually vertical,
which tends to focus on trends, a bar chart is used to make comparisons. bars whose lengths represent
A bar chart, for example, is a great way to show how many more three- different quantities
point shots the basketball team made this year than last year. To add
visual impact, the bars may be screened or shadowed.
A table displays a series of numbers or words. Tables may contain a table
good deal of text. For example, you could create a table showing holi- a graphic element that
day trends by superimposing words over a cartoon of Santa Claus. On displays a series of numbers
the left, under a heading “What’s OUT,” you could list items such as or words
“Price-no-object shopping,” “Cashmere sweaters,” “Nintendo” and
“Oyster dressing.” On the right, under a heading “What’s IN,” you could
list “Backyard snowball fights,” “Gift cards to the local gas station,”
“Sweatshirts” and “Playstation 3.”
Creating the Infographic No matter what the topic,

each infographic must contain certain essential elements. George Rorick,
architect of six different news services for print and broadcast graphics,
says the following five items should appear in every infographic:
1. Headline. The headline is usually an easy-to-read label.
2. Body. The body of an infographic consists of the raw data
or numbers.
3. Credits. The person or persons who created the info-
graphic should be identified.

4. Explainer. A short sentence or paragraph should explain
what the infographic is about and why it might be
important to the reader.
5. Source. The origin of the information—who was polled,
for example, or what book or magazine was used—
should be identified.
Whatever type of infographic you choose, be sure to make it interest-
ing. Adding a cartoon, character or drawing to your infographic is the
final touch that will make it memorable. If you’re not an artist, use an
image scanner to capture an appropriate illustration. (Be careful about
copyright laws.) For inspiration, look at USA Today. It runs a clever info-
graphic every day at the front of each section.
Your Beat
1. Get a copy of an almanac from the library, and 4. Donald Duck and Daisy Duck
choose an information “nugget.” An information nug- 5. Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse
get is a small group of facts that can be readily devel- 6. Popeye and Olive Oyl
oped into an infographic. For example, rock concerts, b. From 2001 to 2004, nine hurricanes struck
at 120 decibels, rank among the most deafening the U.S. mainland, and three of those were
experiences teenagers may encounter. By determin- classified as major. Compare that with the hur-
ing the decibel level of a variety of noises, a student ricane statistics for the previous six decades:
could create an infographic dramatizing the danger
DECADE TOTAL NUMBER OF MAJOR
of long-term exposure to loud music. Brainstorm to HURRICANES HURRICANES
determine how this information might be presented 1991–2000 14 5
as an infographic that supports a related story. 1981–1990 15 5
2. Create an infographic for either of the following infor- 1971–1980 12 4
mation nuggets: 1961–1970 14 6
a. Six of the longest-dating couples: 1951–1960 17 8
1941–1950 24 10
1. Li’l Abner and Daisy May
2. Archie and Veronica Source: National Hurricane Center
3. Clark Kent and Lois Lane

Chapter Review
Show that you know the meanings of the following key terms by cor-
rectly using them in complete sentences. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.
typography justified slammer
typeface flush right raw wrap
font widow hammer
serif type orphan tripod
sans serif type skew sidesaddle head
leading scale fever chart
tracking layer pie graph
kerning reverse bar chart
set width banner table
flush left kicker
Open Forum
1. Sometimes editorial bias can creep into news headlines. At the con-
clusion of a capital punishment case, one so-called conservative
newspaper ran this headline: “Smith dies for killing two.” A so-called
liberal paper ran this headline: “State executes Smith.” Critics of the
liberal paper said that its headline puts the blame on the state and
thus reveals the paper’s position against the death penalty, whereas
the conservative newspaper’s headline emphasizes the prisoner’s
responsibility for the crime. Do you agree? Can you detect any bias
in the headlines in the latest issue of your local paper?
2. Lettering styles are very important in the way businesses present
their trade names in advertising and on the products themselves (in
other words, in the businesses’ logos). Which logos are the most
memorable? A logo is a representation of a company’s name or
emblem in a consistent and distinctive type style. What role do letter-
ing styles play in making logos dramatic or visually appealing?
Chapter Review For additional resources, practice, and assessment,

Journalism Online go to glencoe.com and enterTQuickPass code JM7824c16.
YPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 373
Finding the Flaw
1. Correct the problem in each of the following headlines:
a. Boy’s choir competed in State Fair contest
b. CHS Library Marks a Historic Milestone
c. Smith and Jones tie for first
d. Scientists seek Ebola in remote rain forest.
e. Disabled girl not allowed on cheerleading squad
2. Find an infographic in a newspaper or magazine, and discuss it with
classmates. Has the information been successfully transformed into a
visual message? How might the information have been presented if the
designer had used a different format—a pie graph, say, or a table?
Media Watch
1. Look through newspapers and magazines to find an example of
each of the seven kinds of headlines (banner, kicker, slammer, raw
wrap, hammer, tripod and sidesaddle).
2. Study movie posters, menus, consumer packaging, billboards and
public signs as examples of typography. Which examples seem the
most appealing? Which seem the least appealing? Why?
Portfolio
1. Some experts have called for the addition of new letters to our
alphabet. If you could create a 27th letter for our alphabet, what
would it be, and how would it be used? What would it look like?
2. Create a “concrete” poem, in which the words or letters themselves
present a visual image. Several examples of “concrete” poems are
on the opposite page.
3. Choose a new font to use for the flag for your school paper. You
may wish to look in the school library or check with the newspaper
adviser to see what fonts have been used in the past.

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Chapter 17
Advertising
Ads are the cave art of the 20th century.
—Marshall McLuhan, communications

theorist and educator
376
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: In this chapter, you will learn
• recognize a variety of advertising appeals, the meaning of these terms:
• learn the key principles for the layout and design of ads, public service ad
advertising appeal
• organize a sales staff.
propaganda
account executive
copywriter
classified ad
display ad
body copy
logo
D
o you want a topic that is sure to start a conversation at your next
slogan
party, family dinner, holiday gathering or study hall? Ask people
to tell you about their favorite—or least favorite—advertise- picture-window
ments. Everyone will have a story to tell. That’s because ads—whether format
they’re busy informing, entertaining, persuading or simply selling copy-heavy format
something—are hard to forget and impossible to ignore. And they work. tool line
In fact, U.S. teenage consumers spend billions of dollars each year. type-specimen format
Most student publications owe their existence, at least in part, to circus format
advertising sales. It makes sense, therefore, for everyone on a publica- multipanel format
tion’s staff, not just the business people, to spend some time learning cost analysis
about the complex world of advertising. Student journalists should have mock-up ad; spec ad
both a professional and a personal interest in learning about advertising. tearsheet
This chapter will focus on four elements of the trade: the message, the
media, the makeup and the management.
THE MESSAGE
Volney B. Palmer opened the first U.S. advertising agency in
Philadelphia in 1841. Even if Palmer was a visionary, he could never have
anticipated the billions of dollars that U.S. advertisers spend each year.
You may not realize it, but you are exposed to thousands of ads a day. By
age 18, chances are you will have seen more than 350,000 commercials.
Jean Kilbourne, an internationally known media critic, describes the
power of ads: “They sell values, images, and concepts of success and
worth, love and sexuality, popularity and normalcy. They tell us who we
are and who we should be. Sometimes they sell addiction.” Kilbourne
may be right. According to the Center of Media Literacy, students can list
more brands of beer than names of U.S. presidents.
The Power of the Message

Persuasion to buy is only one part of advertising, though. In fact,
advertising performs a myriad of services that benefit both individuals
and society. Advertising keeps down the cost of newspapers, magazines,
radio and television, making them affordable and accessible to more
ADVERTISING 377
people. Ads help you make wise choices by presenting information
about products, services and trends. Even the sale of a product or service
LONDON, 1614—Decorative ends up benefiting more than just the business. It promotes economic
signs attached to buildings growth and improves the standard of living by encouraging spending,
or swinging over doorways increasing mass production, creating jobs and, ultimately, leading to the
identified local inns and manufacture of less expensive products and services.
taverns. These signs were Furthermore, advertising is influencing the direction of the “informa-
the forerunners of modern tion superhighway.” As other nations and cultures are exposed to more
billboards. Because few people and more U.S. media and entertainment, our products and services,
could read, the shopkeepers introduced through advertising, are finding growing markets outside
created logos, or artwork that
this country.
represented the names of their
Occasionally, a business’s enthusiasm for these new markets, coupled
establishments: The Three
Squirrels, The Ape, A Hole in with its commitment to U.S. advertising campaigns that have already
the Wall, Man in the Moon, a proved successful, can add up to one big communications problem.
Hog In Armour and so on. According to author Robert W. Woodruff, when Coca-Cola brought its
In 1614, England passed the product to China, it had to make some last-minute changes. Originally,
first laws regulating advertis- company officials had chosen the Chinese characters that most closely
ing. One law prohibited signs resemble the logo Coca-Cola, but those characters translated into “bite
from projecting more than the wax tadpole.” Instead, Coca-Cola officials finally settled on Chinese
eight feet out from a building. characters that mean “can mouth, can happy.”
Another said signs must be high KFC also had image problems in China, because its advertising
enough to allow a man wearing
campaign translated into Chinese, suggested “eat your fingers off.” Of
armor and riding a horse to
course, changing a company’s image to please an international audience
pass beneath them.
is only one of many challenges that face advertisers. Ads must reflect an
audience’s style, needs and desires. Those that do not are easy to spot
because they seem so immediately out of place.
Similar miscommunication can affect your school newspaper.
Sometimes businesses that clearly do not count teenagers among their
consumers nonetheless advertise in a school publication. The ads, if
noticed at all, may draw giggles or confused looks. They generally won’t
draw business, however. In the case of misplaced ads, the business usu-
ally has some personal connection to the school. Perhaps a staff mem-
ber’s uncle owns it, and the owner views the cost of the ad as more of a
contribution to the publication than a wise investment.
In contrast, the Encyclopedia of Bad Taste, by Jane and Michael Stern,
includes numerous references to products that succeeded by under-
standing the style of potential customers and creating a desire within
these people for the products themselves. How else can we explain the
relative, if sometimes short-lived, success of aerosol cheese, fish sticks,
lava lamps, candied fruit sheets, pet clothing or TV dinners?
The Meaning of the Message

In a conversation in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland,
Humpty Dumpty told Alice, “When I use a word, it means just what
I choose it to mean—nothing more or less.” Indeed, determining the
meaning of a message can be a highly personal matter. That’s why it’s
so important for everyone, not only advertisers, to choose words care-
fully. After all, if you say “I love you” to a person, who subsequently

THE AD COUNCIL PAYS
P ublic service ads are similar to other ads or

commercials except they do not sell products
or services for money. Proving that public service
The Organ and Tissue Donation campaign
was launched in 1994 with a message that
encourages willing donors to share their deci-
messages do make a difference, the Ad Council sions with family members. That same year,
has served as a sponsor and clearinghouse for more than 3,000 people died waiting for trans-
public service announcements (PSAs) since plants. Meanwhile, more than 42,000 people
World War II. Ad Council OSAs have helped the are currently waiting for organ transplants.
United Negro College Fund raise nearly $1 billion By presenting several real-life scenarios,
during the past two decades. These funds have the PSAs convey the message that deciding
enabled more than 150,000 students to graduate. whether to donate a loved one’s organs and tis-
The council’s Safety Belt Education campaign sue at the time of death is extremely difficult if
has been another smashing success. Since the issue has not been previously discussed. In
the campaign began in 1982, the percentage one ad, for example, a husband contemplates
of Americans wearing safety belts has risen whether or not donating his wife’s organs was
from 11 to 87 percent. More than 40,000 new what she would have wanted. He explains that
teachers are working today thanks to the Ad they had never discussed donation because
Council’s Recruiting New Teachers campaign. they were young and “thought we had time.”
One of the Council’s recent projects involves All the work to create the campaign was done
using real people and their real-life stories. without charge by media professionals.
misinterprets your intention, it can create an extremely uncomfortable

situation. Of course, in the world of advertising there is little love ever
lost. Language is used primarily to gain a strategic advantage over the
competitor’s products.
Advertising executive Rosser Reeves, in the book Doublespeak, pointed
to the need for excellent writing to separate products that essentially are
the same. “A client comes into my office and throws two newly minted
half dollars onto my desk and says ‘Mine is the one on the left. You prove
it’s better.’”
In 1972 a little-known tire company, B. F. Goodrich, had its own
image problem. Potential customers kept confusing its name with that of
another tire company, Goodyear. Instead of changing its name, though, public service ads
B. F. Goodrich created an advertising campaign that acknowledged the Similar to other ads or com-
confusion, even mentioning the competitor in the ads. The success of mercials except they do not
this campaign moved B. F. Goodrich from last in sales to second, behind sell products or services for
Goodyear. money. Support for ads come
What is the lesson for you? Even if an advertiser, through research, from nonprofit organizations
has a complete understanding of its product, its audience and the tem- such as the American Cancer
per of the times, without excellent writing other efforts mean little. Society or the Red Cross.
ADVERTISING 379
The Goals of the Message
In general, all good advertising must do certain things: attract atten-
tion, arouse interest, create a desire and incite action. At the heart of
all ads, though, are the features and benefits of the product or service.
Virtually every element of the ad should support and explain these
features and benefits. Through concise but vivid writing, the members
of the audience learn what the product or service offers and how it can
improve their lives. Most consumers will make a purchase decision based
on their understanding of these features and benefits.
Before the copy is written, however, the advertiser must decide what
advertising appeal kind of appeal to use with the audience. An advertising appeal is an
an attempt to draw interest attempt to draw interest to the ad itself. The appeal should reflect the
to an ad. Among the most style of the business as well as the style of the intended audience. The
common are humor, emotion, most widely used appeals include the following:
sex, testimony, bandwagon, • Humor—eliciting anything from a chuckle to a guffaw to
comparison, economy and attract attention to the ad.
prestige. • Emotion—tugging at the audience’s heartstrings by includ-
ing a moving story or illustration.
• Sex—using words or images of a suggestive nature.
• Testimony—promoting a product or service by including
an account of how it changed an individual.
• Bandwagon—creating interest by telling the audience that
everyone else is buying the product or service.
• Comparison—demonstrating that the features and benefits
of one product are preferable to those of another.
• Economy—showing the opportunity to save money.
• Prestige—proudly proclaiming to be exclusive or the best.
The appeal should provide a framework for the advertisement. This
framework will help the copywriter—the person who actually writes the
words in the ad—to determine the style and content of the ad. Remember,
though, that some ads are deliberately misleading or untruthful. Often
propaganda these ads are nothing more than propaganda. Propaganda is the
the name given to any orga- name given to any organized, widespread attempt to influence people’s
nized, widespread attempt to thinking or behavior. It may be good or bad, according to the purpose
influence people’s thinking or intentions of its originator, the way it is used, or how it’s received by
behavior an audience.
Your Beat
1. Go through current magazines and cut out repre- 3. Find an advertisement that seems “at home” in your
sentative examples of each of the eight advertising school’s publication. Why is the school paper or
appeals described in the text. yearbook the right place for this ad? Now find an
2. Through research and interviewing, collect some of example of an out-of-place ad, and explain its
the most popular product slogans today. Quiz other inappropriateness.
class members to see what their “advertising IQ” is.

THE MEDIA
An excellent idea or product is not enough to guarantee sales. A busi-
ness or individual must also consider the best way to introduce an idea
or product to the public. That’s where an advertising agency comes
in. Advertising agencies determine how businesses should spend their
advertising dollars. Agency representatives called account executives account executive
work with businesses to try to sell the agency’s creative ideas to them. a representative of an adver-
After the idea or concept is sold, copywriters and artists begin their tising agency who works with
work. A copywriter is the person who writes the text for the ad. businesses to try to sell the
Throughout this process, the copywriter is guided and supervised by a agency’s creative ideas to
creative director who is in charge of overseeing the development of the them
advertising campaign. The media buyer then determines the best way to
get the product or message to the public. The media buyer is a specialist
who selects which medium or combination of media (television, newspa- copywriter
per, radio, magazine, direct mail and so forth) would work best. Within a person at an advertising
each medium, the media buyer also decides such things as the time or agency who writes the text
place the ad will run, the frequency (number of times) the ad will run, for an ad
and the possible reach of the ad (the average total number of homes or
people exposed to it). A good copywriter and media buyer are crucial,
because they are the ones who can get individuals in the audience to
recall and act upon an ad.
Television, Radio and Internet Advertising

Television advertising is one of the most effective ways for com-
panies to attract new customers because television commercials are
audio-visual representations of their products or services. The price of
a television ad depends on many factors, including the timeslot during
which it airs, the station that airs it, how often it airs and the popularity
of the programs containing it. For example, the Super Bowl is the most
watched sporting event in the United States. It is estimated that the price
to air a 30-second commercial on CBS during Super Bowl XLI cost some
advertisers $2.6 million.
While many cars now come equipped with CD players and MP3 play-
ers, they still come with radios, and millions of people still tune in. Many
CALVIN AND HOBBES reprinted by permission of Universal Press Syndicate.
ADVERTISING 381
Out Take
Instant Profits
Infomercials are a relatively new into bread crumbs, and oil into mayon- defied successful infomercialization.
phenomenon that started in 1984 after naise, was produced for $125,000 and According to Bernice Kanner, writing
the Federal Trade Commission lifted all generated $55 million in sales. More in New York magazine, these included
restrictions on how much commercial than 20,000 different infomercials are back-pain cures, improve-your-garden
time local TV stations could sell. Most of broadcast on stations around the coun- products, and a videotape starring
them run late at night, when entire hours try, and their total take is estimated at Walter Cronkite, Nancy Reagan, and
can be bought cheap (and when bleary- about $1 billion dollars a year. In 1991 Morgan Fairchild titled How to Raise
eyed, lonely viewers are most suscep- the Home Shopping Network started a Drug-Free Kids. Greg Renker explained,
tible to suggestions)—a slot known 24-hour-a-day infomercial-only channel. “Our audience wants instant, effort-
in the television trade as “remnant air “A 60-second spot goes by so fast,” less success, fame, or beauty.”
time”—and although they cost little to said Nancy Langston of infomercial pro-
Source: Reprinted with permission from
produce, they can make fortunes. Time ducer Media Arts International. “In a half- Jane Stern and Michael Stern, Encyclopedia
magazine reported that the 30-minute hour, we allow time to demonstrate and of Pop Culture (New York: HarperCollins).
Kitchenmate Mixer infomercial, which repeat and demonstrate and repeat. It’s
showed a woman turning skimmed milk really an incredible way to sell a prod-
into luxurious whipped cream, bread uct.” Some products, however, have
portable devices, such as MP3 players and cell phones, also have built-in
radios, allowing people on the go to listen to their favorite programs—most
of which include advertisements. While radio ads are more cost effective,
they must rely on sound effects, music and text to create images.
Satellite radio stations, such as XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Radio,
have launched a new trend in radio broadcasting: commercial-free
radio. By paying a subscription fee, satellite radio users can tune in to
thousands of music and talk channels from around the world with no
commercial interruption.
With more than a billion users worldwide, the Internet has quickly
become one of the major contenders for ad dollars. Many Web sites are
packed with ad-based banners and pop-up windows to help fund the
sites. Some companies also use e-mail to advertise their products and
services. These e-mail ads are the high-tech version of direct mail, or
advertisements you get in the regular mail. Pop-up ads, which most Web
users consider nuisances, have become so commonplace that many Web
browsers now contain pop-up blockers. Some experts even predict that
companies will soon spend more money on Internet advertising than
they will on print, television and radio ads.
Print Advertising
Pioneering broadcast journalist Eric Sevareid pointed to the strength and
potential of newspapers when he said, “One good word is worth a thousand
pictures.” Newspapers can and do use photography and art as a means of
telling or strengthening a story, but the print medium can’t incorporate
sound or movement as radio and television do. Still, the print medium con-
tinues to be a popular choice for advertisers for a number of reasons.
The most obvious reason is the fact that print is a tactile medium. The
stories, photos, art and advertisements can be touched, cut out and referred
to again and again. The print medium has a virtual monopoly on coupons,
a highly valued advertising strategy to attract potential customers.
Another significant advantage of newspaper advertising over radio
advertising has to do with competition. Most people have a number of
choices when tuning in to the radio or television, because many towns
and cities carry several stations. Fewer than 60 U.S. cities, though, have
competing newspapers. That means that most people in a city or town
who read the newspaper read the same newspaper. Thus, newspaper
advertisements reach more local consumers than do radio or TV ads.
This fact translates into more exposure per advertising dollar.
Like radio ads, newspaper ads take little time to create. This time
savings allows advertisers to offer up-to-date information, something
newspaper readers have come to expect from the paper’s advertisements
as well as its news.
Two common forms of print advertising are the classified and the dis-
play ad. The classified ad is an inexpensive, brief advertisement placed classified ad
by individuals or businesses, classified by subject, and collected in one an inexpensive, brief
place in the newspaper. Examples might include puppies for sale, now advertisement placed by
hiring at the local burger barn, or baseball cards to trade. The display ad, individuals or businesses,
on the other hand, is an advertisement with photos or images as well as classified by subject, and
headlines in large type that appear in various sizes and shapes through- collected in one place in the
out the paper. newspaper
display ad
advertisements with photos
or images as well as head-
lines in large type. These
appear in various sizes and
shapes throughout the paper.
Not only are newspapers a

bargain and a convenience, they
can also save the consumer money
through advertising and coupons.
Your Beat
1. Find print and broadcast commercial examples for 3. Survey 10 people on their favorite and least favorite
the same product. Compare and contrast the way the ads. Categorize them into print, radio and TV ads.
message was delivered in each example. Does there seem to be a favorite medium for these
2. Write and record a radio commercial that sells yourself memorable ads?
as the student every teacher wants to have in class.
Use music and sound effects to give the ad color.
ADVERTISING 383
THE MAKEUP
Most of you know when a new student enrolls in your class. There’s
a new face in the crowd, and like it or not, your first impression of
that face will go far in determining how you will treat that person in
the future. Teenagers, though, don’t need a study to tell them how
important it is to make a good first impression. Advertisers also know
that good makeup or design can help create a positive first impression
of their products.
Parts of an Ad
Most advertisements, like most people, start out with the same
basic parts or elements. Whereas people usually have arms, legs, eyes,
body copy a mouth and hair, ads usually have a headline and body copy (which
the text of an ad, which sup-
supports and expands on what the headline says). They usually include
ports and expands what the
a photograph or illustration and a logo (an easily identifiable “flag”
headline says
that can combine art and copy and that is associated with the prod-
uct—McDonald’s golden arches, for example). In addition, ads often use
a slogan (a short, catchy phrase that helps the audience identify the
logo product—Nike’s “Just Do It,” for example). How these elements are pre-
an easily identifiable “flag” sented helps determine an ad’s success or failure. An advertiser applies
in an advertisement that may good design and layout concepts to these elements in order to make the
combine art and copy and ads memorable.
that is associated with the The parts or elements of an ad vary in importance. Recognizing this
product fact will aid the ad’s designer in emphasizing the right things. Say there’s
a great sale at the local music store. The headline, which will mention
slogan the sale, should be highly ranked and given much space in the ad. If
Chevrolet is introducing its newest model, in contrast, a photograph of
a short, catchy phrase that
the car should receive top billing.
helps an ad’s audience
After deciding which elements are most important, the designer
identify the product
needs to consider the different ways to make an ad visually striking. A
memorable ad, in addition to being simple and readable, often includes
vivid photographs or artwork; wise use of white space; creative borders
around the ad; and a bold, eye-catching headline. Even the ad size can
make a difference in its effectiveness. Clearly, each of these design ele-
ments can pull a reader’s eyes through the ad. How they are put together,
though, is another decision that must be made.
Balancing the Elements

Just as different branches of the federal government have ways of
balancing the powers of other branches, the individual elements of
an advertisement can help balance one another as well. “Heavy” ele-
ments (large, bold type; dark colors; and strong, well-defined shapes)
are softened and balanced by “lighter” elements (smaller type, subtle
shading, and smaller photographs or artwork). Light elements placed

© Sidney Harris. Reprinted by permission of S. Harris.
Out Take
Self-Promotion
Starting in the late ’60s, local
TV newscasts became profitable
and stations began competing
fiercely for audience shares.
In advertising the newscasts,
some stations emphasized
nonjournalistic elements:
on the edge or in the corner of an ad tend to balance heavier elements • KGO in San Francisco ran
that are placed near the center. An ad can also achieve balance by full-page newspaper ads that
using two light elements with a single heavy element or by using a showed its news staff dressed
dark but small element above the center to offset a larger, lighter ele- as cowboys sitting around a
ment placed below the center. poker table. “Feel like you’re
Regardless of how the balance is achieved, it’s important to know getting a bad deal from poker-
that a balanced layout is not a mathematically centered one. More faced TV news reporters?”
crucial than the geometric center is the optical center, which is the ad asked. “Then let the
slightly above and just to the left of the geometric one. This is the Channel 7 Gang deal you
most noticed position in an ad, and it divides the layout into bal- in. They’re not afraid to be
anced segments. friendly.”
This balancing act can create either a formal or informal feel, • KGO’s competition, KRON,
depending on the placement of the elements and the needs and style ran full-page ads showing its
of the advertiser. A formal layout uses space on either side of the opti- newscasters dressed up in
cal center in the same manner. In other words, similarly sized and dogs’ heads. The copy: “The
weighted elements are positioned at equal distances from the optical Bay Area’s pet news team
center. As its name implies, a formal layout works well for a business tracking down the news 24
that wants to portray a conservative, dignified and stable image. hours a day. Watch the News-
Though not particularly interesting to look at, the formal layout is hounds of News-watch 4.”
easy to design.
Source: Reprinted from Steven
Conversely, an informal layout uses different weighted elements to Bates, If No News, Send Rumors
balance each other, one being placed farther from the optical center (New York: Henry Holt and Co.),
than the other. Informal layouts tend to work well for a business with p. 17.
a youthful, creative trendsetting image.
ADVERTISING 385
Whichever style an advertiser chooses, a variety of standard layouts
are available. Five of the most used print advertising layouts are illus-
picture-window format trated in Figure 17.1. In the picture-window format, the illustration
a standard print advertising is the dominant element. This layout gets its name from department
layout in which the illustration store display windows, in which the store presents samples of some of
is the dominant element its best offerings.
A copy-heavy format emphasizes words rather than visuals.
Because the copy is the dominant element, these ads seldom enjoy
copy-heavy format high readership. However, they may be the best choice for the adver-
a standard print advertising tiser with a good deal of detailed information must be given. In a copy-
layout that emphasizes words heavy format, the copy blocks often are broken up with initial caps
rather than visuals (the first letter in a paragraph is made larger and bolder), tool lines
(black lines of varying thickness and length), extra white space, bold
type and subheadings (smaller headlines that expand on the main
tool line headline’s message).
a black line that can vary in The type-specimen format usually has little copy and wants to
thickness and length from use “shout” something to the reader. The main elements in this format—the
to use in a print advertisement elements that give the ads a sense of immediacy and newsworthiness—
are the headline and the subhead.
Another layout that seems to be shouting at the reader is the cir-
type-specimen format cus format. You may have seen this format used by a grocery store.
a standard print advertising Visually it is very busy, filled with headlines, small illustrations and
layout that usually has little copy blocks. The designer must consider weight, balance and eye
copy and wants to “shout” focus, or the ad will push away potential readers. The often unorga-
something to the reader. nized look of the circus format can give an impression of the business
Its main elements are the as being low in quality.
headline and the subhead In the multipanel format, as in the picture-window format, the
illustration is the key. The multipanel format, however, includes at least
two dominant illustrations. It is a good approach for products that don’t
circus format
need much copy.
a standard print advertising
Now you know that ads share basic elements and that it’s beneficial
layout that is visually very
for designers to grade these elements by importance. You also know that
busy and filled with head-
there are formal and informal ad styles and that several standard layout
lines, small illustrations and
formats can be used in each of these styles. You might not know where
copy blocks
to begin, though, when the time comes for you to actually sit down and
design an ad yourself. Fortunately, design software can be a great help in
multipanel format ad design.
a standard print advertising
layout that has at least two Desktop Publishing
dominant illustrations
Most schools have computers with design programs. Today, the most
commonly used programs in high schools are Adobe InDesign and
QuarkXPress. These programs can seem very complex if you're not famil-
iar with them, but most have step-by-step tutorials that can show you
how to use their many functions and features.
Page Design Regardless of which design program your school’s

computers have, most recommend typing text in a document using a
word processing program and then exporting the text to a design page.
This approach is much easier and quicker than using the often clumsy
and slow word processing available in many page design programs.
FIGURE 17.1
THE FIVE MOST USED PRINT ADVERTISING LAYOUTS
Q•R•O•K CIRCUS FORMAT

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an array of small art and
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Type Specimen Format LOOKS FORMAL
HEADLINE
TELLS YOU IMMEDIATELY
BECAUSE IT IS BALANCED.
WHAT ADVERTISEMENT IS FOR WORDS AND PICTURES
Type Specimen CREATE A SENSE OF ORDER.
Formal
********PLEASE UPDATE IMAGE OF CD PLAYER.*********** PADVERTISING 387

Out Take
After typing and saving the copy, open up the design program. Request
a page size compatible with your publication’s page size. Using the pro-
Mixed Messages gram’s ruler or measuring stick to guide you, first draw a box that’s the
correct size of the ad. While the box is still highlighted, you can change its
Sometimes advertisements look and thickness simply by requesting another line choice. Experiment
send messages that are not until you find a box that will work well with your ad.
intended, and the results can Before bringing the text in from the word-processing program, it’s
be devastating. The maga- important to adjust the page’s columns or gutters (the vertical areas on
zine New York listed a few of the page that separate the columns of type and over which most copy
these controversial ads: should not run) until they are just inside the box’s vertical lines. Placing
• A supermarket chain pulled its the columns or gutters inside the box will prevent the copy from bump-
TV ads that used produce to ing into the box, making the copy hard to read. Now place or import
represent people. In the ads, your body copy into the box. After it has been placed, you might need to
they used a cantaloupe to enlarge or shrink the typesize so that the ad fits in the box.
represent a bald man, a cau-
liflower for an aging woman, Type Fonts Experiment with the typeface or font (the actual
and an eggplant for a black design or look of the letters) to change up the style of the ad. Some
man. Several viewers com- fonts, such as Park Avenue BT, Comic Sans MS and Embassy BT resemble
plained that melanzana, the cursive handwriting. Other fonts have a more casual and playful air,
Italian word for eggplant, is a such as Freestyle Script, Comic Sans Serif or Columbo. Some of the most
racial slur against blacks. commonly used design fonts are Helvetica, Arial, Times and Times New
• Both Union Bay and Reebok Roman because they are clean and easy to read. Be sure, however, to use
pulled ads after complaints a font that fits the style of the business being advertised and that serves
that they depicted people who the purpose of the ad itself. In general, try to avoid fonts named after
weren’t using their products cities or places. These are bit-mapped fonts that will appear jagged when
bungee-jumping to their deaths. printed.
• An electronics store was Here is an example of a bitmapped font:
accused of promoting child por-
nography when its ad for video
cameras showed a father film-
ing his son, who accidentally Artwork After you’ve chosen a font that is both stylish and appro-
drops his bath towel. priate, it’s time to add the artwork. Use your computer, or print an incom-
• Superman, it seems, isn’t plete version of your ad with a blank space where you will glue on the
immune to offending the pub- artwork yourself. If your school has a scanner, try scanning the business’s
lic either. When DC Comics logo or artwork, and then place it directly on the computer layout. This is
announced the imminent death less messy than the cut-and-paste technique. Is also gives you more flex-
of the superhero, the company ibility in placement and sizing.
was criticized for saying his Sometimes the business will offer you the option of taking a photo-
killer was an escapee from an graph or using artwork. Whenever possible, choose photographs. Be
insane asylum. sure to include students from the school in them. (You’ll need a press
release from each student. A press release grants you permission to use
the photo for your publication.) Photos with familiar faces almost always
do a better job of grabbing the reader’s attention.
When you’ve completed the ad, save a copy of it on the computer.
Make photocopies for the advertisers and yourself. Before sending the ad
to the advertiser for approval, ask yourself if you’ve included all the neces-
sary copy information, as well as the business’s address, phone number
and hours. Also ask yourself if you’ve included all the basic elements in
the ad; if each element complements the others; and if the layout, font
and artwork choices you’ve made attract the attention of the reader and
reflect the style of the advertiser.
Your Beat
1. Using your school’s newspaper or yearbook and Teen Vogue, New Republic). Do you see any pat-
your local newspaper, find good examples of each terns in which design styles and formats are used?
of the design formats discussed in this unit. 3. Find an advertisement that uses one design for-
2. Go to the library and search through magazines that mat. Sketch a new ad for the product, emphasizing
clearly are aimed at different audiences (for example, another design format.
THE MANAGEMENT
In a way, a school publication is like a professional baseball team—the
management always seems to be changing. Every year, new faces fill each
position. Unlike the baseball team, though, no one is making millions of
dollars managing your school’s newspaper, magazine or yearbook. Your
staff, however, should act as if the decisions it makes are indeed million-
dollar decisions. After all, unlike decisions made in most other classes,
the decisions of a publications staff have an immediate effect upon the
entire school. That’s why it’s worth your time to organize and manage
your staff well.
The Advertising Staff

In producing a school newspaper, it’s easy to forget about advertising.
But that is a costly mistake. A professional newspaper, for example, hands
over approximately 60 percent or more of its space to advertising every
issue in order to make a profit and keep subscription rates low.
Why, then, do so many high school staffs complain when they have
to make room for another Fred’s Burger Barn ad? The answer is simple.
More often than not, someone has forgotten to tell them about the
crucial role of advertising. Perhaps your school’s publication doesn’t
have an advertising manager or editor. Because the presence of an
advertising editor’s position suggests importance, the absence of such
a position may send the staff the subtle message that advertising is not
important.
Furthermore, many newspaper staff members resent being forced to
sell ads. Writers who see themselves as the next great journalist or col- BABYLONIA (now in Iraq),
umnist may object to the added burden of raising money to pay for the 3000 B.C.—Clay, stone and
wooden tablets were used by
publication. They may argue that they didn’t join the staff to sell ads.
the residents of Babylonia to
Fortunately, though, better organization can combat both apathy and
advertise their businesses.
resentment toward advertisements. The ads were crude insignia,
The quickest and most certain remedy for these negative attitudes is to or pictures, representing the
give the advertising people a prominent and powerful place on the newspa- merchants’ wares. For example,
per staff. The staff should seek an excellent candidate for advertising editor a boot represented a shoemak-
with the same vigor it seeks an editor-in-chief. Ask your business teacher or er’s shop, and a bush indicated
DECA (Distributive Education Clubs of America) sponsor for the names of a winery.
students who are competent at designing and selling advertising.
ADVERTISING 389
Give the advertising editor or manager a voice on your editorial board.
Let him or her help determine advertising rates, sales goals, design deci-
sions and staffing positions. Give the person a prominent place on the
staff and the support needed to ensure that the publication succeeds
financially.
Ideally, this person should have an advertising staff that will assist in
contacting businesses and in designing and selling advertisements. If
the small size of the staff makes it impossible to assign students to sell ads
exclusively, don’t eliminate the advertising editor’s position. Instead,
have this person carry out his or her goals by communicating them
clearly and often to the staff as a whole.
You might also consider bringing in a professional sales representative
to discuss with the entire staff the importance of selling advertisements,
as well as some techniques that will help increase revenue. Another idea
is to spend a day during the summer with the editorial boards of other
schools. Find out how they manage their staffs, sell ads and raise money.
Most staffs go away from such experiences with enlightenment, encour-
agement and enthusiasm.
Financial Considerations
After educating your staff on the importance of advertising, it’s time
to determine just what ads mean to your publication. How much does
your publication rely on advertising? Some simple math will help you
decide.
When you meet as an editorial board in the summer, take time to
decide how often your newspaper or magazine will come out, how many
pages will make up your paper or yearbook, and what special effects
(color photographs, spot color and so on) you would like included.
Review the expenses for last year’s publication, and do a cost analysis.
cost analysis A cost analysis is an itemized overview of all expenses—production
an itemized overview of all and printing costs, photography supplies and processing, staff activi-
expenses ties and workshops, service charges, supplies, and mailing and shipping
costs—everything.
FUNKY WINKERBEAN reprinted by permission of King Features Syndicate.

Set priorities. Ask yourselves which expenses could be eliminated or
reduced, which are necessary, which are the results of new technology,
or which stem from the use of color or special effects. Also determine NEW YORK, Aug. 16, 1922—
how many of these expenses are one-time charges (for the purchase of Station WEAF went on the air
new equipment, for example). Setting priorities will make it possible for on August 16, 1922, as the first
you to take control of your finances. truly commercial radio station.
If more than one printer could publish your newspaper or yearbook, AT&T built WEAF with the
have the editorial board put together a proposal (including the decisions finest technical equipment
the board made in the summer about the frequency and quality of the available, but the company
publication) and submit it to the printers to bidding. Bidding will help announced that it would not
you pick the most reasonably priced printer to use. sponsor any programming.
The first paid commercial
After you choose which printer will print your publication, you must
announcement, a 10-minute
decide how you will pay for it. Many publications receive some financial speech for a real estate business,
support, though the amount varies from a couple of hundred dollars to ran one week later. It cost the
thousands a year. Consider meeting with your principal or school board sponsor $100 and was repeated
when budgets are being debated. Remind the people in authority of the for five days. The advertiser
numerous services your publication carries out for the school and the reported extremely successful
district. Make them aware of the costs needed not only to maintain but results.
also to upgrade your services. Called commercials after an
Even if your publication receives additional support from the school, AT&T accounting term, the
you probably will still need to sell ads. To project how many ads you paid advertisements earned
must sell to break even or make a profit, figure out the expected costs of WEAF and its licensed out-
of-town stations $150,000 in
your publication this year. Subtract from that amount any funding you
profit in 1923. In six months
receive. The remaining amount is the amount of money your staff must WEAF had about two dozen
raise. Divide this amount by the number of total pages you anticipate for paying advertisers.
the year to get a per-page cost of running your publication. Not everyone agreed with
Call nearby schools to find out how much they charge for advertising AT&T’s approach. Commerce
(if you don’t already know). Comparing your cost per page with your Department Secretary Herbert
competitors’ rates will help you decide how much to charge for ads and Hoover said, “It is inconceiv-
how many ads you’ll need to sell. After discussing what your publication able that we should allow so
must have and what it can live without, and after studying your competi- great a possibility for service
tors’ rates along with your own publication’s financial situation, set ad to be drowned in advertising
rates that will be competitive and fiscally responsible. clutter.”
Advertising on the radio
grew rapidly, however. By 1928
Advertising Sales it was the main source of rev-
enue for broadcasting.
Selling advertising space in a high school publication is useful for
two reasons. First, it introduces students to an area of journalism they
might not otherwise experience. Second, most publications need the
additional funds to continue to exist. Three-fourths of all high school
publications rely on advertising for survival. No matter how desperate a
publication’s financial situation is, though, a staff should never have to
resort to begging in order to sell their product. That’s because the dollars
are already there for you to offer to savvy businesses. Remember, teenage
consumers spend billions of dollars each year.
Your advertising staff should approach local businesses with the con-
fidence that comes from having an excellent product to offer. After all,
the potential customers are out there, they have money to spend, and
you have a direct line to them. In fact, you have a more direct line than
even the local newspaper does, and it charges much more for advertis-
ing. Still, confidence will never compensate for clumsy preparation.
ADVERTISING 391
Emily Voth, Director of Client Services
T
" he most fun is being journalism and specialized in She also had a small role
weird with your co- corporate television. Her first in a film with Paul Newman
workers,” says Emily job after college was as a pro- and Joanne Woodward.
Voth, former director of client duction coordinator for Sprint. Voth’s advice to other begin-
services at Metro Productions in Voth’s degree in video helped ning journalists: “Be hungry. If
Kansas City. At the Metro office, her get “instant credibility” you get a position as an intern,
for example, the soundtrack with the corporation. Voth then knock yourself out. Always ask
to the film Natural Born Killers went on to produce the video for more to do.” Of course, that
was often played over the inter- Hello, Hello, which won for work ethic has already paid off
com. Metro Productions works her Sprint and Omni Award. for Voth, who has founded her
with film, video and special At Metro she found satisfac- own company, Indigo Wild. Her
effects. Voth explained, though, tion in watching the storyboards goal for her own career is to
that the business of advertis- of clients turn into finished ads. avoid the fate that awaits many
ing is not as “goofy” as most The challenge is to keep up creative people in the world of
people believe. Adver tising is with the technological changes advertising. In other words, Voth
just as competitive as the cor- that are continually chang- said, “I don’t want to be bitter.”
porate world, and, said Voth, ing the industry. Occasionally,
“creativity often suffers from she performed before the
the pressure to compete.” camera. Voth appeared in
A graduate of the University a regional Toyota ad and a
of Kansas, Voth majored in spot for Topsy’s Popcorn.
One study showed that 80 percent of all sales made by professional

sales representatives came after the fifth visit or contact with the poten-
tial customer. It is wise, then, for a high school advertising staff to be
prepared for any and all visits.
Information on Local Businesses At the begin-

ning of the year, the staff should discuss the types of businesses or ser-
vices that students use and the names of local businesses that offer these
goods or services. These are the businesses that are most likely to place
ads in your publication. Keep a file of these businesses, complete with
mailing addresses, phone numbers and contact persons. Periodically
update this information. Categorizing these businesses by the products
or services they offer makes it easier to use your file. As prom or home-
coming approaches, for example, you can then turn to your “flowers” or
“tuxedos” section to create a list of businesses to contact for possible ad
placement.
The Student Survey Another worthwhile activity early in

the school year is a survey of student spending habits. If you can, dis-
tribute it to all the students in your school. In the survey, ask students
to list their gender, age, grade and any allowance they receive. Ask them
if they work, where they work, how many hours a week they work and

how much they earn from their jobs. Also include questions about their
spending habits—on food, clothing, music, movies and entertainment,
for example. Finally, include questions that focus on how and where
they spend their time. Make sure the questions are clear, open-ended
and nonleading (that is, they don’t lead the respondent to a particular
answer). You can compile the data and create a powerful tool to sell
advertising—a detailed account of how students at your school spend
their money and time.
The Sales Kit Once you’ve collected data about the types
and names of local businesses and the spending habits of your student
population, you should put together a sales kit. A sales kit is a package
of information the members of the ad staff take with them when visit-
ing local businesses. It may include an advertising rate sheet (how much
you charge for advertising), a contract (see Figure 17.2), examples of your
publication, the student spending survey, the school’s size and mailing
address, circulation information, and the names of your advertising staff
members. The sales kit not only provides a business with a good deal of
information but also sends the message that you take your publication
and its advertisers seriously. It leaves a positive impression long after
you’ve gone out the door.
FIGURE 17.2
ADVERTISING CONTRACT AN ADVERTISING CONTRACT
BETWEEN THE ANYTOWN HIGH SCHOOL HAPPENINGS
and _______________________________________
All advertising will be billed at the rate of $ _________ per column

inch per issue. The Happenings publishes ______ times per year.
Advertisements may be placed in single or multiple issues. Please
indicate below the number of issues in which your ad will appear.
Run this ad _____ times. BOSTON, 1704—The Boston
Run this ad in the following specific issues: _____________________
E N
Newsletter was the first Amer-
________________________________________________________
M ican newspaper to carry
E C I
_____________________________________ advertising.
S
Copy for this ad is P The first Newsletter ad
offered a reward for the capture
___ Attached ___ Should be prepared by The Happenings staff
of a thief and the return of the
for approval.
stolen goods.
All advertising will be reviewed by the Publications Board before inser- The early ads were similar to
tion. No known misleading photos or statements will be accepted. All today’s classified ads.
students appearing in ads must have a model release on file with the Newspaper advertising soon
Board. became so popular that some
papers gave the entire front
The newspaper reserves the right to refuse any advertising not found page to it. On Oct. 30, 1760,
to be within the publication’s standards. the New York Gazette ran 15
_______________________ ______________________ ads in three columns to fill the
Advertiser School Representative front page.
ADVERTISING 393
If you are going to sell advertising
for either your school newspaper
or yearbook, carefully consider
your appearance before contacting
potential advertisers. You should
dress appropriately for the customer
on whom you are calling.
The Advertising Policy One final and extremely impor-

tant activity must be completed before the members of the ad staff go
on their way. Your publication needs a written advertising policy. Check
with your school district to see if it has an existing policy for student pub-
lications. If so, read it over as a staff to be sure that everyone understands
it. You might also consider adding to the policy if it seems incomplete.
An advertising policy is designed to guide your advertising staff’s
decisions. Certain businesses offer products whose use is illegal for the
majority of your student population—alcohol and tobacco, for example.
Clearly, the staff should not sell ads at these businesses. Will you, how-
ever, allow ads to run that include photographs of people smoking? Your
advertising policy should cover such issues.
You must consider community standards as well. What is the prevail-
ing attitude of your community on such issues as teenage pregnancy,
gangs, drug and alcohol abuse and contraception? Several businesses
promote messages and materials aimed at teenagers on these subjects. A
carefully written advertising policy will guide you in deciding if ads from
these businesses have a place in your publication.

Dealing with Advertisers By now you should feel confi-
dent that you know your readers’ wants, needs and legal limitations. The
next step is to take the time to know as much as possible about potential
advertisers. If you can successfully anticipate their needs, you’ll be better
equipped to address those needs when you make your first contact with
the businesses. For initial contacts, a phone call or form letter works best.
After all, the purpose of the initial contact is not to sell an ad. It is to intro-
duce yourself and your product (the publication), and to set up a time to
meet with a representative in person.
Initial contact is vital in ad sales, but what you do after that determines
whether you will succeed or fail. Follow-through is very important. Make
sure that your second contact takes place in person and at the time you
promised it would. Armed with an appointment, your sales kit and a
friendly smile, you’ll make it difficult for a business to dismiss you. It’s
always more difficult to say no to a face than to a voice on the phone.
During the meeting, offer to create a mock-up ad or spec ad for mock-up ad; spec ad
the business. This example of your advertising work uses information a dummy advertisement that
and artwork that is geared to the specific business. It is a “practice” ad uses information and artwork
intended to convince the business to run an actual ad in your publica- geared to a specific business
tion. A well-done spec ad is an impressive sales tool. made for the purpose of con-
When a business decides to run an ad in your publication, arrange vincing the business to run an
a meeting with a company representative. During the meeting, you actual ad in a publication
should complete a contract and have it signed. At this time you also can
gather specific information, artwork and a logo. Let business representa-
tives know your publication’s deadlines, restrictions and charges before
they sign the contract.
If the business prefers to have your staff design the ad, set the date at
which you will show the ad for final approval. Be sure to get a signature that
grants permission for the ad to run as designed. This permission signature
may become useful if problems or questions arise after publication.
Finally, be prompt and accurate in billing your advertisers. Most
advertisers prefer a tearsheet, or copy of the page on which the ad tearsheet
appeared. The tearsheet lets the business see the ad and proves that it a copy of the page on which
ran as scheduled. Include the tearsheet with the billing statement. Keep an advertisement appeared
accurate billing and payment records throughout the year. Rebill busi-
nesses with overdue payments on a monthly basis. Your goal is to collect
all payments by the last day of the school year.
Your Beat
1. Construct a survey that could be used to evaluate 3. Put together a sales kit for your school’s publication.
the spending habits of students in your school.
2. Contact three other schools in your area. Interview
their publication editors about how they sell ads and
manager their staffs.
ADVERTISING 395
Chapter Review
Show that you know the meanings of the following key terms by correctly using them in complete sen-
tences. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
advertising logo tool line cost analysis
appeal slogan type-specimen mock-up ad;
account picture-window format spec ad
executive format circus format tearsheet
copywriter copy-heavy multipanel
body copy format format
Open Forum
1. Discuss the following scenario, which actually occurred at East High
School in Lincoln, Nebraska. A local bookstore contacts your publi-
cation about buying an advertisement. The bookstore carries books
about the occult and gay and lesbian lifestyles. The advertisement
features the words wiccan (a religion whose followers, witches and
warlocks, praise the earth) and gay and lesbian. A parent offers to
write a check to the publication for the amount the ad would have
cost. The parent has threatened to organize an advertising boycott
of your publication if the staff refuses the parent’s check runs the ad
anyway. What should you do?
2. An ad in the 1980s showed eggs frying in a pan as the announcer
warned, “This is your brain on drugs.” A study of elementary school-
children showed an unexpected effect of this campaign: many chil-
dren were afraid of eggs. Although this example is relatively harm-
less, do you believe that the media has a responsibility to consider
the possible effects of all ads? If so, how would you balance that
responsibility with an advertiser’s freedom of speech?
Finding the Flaw

For years, columnist William Safire presented the Bloopie Awards. These
awards “dishonored” advertising copywriters for playing fast and loose
with the English language. Study some of the award winners listed here.
Try to find the flaws.
“Tomorrow night, someone could win Twentieth Century Mutual Funds)
six million of dollars.” (From an ad for the “How to make a room smell like the
New York State lotto) windows are always open.” (From an
“When today’s 30 year-olds retire, ad for Windex)
there will be less than two workers “Ever wish there was a team of you . . . ?”
per beneficiary.” (From an ad for (From an ad for Whirlpool)
Journalism Online go to glencoe.com and enter QuickPass code JM7824c17.
Media Watch
1. According to a 2005 study at a Texas university, one out of four
young women in the United States had an eating disorder. A sur-
vey of one group of fourth-grade girls revealed that 80 percent
of them had already been on a diet. Find examples of ads that
encourage young women to “think thin.” In light of the fact that the
diet industry spends a fortune each year on advertising, what do
you think high school journalists should do, if anything?
2. The editors of Time annually choose what they consider to be the
year’s best ads. Here is a description of one of their favorites. The
boy-chases-girl theme has a bearded twentysomething arrive in
his car as a ferryboat is about to depart. His license plate reads
OHIO. As he breathlessly runs up to a beautiful young woman
in Lee jeans, he hands her a necklace. “Excuse me,” he says,
“you dropped this back there.” She smiles and asks, “Where?” He
responds, “Nebraska.”
Have each member of your class nominate one ad that war-
rants the honor of being named best ad for the current year.
Portfolio
1. Choose an everyday object or product (for example, a pen, tooth-
pick, piece of paper or air). Write two print advertisements for it.
Each ad should be aimed at a different audience (one for teens
and one for older women, for example). Make sure you include
each product’s features and benefits, and choose an appropriate
advertising appeal for each.
2. Interview or shadow a person who works in advertising. Find out
how the person selected this career, how he or she prepared for
it and what the career requires. Prepare a one- or two-page paper
on your findings, and present it to the class. Also, send a copy of it
to the person you interviewed.
3. As a class, come up with a list of local businesses that currently do
not advertise in your publication but should. Each student should
choose one of the businesses and create two mock-up or spec ads
for the business. Be sure to pick appropriate design styles and for-
mats, as well as good type fonts.
ADVERTISING 397
SECTION 6
Mixed
Media
Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21
Yearbooks and Broadcast New Media in Public
Magazines News Journalism Relations
399 435 461 479
Chapter 18
Yearbooks and
Magazines
High school is closer to the core of the

American experience than anything else I
can think of.
—Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., American novelist
399
In this chapter, you will learn After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
the meaning of these terms: • create a yearbook theme and a magazine concept,
title page • adapt journalistic writing and design skills to yearbook and
folio magazine publishing,
table of contents • plan, design and produce a yearbook or magazine.
opening section
double-page spread
closing section
colophon
people pages
mug pages
E
ven the traditional yearbook has not escaped the technological
panel pages
revolution in high school publications. Schools are experimenting
theme
with alternative formats for the traditional yearbook. These new
logo formats include monthly magazines, video yearbooks and electronic
end sheets yearbooks. Desktop publishing and improved printing techniques have
division pages changed the look of the traditional yearbook, too. The stiff, formal record
ladder book has evolved into a contemporary book with more candid pictures
signature and more color, graphic accents and infographics.
mini-mag And the changes are just beginning. Undoubtedly someone will pro-
tip-in duce this year’s book on DVD so “readers” can pop it into their laptops
magazine and watch the highlights of the school year flash across the monitor
literary magazine screen. Instead of signatures, there will be e-mail messages from class-
creative arts magazine mates. Through digitizing, you will even be able to “age” the mug shots so
you’ll recognize your classmates when you come back in 25 years for your
general interest
class reunion!
magazine
Similarly, many schools are experimenting with magazines, either as
special interest an alternative to traditional publications or, in some cases, as a substi-
magazine tute. Literary arts magazines that showcase student poetry, fiction and
zine artwork have long been popular. Now it’s also easy to find a wide range of
mosaic concept other kinds of magazines that cover music, the cinema and many other
of design special interests.
column The design and layout techniques, the photography skills and the writ-
elements of a spread ing styles for newspapers that you have learned in this book apply to year-
external margin book and magazine production as well. In this chapter you’ll learn how
bleed to design and produce yearbooks and magazines by applying skills you
eyeline already have to different kinds of publications with a variety of intended
readers and purposes.
WHY A YEARBOOK?
No matter what format you choose, a yearbook is just what its name
implies: a story about a year. One year. This year. It is also a historical
record—probably the only permanent record of this year at your school.
400 MIXED MEDIA

The story you capture in words and pictures will become the way in
which people visualize your school now and the way in which they will
remember it years from now.
A yearbook is all of the following:
• a memory book
• a history book
• a reference book
• a public relations publication
• an educational experience
• an inclusive publication.
A Memory Book
Aggieland, the Texas A&M University yearbook, is one of the most
substantial yearbooks in the country. One edition contained 864 pages,
was two and one-half inches thick, and weighed 12 pounds. Most are not
that large, but all are valuable mementos to their owners.
No matter how many pages or pounds your yearbook is, it contains the
pictures and words that affect the way students will remember this year.
The pictures capture the culture of the year through the clothes and hair-
styles people wear, the cars they drive and the events they plan. The copy
tells the stories of the people and the things they thought were important.
Did students dance to hip-hop or country music? Did they wear flame red
or camouflage? Did they snack on M&M’s™ or animal crackers? Was it a
cheese-in-the-crust pizza or a super soft-shell taco year?
The yearbook should cover the whole year, not just the school year.
After all, it’s a book about the lives of the people, and summer is one-
fourth of their lives. Graduates will look back at the yearbook to recall
which summer they went to music camp, when they built the float for
the Fourth of July parade or when the recreation park opened in town.
BORN LOSER reprinted by permission of United Feature Syndicate.
YEARBOOKS AND MAGAZINES 401

A History Book
PHILADELPHIA, January 1741
Did you know that Donald Trump was voted the Popularity Poll’s
—Printers Benjamin Franklin Class of 1964 Ladies’ Man at his high school?
and Andrew Bradford raced to put That Steve Carell was editor-in-chief of his high school newspaper?
the first American magazine into That Jessica Simpson was homecoming queen?
print. That Ted Koppel’s nickname was “Dumbo”?
Franklin’s publication, General It’s all there—in their high school yearbooks. Thanks to their year-
Magazine and Historical Chronicle book staffs.
for all the British Plantations in Your yearbook will be the only history ever written of this year at this
America, carried a cover date of school with these people. Coaches keep statistics, but their records are
January 1741. However, the 70-
eventually discarded. The office keeps a file on each student, but those
page magazine wasn’t actually
are private records. Even the school newspaper may be lost if copies are
offered for sale until February 16.
Bradford was Franklin’s chief
not bound and saved. But students save their yearbooks.
competitor in the printing busi- As the historical record of the school, the yearbook must be factual,
ness. He also dated his magazine, accurate and complete. The name of every person who is enrolled or
American Magazine, or A Monthly works in the school should be recorded—and spelled correctly. Scores,
View of the Political State of the dates of events, and special occasions such as anniversaries or charter
British Colonies, January 1741. It meetings of organizations must be recorded for future reference. Because
appeared in print February 13. the yearbook is a record book, complete season records for each team are
Franklin produced six issues. a necessity, as are the names of all members of organizations, classes and
Bradford produced three. the faculty, whether they are pictured or not.
A few more magazines were
Important events in the national and local news should be included
published between the 1740s and
as part of the history of the year, along with things such as the most
the 1850s. However, production
and circulation were limited due
popular movies and books. Features on issues that concern students are
to the lack of easy publication and increasingly finding their way into the student life sections of yearbooks.
distribution methods. These features might cover subjects such as peer acceptance, dating,
Following the Civil War, a money, getting into college, teenage pregnancy, drinking, gangs, single-
national transportation system parent families and suicide.
was completed that made large- A history is not complete if it omits the news people don’t like to hear.
scale distribution accessible. Faster If the death of a classmate or faculty member occurs during the year, it
presses made mass printing possi- should be noted in the yearbook. “In Memoriams” include dates, a brief
ble. Free public education enabled biography of the person and quotes from friends. They usually feature a
everyone to read. Advertising
recent photo of the person.
became popular and began to
Some topics may be controversial in your school or community and
help pay the costs of production.
National magazines did more
should be discussed by the staff before publication. Stating the cause of
than any previous publications to death in an obituary also should be discussed. Some fear, for instance,
educate readers about social and that a story on suicide or listing suicide as a cause of death will have a
cultural issues. They also success- psychological impact on the family or the students. Others feel that it is
fully sold products ranging from better to be open and factual about the issue of suicide. Each staff must
cough syrup to farm equipment. determine a policy based on the preferences of its school, the commu-
Among the national maga- nity and individual circumstances. The best solution is to have a policy
zines that began publication before the need arises.
before 1900 are some still in pub-
lication today, such as National
Geographic, Ladies’ Home Journal,
Popular Science and the Saturday
A Reference Book
Evening Post.
People will turn to a yearbook to find information on an individual,
an organization or an advertiser. Like other books to which people refer
for information, your yearbook should be organized and have reference
points.
402 MIXED MEDIA

Page 1, the title page, should contain the complete name and title page
address of the school. It also should include the name of the book and page 1 in a yearbook, which
the year it was published. The photo or illustration on the title page contains the school’s name and
should be related to the theme of the book. address, the book’s name and
Each page should have a folio, or page number. The folio in a year- the publication year, and identi-
book often contains a bit of art that reinforces the theme, as well as fies or reinforces the theme
words that describe the contents of the page—for example, Opening,
Academics Division, Track or Freshmen.
The table of contents should be at the front of the book, either on folio
the front endsheet or following the title page. It should list each division, in a yearbook, the folio is
including the ads and the index sections, with a beginning page number. usually located at the bottom
The opening section should be the first two to four double-page outside corner of each page
spreads, depending upon the length of the book. A double-page spread and may include words
is any two facing pages. The opening copy should introduce the theme describing the content of the
of the yearbook and explain why it was chosen for this year. The layout page and/or graphic elements
for the closing section—the last double-page spread or two in the that reinforce the theme, in
book—should be the same as that on the opening pages. The copy in addition to a page number
the closing section should give examples of ways in which the theme
applied to specific events throughout the year.
table of contents
The index is a key reference tool that should be a part of every year-
book, no matter how large or small. The index should be placed imme- in a yearbook, a chart that
diately before the closing double-page spreads. It should contain the lists each division with its
names of every person, organization, major activity and advertiser in the beginning page number
book, along with the page numbers on which they appear.
The colophon (pronounced “call-uh-fon”) is a technical description
opening section
of the book as a product. Colophons are references used by publication
staffs and publishers to find out technical information about a book. If in a yearbook, the first
your staff likes the typeface used in another book, for instance, you can two to four double-page
check the book’s colophon to find the name of that type and the point spreads that introduce
sizes used. Information in the colophon should include the name and the yearbook’s theme and
address of the printer; the number of copies printed; the special pro- explain why it was chosen
cesses used to create the cover; the finish, weight and color of the paper;
the typefaces and sizes used for headlines, body copy and captions; the
double-page spread
graphic techniques used, such as spot color, screens, size of initial letters
and tool lines; the computer system used; and the total cost, photogra- any two facing pages in a
phy budget and selling price. For easy reference, the colophon is placed publication
at the end of the index or on the back endsheet.
Acknowledgments should be given to everyone who assisted with the
closing section
book. These people include students who provided information or photos,
professional photographers, artists, secretaries, parents, administrators and in a yearbook, the last
yearbook representatives. Acknowledgments may appear with the colo- double-page spread or two;
phon, but they should not be part of the closing double-page spreads. reflects the opening and
wraps up the theme
A Public Relations Publication colophon

Even though the yearbook is produced primarily for students, it has a a technical description of a
larger audience. Parents, grandparents, friends from other schools and book as a product
local businesses see or ask to purchase yearbooks. They are curious to see
how the students view themselves and show their school to others.

Doctors, dentists, photographers and businesses like to purchase
local yearbooks for their waiting rooms. Chambers of commerce and
businesses such as real estate agencies like to have yearbooks to show
people who are moving to the area and are looking for schools for their
children. Police departments purchase yearbooks for identification
purposes.
The image others see in the yearbook is the image they have of the
school and of each student. The members of the staff determine the
image the yearbook will have by the theme, colors, photos and words
they choose to use and the care with which they edit the book.
Misspelled words, weak leads, poor-quality photos and inconsistent
design give the impression that the staff doesn’t care very much about
the yearbook or how it makes them and their school look to others.
An Educational Experience
Schools provide an adviser and funds for yearbooks because they
understand the importance of the historical record to the students and
to the school. Schools also help fund these books because the students
on a yearbook staff learn writing and production skills.
Producing a yearbook, like working on the school newspaper, gives
students hands-on experience practicing skills learned in English class,
people pages the computer lab and the darkroom. It also gives them credentials that
pages on which the persons might help when they apply to colleges or look for jobs.
who are members of the Publishing is a major industry that offers career opportunities for cre-
school community are ative artists, salespersons, editors, designers, writers and photographers.
featured through individual Working on a yearbook gives students a chance to experience book pub-
head-and-shoulders pho- lishing from the concept to the finished product. It lets students become
tographs and identified the planners, producers, journalists, researchers, sales staff, marketers
by name and class or job and distributors.
description; as a section,
people pages may include
candid photographs and fea- Everybody’s Book
ture stories about individuals
No matter what else it may be, the yearbook is everybody’s book. It
should reflect the school and each individual in the school, not just the
mug pages staff or a few key people. It takes a concentrated effort to make sure the
the people pages that contain coverage includes every person. When planning the book, devise ways to
rows of individual head-and- be sure everyone is included at least once in addition to the individual
shoulders photographs, also photographs on the people pages. People pages are those on which
known as mug shots the people associated with the school are recognized through photos
and identified by name. They are also called mug pages or panel
pages when they contain rows of head-and-shoulders photographs of
panel pages individuals identified by name and class or job description such as fresh-
another name for mug pages, men, seniors, faculty and staff. People pages are more interesting if they
so-called because the rows of contain some feature stories about individuals or a few candid photo-
photographs resemble panels graphs in addition to the individual portraits.
constructed by placing many One staff made a master list of students’ names and put a check
small, even-sized pieces side beside the name each time a person was pictured. Its rule was that
by side everyone would be pictured at least twice and no more than five times.
404 MIXED MEDIA

An electronic database makes it easy to keep track of which individuals
have been pictured or quoted, what percentage of those individuals
represents each grade level and how many pages represent student life,
academics and so on. Quoting as many different individuals as possible
in the copy and indexing the speakers’ names also help ensure that
everyone is represented in the book.
Your Beat
1. Analyze several of your school’s yearbooks. List the audience, or the groups and factions that form the audi-
specific ways in which each book fulfills the roles of ence within the school. Second, analyze the external
a yearbook (a memory book, a history book, a refer- audience, or the groups and factions outside the school
ence book, a public relations publication, an educa- that may see the yearbook. Save these lists to use
tional experience and an inclusive publication). when you begin planning a yearbook.
2. As a class, brainstorm to come up with a list of the
audiences for your yearbook. First, analyze the internal
PLANNING THE YEARBOOK

With careful thought and planning, a yearbook staff can create a prod-
uct that appeals to each segment of the audience and includes everyone
in the school. Cover design and theme choice are ways to include every-
one in the yearbook, too.
Cover
• “PINK? Why Pink?”
• “WOW!”
• “What does it mean?”
• “Hey! That’s me!”
• “I don’t get it.”
• “This is cool!”
Students love, hate or ignore the yearbook at first sight as these reactions
show. The cover makes the all-important first impression people have of
the yearbook. Whether you choose a leather-look material, a shiny foil-
stamped design or a colored photograph for your cover, you want people
to respond positively to the book.
One of the services your yearbook representative provides is show-
ing the staff all the materials available for covers and special effects.
The staff’s imagination—or the budget—is the limit. Good planning
includes good budgeting, so always ask for cost estimates. Know the
budget for extras before ordering anything that is not specified in your
contract with the yearbook publisher. We’ll discuss more about working
with your yearbook representative at the end of this section.
The design of the front cover should include the theme, the logo and
the year of the book. For easy reference, the copy on the bound edge, or
spine, of the yearbook should include the name of the school, the city,
the traditional name of the yearbook (for example, The Bronco or The
Purple and Gold), the year and the volume number.
Theme, Logo and Color

theme The theme of a yearbook is a word or phrase that pulls all parts of the
in a yearbook, a word or book together in a relationship that reflects something special about this
phrase that pulls all parts year at this school. The theme says something unique about the staff, the
together in a relationship that school and this one year. A yearbook’s theme helps tell its story. Readers
reflects something special will notice the theme before they open the book. It will set the tone for
about this year at this school their impression of what is inside. The theme influences the design and
the colors the staff chooses for the cover.
logo The logo is the graphic that portrays the theme visually. The logo
the graphic or visual element shows the theme through design or typography, sort of like a brand
that represents the theme name identifies a wearer’s choice of jeans or the stylized check mark
identifies Nike products.
Themes are trendy. Like fashion, they change quickly. Sometimes
a cliché can be adapted, or a current ad campaign, television show,
popular song or movie triggers an idea. Sometimes a special event, such
as an anniversary or a new addition to the school, can become theme
material.
One school chose “Messin’ with the Best” as its theme to talk about all
the inconveniences caused by a major construction project at the school.
Another school used “New and Improved” to show how an addition to the
school added new classes and faculty, as well as bricks and boards, to the
building. One staff used “XXX Rated” as its theme; the book’s divisions
were “eXtraordinary,” “eXtra special,” and “eXceptional.”
Sometimes a cliché like “Just When You Least Expect It” will work
for a year when the unexpected happens. It’s also exciting to make
a cliché unique by adding a twist such as “In One Year and Out the
Other.” Anniversaries beg for special themes: “Etched in Gold,” “A Not
So Traditional Year” or “This is What 40 Looks Like.” The media, adver-
tisements and package labels are good places to look for theme ideas.
“Contents Under Pressure,” “One Size Fits All,” “After These Messages,”
“Behind the Scenes” and “Seasoned to Perfection” have been used as
unique yearbook themes.
Choose the theme as early in the year as possible. The organization
of the book may depend on the theme. A theme focusing on the indi-
viduals in the school might call for placing the mug section at the front
of the book with the student life section. A seasonal theme might orga-
nize events in time periods. A theme that emphasizes academics would
endsheets encourage greater focus on that section.
heavier paper pages immedi- The theme should be the central focus of the cover where it is identi-
ately inside the front and back fied through words, graphics, photos or illustrations, and color. Inside
covers of a book; endsheets the book, the theme is established by a photo and caption on the title
bind the cover and the pages page. Theme reinforcement is carried throughout the book in words,
of the book together graphics and colors. It may appear on the endsheets, the heavy paper
406 MIXED MEDIA

Marvin Jarrett, Publisher, Nylon
O
nce upon a time, Marvin After graduation from Wolfson Jarrett explained. “It’s almost
Jarrett wanted to be a High School in Jacksonville, like being a film producer.”
rock star. That dream Florida, he began selling ste- Perhaps the most remarkable
didn’t work out, but Jarrett reos through the Hi Fi Buys ingredient in Raygun’s success
achieved the next best thing: chain. After just a year on was its ability to appeal to peo-
he published magazines about the job, he had become the ple in their teens and twenties.
rock stars. Jarrett originated retailer’s number one sales- “You have to remember,” he
and published three now- person. After a stint selling says, “that this generation gets
defunct magazines. Raygun airtime for a Hawaiian radio its information from so many
was a free-form magazine station, Jarrett landed an ad different media—TV, radio,
that called itself “the bible of sales job with the magazine online, CDs—so the maga-
music and style.” Bikini was a Creem. “I went to work for a guy zines need to be as visually
bimonthy about cars, celebri- in his 60s who knew nothing exciting as any of those other
ties and nonteam sports. huH about music or advertising,” he things.” Jarrett said he remains
featured music videos. Nylon, remembered. “I realized that I as dedicated as ever to what
his latest magazine, features should be running the thing.” he’s doing. “If it came down to
fashion and pop culture. Jarrett’s freewheeling manage- it, I would sooner get out the
“There are a few perks” to ment style eventually cost him his magazine than pay my rent.”
owning a magazine, admits job as editor of Creem, but within Source: Adapted from “It’s Only Rock
Jarrett. “I get free CDs and a few months he began Raygun, & Roll” by Michael Kaplan.
whatever concert tickets a magazine with a radical new
I want, and I get to hang look. “My strong suit is coming
out with David Bowie.” up with a title, a concept, an
Jarrett’s publishing career aesthetic for the magazine, and
began in an unlikely way. putting together a good team,”
pages immediately inside the front and back covers that hold the cover
and the pages of the book together. The endsheets may reinforce theme
through color, graphics and content, possibly including the table of
contents, printed on them. Theme reinforcement should appear in the
table of contents in the subheads that describe each section by using
variations on the main theme.
Opening and closing sections identify and explain the theme through
copy, photos, graphics and layout design. The theme should be strongly
represented on the division pages, the single page or double-page division pages
spread at the beginning of each section that introduces the content pages that separate and
in the section through copy, photos, the logo, a theme-related label or identify sections within a
headline, and perhaps color. The theme may also appear in the folio on yearbook
each page if it includes a graphic or a theme word.
Seeing reminders of the theme as they look through the book gives
readers a sense of continuity. They feel they’re still reading the same book
they started reading, no matter which section they may be viewing. A
sense of continuity shows careful planning and consistent editing.

Color is the first thing people notice about a yearbook. Even from
a distance, people can recognize the cover by its colors. Some schools
traditionally use variations of their school colors on the cover, but the
trend is to use currently popular colors. In choosing colors, a wise staff
considers its audience, theme and budget. The audience is the people in
the school, but within that audience are males and females, seniors and
sophomores, country music lovers and classical music lovers, athletes
and actors. Just as the theme encompasses the individual members of
the audience, the colors must appeal to them, too.
Color makes a statement. School colors state that this is the book
produced by the school represented by these colors. Every year there
are “power” colors—colors that are trendy in clothes and decorating
schemes. Using power colors in your yearbook says, “We know what’s
cool this year. ”
Colors represent emotions, too. Red can mean energy and love, or it
can symbolize anger and hate. Green symbolizes life; yellow symbolizes
happiness. Upbeat themes are best reinforced by warm colors like red,
yellow and orange. Laid-back themes are better reinforced by cool col-
ors—shades of blue, green and purple.
Ladder
ladder The ladder is a page-by-page plan that shows the content of each
a page-by-page plan of a page of the yearbook. As soon as the staff members know how many
yearbook that shows the pages the book will contain, they can begin planning the ladder.
proposed content of each page The ladder is designed to show which pages will be across from
each other (see Figure 18.1). Books should be planned and designed in
double-page spreads even if the subject matter on each page is differ-
ent. Readers will see the pages as one unit when they open the book.
Exceptions are the first page and the last page, which will be single
pages.
FIGURE 18.1
1 Table of Contents/Title Page
SAMPLE LADDER
Opening/Principal 2 3 Opening From Principal
Opening 4 5 Opening
Events Division 6 7 Events Division
New Student Days 8 9 Parents Night
homecoming 10 11 Homecoming
Mayfest 12 13 Spring Fling
Luau 14 15 Festival
GDD 16 17 GDD
Graduation 18 19 Graduation
Renaissance 20 21 Renaissance
Fall ALS 22 23 Fall ALS
Spring ALS 24 25 Spring ALS
SA Activities 26 27 Blast Off
Fine Arts Division 28 29 Fine Arts Division
Art 30 31 Art
Theater/Fall 32
408 MIXED MEDIA

YEARBOOK SIZE 120 pages 240 pages 400 pages FIGURE 18.2
NUMBER OF PAGES ALLOCATED TO SECTIONS SUGGESTED PAGE
ALLOCATIONS
Advertising: 12 32 50
Index: 6 8 12
Remainder: 102 200 338
Typical Allocations
23% Student Life 24 46 78–80
12% Academics 12 24 40–42
25% People 26 50 84–86
15% Groups 16 30 50–52
18% Sports 18 36 60–62
Number of Pages
Staff Will Produce 96 185 312–322
Source: Adapted with permission from Scholastic Yearbook Fundamentals, 2nd edition,
Columbia Scholastic Press Association, New York, N.Y.
The first page is always the title page. Other pages to set aside include
the division pages at the beginning of each section, ad pages (if the staff
sells advertising), opening and closing sections, and the index. Add the
number of pages needed for these sections and subtract that figure from
the total pages in the book to find the number of pages you have avail-
able to use as you choose.
Yearbooks are printed in 16-page sections called signatures. The lad- signature
der will show the signatures, but you can figure them out by counting a 16-page section of a
1–16, 17–32, 33–48 and so on. To get the best value, color pages should yearbook printed on the
be planned in one or two signatures with early deadlines. Complete sig- same piece of paper during
natures should be sent to the printer together whenever possible. production; pages one
Most yearbooks are organized in sections, such as student life, people, through 16; 17–32, 33–48 and
academics, sports, organizations and special events. Current or world 49–60 are signatures
events may be in a section by itself, be part of an opening or student life
section or be in a mini-mag (see the next section). Ads and the index are
also separate sections.
The staff can figure out how many pages will be needed for mug shots
when they know how many people are in the school and how big they
want each photo to be. To make the mug pages more interesting, many
schools combine some student life stories with the people pages. To do
this, add more pages on the ladder for the people section.
Another decision to be made is the order in which the sections appear.
The theme, placement of color pages, individual school circumstances
and staff preferences influence placement of the sections. The number
of pages in each section, or the percentage of the book given to each
topic, is determined by the staff. (See Figure 18.2 for the guidelines of
the Columbia Scholastic Press Association.) The sizes of the sections may
vary based on the size of the yearbook, the number of students involved
in each area, tradition and special events or circumstances. An athletic
team that wins a state championship, an academic team that wins hon-
ors, a new program, or an unusual event such as an anniversary or an
addition to the school building during the year may tip the ladder more
heavily in favor of one section or another.

Special Additions
Mini-mags, tip-ins, cutouts, pop-ups, foldouts, specially designed
covers and endsheets, postcards tucked in a pocket, individual photos
affixed to the cover, holograms—whatever your staff can imagine and
afford can probably be done. Before ordering special additions, however,
get estimates from the yearbook representative and check your budget
carefully.
mini-mag Mini-mags are unique sections of yearbooks set aside for special top-
a special section of a yearbook ics or subject matter. They come in many forms. Some mini-mags are
that is set aside for special separate from the actual book and are stored in pockets inside the cover.
topics or subject matter Others are bound into the book but use paper of a different color, weight
or finish for easy identification. Some are slightly smaller than the regu-
lar pages, which makes them easy to find. The content of a mini-mag
may be devoted to student life, current events or special features. The
design is usually similar to a news magazine, with lots of photos, graph-
ics and sidebars. The results of student surveys often add a personal ele-
ment to mini-mags.
tip-in Tip-ins are pages that are printed separately and attached to the
pages in a yearbook that book later with narrow double-stick tape. Tip-ins are used for special
are printed separately and two- to four-page additions or for entire signatures. Books delivered in
attached to the book later the spring use tip-ins to add the spring sports and graduation pages to
with narrow double-stick tape books that are distributed before those events are completed. The tip-in
section is mailed to graduates and distributed to returning students in
the fall.
Pop-ups and multiple pages which fold out for viewing like the ones in
children’s books and greeting cards can be built into yearbooks. Because
of the difficulty of construction, pop-ups and foldouts are produced as
part of the book at the production plant. Individual photos, holograms
and other special effects are often added by the staff after the book is
delivered to save labor costs. Ask your yearbook representative about
creating any of these special effects for your book.
Working with the Yearbook Representative

The yearbook representative is your special consultant and emissary,
the go-between for the staff and the yearbook company. It is the repre-
sentative’s job to make sure your school’s book looks the way your staff
wants it to when it arrives.
The representative will work with your staff to plan the book; offer
cover, color and endsheet options; and help you create special effects.
He or she will also help the staff set manageable deadlines and explain
company policies and production schedules. The company or represen-
tative will provide all the supplies necessary to complete the book, from
a blank ladder to layout sheets to computer software.
Yearbooks are the ultimate desktop publishing experience. Yearbook
companies have developed software to allow staffs to design their own
pages or to provide fill-in-the-blank templates. Each yearbook company
has its own software, so ask the representative to demonstrate the special
features available from the company.
410 MIXED MEDIA

Your staff may choose to submit layouts and copy electronically, or
you may prefer to do the pasteup yourself. Most yearbook companies
accept digital images. Ask your yearbook representative how you should
submit the images; the company may require that images be in certain
formats or sizes.
Don’t be afraid to ask for help. The representative’s service is part of
what you’re paying for. One call may save hours of time redoing lay-
outs, may get the book done weeks earlier or may keep the staff within
budget.
Your Beat
1. Imagine students looking at their yearbooks for the Continue the discussion until you have a consensus
first time (or recall the scene, if you’ve experienced on one group you believe is representative of the
it). What will the students say first? What will the school as a whole. Try the same thing with food,
males say? The females? What will the athletes say? colors and animals. Now that you have the idea of
What will the freshmen say? What will the members choosing one noun from a category best represent-
of the speech team say? What will the teachers say? ing your school, try it with action words and phrases.
Why will each group say something different? Is your school energetic? New and improved? On
2. Ask each member of the class to write down at least a roll? Breaking away from the crowd? Have each
10 things he or she remembers about last year at student write three words or phrases that describe
your school that should be recorded in the yearbook. the school. Discuss how each one might fit the year.
Compare your lists. What things appear on every- Select two or three you think might work. Use them
one’s lists? Which appear on only a few lists? Make to complete Item 4.
a composite list on the board so everyone can see 4. Design logos to represent the themes you chose in
all the items. (Keep a copy of this list for planning Item 3. Add colors that go with each theme. Sketch a
the ladder.) Why are the lists different? Would other cover using the theme, logo and colors you like best.
classes write down the same events you did? Ask 5. Divide the class into groups of four or five. Give each
a few teachers if you can use five minutes of their group a ladder, and ask it to plan the yearbook using
class time to have students from different age and the list of contents from Item 2 and one of the themes
interest areas write lists of the top 10 things each chosen in Item 3 (or the theme for this year’s book,
remembers about last year’s book. Compare these if you have one). Compare ladders. What are the dif-
lists to your master list. Add things you have missed. ferences? Combine the ladders to create one that the
3. Brainstorm to come up with a theme for your year- class agrees works best with the theme. (Don’t forget
book. Begin by having each student write down the to allow for advertising and index sections, division
name of one music group that represents the whole pages, and opening and closing sections.)
school. List the groups on the board, and have each
student explain the reason for his or her choice.

TELLING THE STORY IN A YEARBOOK
UNITED STATES, 1972—Sony Writing yearbook copy is very much like writing feature stories for other
introduced the videocassette publications, except the writer must wrap up all the important points
recorder (VCR) for educational about a whole season or an entire year in a few paragraphs. The writer
and business uses in 1972,
must get the reader’s attention, tell the story with facts and numbers, and
followed by a version for home
use quotations to show the human element in each piece of copy.
use in 1975. The first home
VCRs sold for $1,300.
Sales boomed over the next
decade while prices dropped Writing the Lead
to one-third the introductory
cost. By 1988, about half of all Five words.
American homes had VCRs, That’s all you get, say the experts, to hook readers and interest them
and basic models were selling in reading a yearbook story.
for $300. Which of these leads would get you to read on? Why?
Television viewing habits • Another year of school brought many . . .
changed as people recorded
• Number 1.
programs and duplicated tapes
for their own use. As viewers
• During the long, hot day of a track meet . . .
experimented with “time shift- • To those who were not interested . . .
ing”—recording programs and • There is an old saying that . . .
viewing them at a later time— • The schedule was from 8:20 a.m. to 3:26 p.m.
Hollywood realized it had a • “Can you feel it?”
new market for movies. Video • Leadership is the key to success.
rental became the hottest new • “New hallway, No skipping” read the sign . . .
business in town. • There once was a time when students . . .
Some businesses, such as • A second consecutive berth in the championship tourna-
HBO and other premium cable ment . . .
television services, saw declines “Live from HHS” sparked crimson pride . . .
•
as the VCR craze caught on.
• Dinosaurs, sandblasted millstones and neon lights . . .
Inexpensive movie rentals and
• Beginning the season with no seniors . . .
reasonable purchase prices for
tapes of timely releases changed • Despite the 5–7 season record . . .
viewers’ television-watching Like news and feature story leads, yearbook leads are more reader-
habits. friendly if they contain high-interest words. “Number 1” and “Dinosaurs”
The VCR changed school are the top vote getters in this list. Leads that begin with there, the, to and
media production, too. In the during are at the top of the list of boring leads.
1980s, many schools experi-
mented with video yearbooks.
Special events such as proms
and graduations also were pre-
News Features with Style
served in video packages. Yearbook stories are basically news feature stories. Their job is to
By 2007, the era of the VCR
capture the essence of the year, season or event in a few paragraphs and
was coming to a close, as DVD
include all the important facts readers will want to remember in 10, 20
recorders were becoming more
popular for recording video.
or even 40 years. How do you write copy that will turn today’s vote, party
or game into those picture memories?
Use the “chill factor.” Adviser Carole Wall says the copy should liter-
ally give readers chills all over. She suggests measuring the relative chill
factor of each copy block by sight-and-sound writing, status details and
specific details.
Sight-and-sound writing takes readers into the locker room, onto
the bus, backstage at the rehearsal or cast party, or into the journal-
ism room when the yearbook pages are being created. It describes the
412 MIXED MEDIA
scene with specific details that help readers see the big picture. “Don’t
write about journalism students working hard on nights before a dead- Out Take
line. Tell me about the night Don Schmidt had 24 pages lined out on a Leaving a Mark, Seven
table and accidentally spilled a bottle of India ink over all the pages,” Times Over
Wall said.
Status details are the difference between generic soda and Perrier. Carol Jong wanted to leave an
They are tools that make the distinction between blah and the colors of a indelible mark on the University of
Van Gogh painting. For instance, you might write, “A new student came Kansas. She did so, seven times.
to class today wearing jeans, a T-shirt and a chain at his neck, and he was One of the university’s year-
blond.” Maybe that new student was wearing Levi 501s, a clean white books featured photos of Jong
T-shirt tucked into the jeans and a fine gold chain. His short, platinum in seven different looks—and
blond hair was styled precisely. Or maybe that new student was wearing in seven different places under
a black Harley-Davidson T-shirt over frayed plain-pocket jeans, as well as seven different names.
two or three heavy chains, including one with dog tags. His shoulder- There is Buffi J. Baker in busi-
length hair was blond at the roots but was obviously growing out from ness, Bertha Heffer in engineer-
having been dyed black. Very different personalities can be revealed ing and Violet Couleur in fine arts.
through status details. Jong can also be found posing as
Another way to take readers to the scene is to use the names of Anne U. Rissom in allied health
songs, movie titles, personalities and current events. Sidebars with Top and Dorrie N. Collum in archi-
10 lists of the year’s most popular movies, favorite actors and actresses, tecture, not to mention her own
or most-listened-to music at your school can be created from student Carol Jong picture in liberal arts.
surveys. Jong’s roommate tried to
Whether it’s the lead, the status details or using said instead of join in the prank by submit-
descriptive verbs like exclaimed or shouted to show the way in which ting fake photos, but all her
someone speaks, all the same guidelines that apply to news and feature fakes were caught and rejected
writing apply to yearbook writing. The following guidelines also apply by the Jayhawker staff.
to yearbooks: “We wanted to leave our
mark at KU,” said Jong. “Since
• Leads should not begin with a person’s name or the name we’re not athletes or student
of the school. Also avoid beginning with “The goals of,”
presidents or anything, we
“The purpose of,” “This year” or a date.
wanted to be remembered
• is redundant to use both this year and to give the year.
It
for something special.”
The cover identifies the year, and by its description a year-
The yearbook staff
book is the story of a year—this year. Report about this year.
was not amused.
Don’t rehash last year or make predictions about next year.
“It’s a great joke as far as
• Avoid words that imply opinion, such as diligently, dedi-
she’s concerned,” said Jeannine
cated or hardworking. Instead, show what makes a person
Kreker, assistant editor. “But
or team dedicated (for example, “Practicing six hours a
as far as Kansas alumni and
day for six weeks . . .”). Don’t let subjective adjectives and
everybody who’s going to look
adverbs sneak in. “A beautiful pass” would be more objec-
at this book years from now is
tive as “a 75-yard touchdown pass.” “It was an awesome
concerned, it makes us and the
concert” could read “Complete Music, a five-piece band
university look pretty silly.”
from New Meadows, played . . .”
• Weed out weasel words, such as many, various, wide variety,
numerous, some, a lot, and few. Instead of “Many attended
the musical,” say “More than 400 attended the musical.”
• Never use the name of the school or the school mascot
to refer to students—for example, “The Vikings ate in a
new cafeteria.” Students know their yearbook is about
their school. The name of the school, its initials or mascot
should be reserved for writing about competitive situations
such as sports.
FUNKY WINKERBEAN reprinted by permission of United Feature Syndicate.
• Use quotations that have meaning. Don’t quote anyone

who says, ”I had a lot of fun.” The quotation is short and
doesn’t give the reader any specific information. Ask the
source for a definition of fun, and you’ll get quotations
that have meaning, such as, “It was fun when the senior
men wore the cheerleaders’ uniforms and led the cheer at
the pep rally.”
Figure 18.3 gives a checklist to help you can evaluate your writing.
Remember, the yearbook story is the only historical record most
people will ever have about this year at this school. People want to pick
up their yearbooks in two or three decades and have the pictures and
words take them right back to the scene. To make your writing do that,
be accurate. Check the office list against another list to verify the spell-
ing of names. Recheck every story and caption to be sure that it includes
the names, dates, details and facts about each event or organization.
FIGURE 18.3 • Use plain words, not fancy ones. Always use the familiar word.
CHECKLIST FOR GOOD • Use mainly short words.
WRITING • Use descriptive adjectives, never editorial ones.
• Use simple sentences. Avoid compound and complex
sentences.
• Use mainly short sentences, but vary the length.
• Paragraph frequently.
• Use the active voice.
• Delete all unnecessary words, sentences and paragraphs.
• Write clearly.
• Write to express, never to impress.
• Read copy aloud. Revise, rewrite. Read again and revise.
• Be satisfied only when you like what you have written.
Source: Reprinted with permission from Scholastic Yearbook Fundamentals, 2nd edition,
Columbia Scholastic Press Association, New York, N.Y., p. 44.
414 MIXED MEDIA

Your Beat
1. Write a description of the average student at your b. Between attending classes, participating in orga-
school using status details. Now add a sight-and- nizations and holding down part-time jobs, stu-
sound setting that students would remember, and dents still found time to enjoy the various events
work your “average student” into the scene. that occurred this year.
2. Write the first paragraph for the opening copy for the c. The music groups kept the music department
theme you chose earlier in the chapter. Look at the alive with activity over the year.
first five words. Are they interesting, attention getting d. Many individuals contributed a lot to the team
words? Do they make you want to read more? standings.
3. Rewrite the following sentences to make more effec- e. The 2007–2008 FBLA membership was larger
tive yearbook copy. (You may add names and facts.) than ever.
a. Taking science classes proved to be a great way f. Despite the 7–12 season record with nine of the
to gain knowledge about many different areas of 12 losses by one or two runs, the men’s base-
nature. ball team had an impressive year.
WHY A MAGAZINE?
Imagine that your high school journalism career has taken off like a
shooting star. As a sophomore you became a prize-winning reporter for
both news and sports. As a junior you were named editor of the paper,
the youngest person to reach that spot in school history. Then your
senior year arrives. You’ve already climbed the peaks. Now what?
If you’re Brad Bernthal at East High School in Lincoln, Nebraska, you
start something new. Brad thought a video yearbook might be a good
idea, but on further reflection he realized his love of writing was his
strongest motivation. So Brad decided to start a magazine.
“It would fill a void,” Brad said at the time. The school newspaper
was straightforward and objective, with little room for lengthy features
or offbeat stories. The school literary magazine was mostly poems and
short stories.
What Brad had in mind was something with a wide-open format—a
magazine that could cover any kind of topic students might find inter-
esting. What would set the magazine apart was its approach. “We write
everything from our own perspective,” he said. “It’s very creative.”
A magazine is usually a glossy-covered collection of articles, sto- magazine
ries, pictures and artwork that may come out monthly, quarterly, once a collection of articles, stories,
a semester or even once a year. The magazine is actually no stranger pictures and artwork that is
to the high school scene. In fact, in some schools the magazine pre- published on a regular basis
dates the yearbook and newspaper. These magazines have strong ties
to traditional journalism, but they often showcase new ventures into
uncharted water.

Although literary arts magazines are still the most popular type of stu-
dent magazine, many others share the spotlight. Students have learned
to take advantage of the magazine’s longer production deadlines to
develop coverage of specialized interest areas. Humor, general interest
and news feature magazines are becoming increasingly popular as stu-
dent publications.
Creating a New Publication

Together with a small core group of students, Brad began planning
how the magazine might develop. He needed to find enough students
to fill a class, a teacher willing (or crazy enough) to serve as adviser
and administrative support to make the whole operation (including
finances) work. Despite such obstacles, after about nine months of nur-
turing and plenty of hard labor, the first issue of Muse, a humor/general
interest magazine, rolled off the press.
Describing the magazine as “the offspring of many fathers and moth-
ers,” Brad said the students decided not to have a single editor. Instead,
the magazine used an editorial board to select the stories and articles
that showed the most promise. Everybody on the staff did both writing
and editing.
Muse contains 32 pages each month packaged inside a slick cover.
About one-fourth of the content is given over to departments, which
include the “Muse Mailroom” (letters), “A&E,” (music reviews), “Movie
Madness” (cinema reviews) and “College Watch” (a regular column
featuring first-hand campus visits and tips on how to write application
essays). The remainder of the magazine is devoted to the cover story, six
or seven feature articles, a photo essay, an art page and several ads.
DAVID WALTERS ART DIRECTOR, PREMIERE
W hen you open a magazine, you look

first for those quick little things you can
read in several minutes. You have to pull the
Another consideration is that departments
should be roughly in the same place from issue
to issue. You don’t want to have some section
reader into the magazine. We have a section of the magazine on Page 7 one month, Page 47
in the front called “Short Takes.” It’s a four- the next month and 97 the next month. Each
page department with lots of short items. Each week, I open New York magazine to the same
page maybe has three to five short pieces. place and quickly read through to see what’s
And you’ve got other departments in the in this section, called “Intelligencer.” “Short
front that pull you into the magazine. You Takes” is always somewhere around Page 20 in
don’t want to open a magazine and jump Premiere. And the same with the other depart-
right into a 5,000 word piece. After you bring ments. These are anchors for the reader.
the readers in with the cover, you have short Source: Adapted from “Tete-á-Tete,” by Carolina Lightcap, Student
pieces and build up into the long pieces. Press Review.
416 MIXED MEDIA

Out Take
The first issue contained an interview with one of the school cooks on
political turmoil in Eastern Europe. It became the first of many quirky
interviews: a school secretary gave her views on nuclear disarmament, a AARP Heads the List
department store Santa revealed his position on safe sex and so on. The
first issue also included an in-depth report on class scheduling; a sports When it comes to maga-
profile; and a few humorous pieces, such as a proposal to build a 20-min- zines, there are more to read
ute nap into the school day. than ever. About 7,000 different
The cover story was a team project involving a group of eight reporters magazines were published 50
who took turns shadowing a student volunteer from the time she woke years ago. Today, the num-
at 7:02 a.m. to the moment her head finally hit the pillow that night at ber is approaching 22,000.
11:07 p.m. They tried to find out, as one writer put it, “what goes on in In terms of sheer circulation,
the life of a normal, flag-waving, non-communist teen-age prototype.” AARP The Magazine —a publica-
The nine-page article also included interviews with the student’s parents tion of the American Association
and her boyfriend. of Retired Persons—is the largest
popular magazine in the country,
with over 22 million issues sold.
A Magazine for Your School TV Guide is fourth. Other familiar
magazines on the Top 10 list
Perhaps your school already has a magazine, or you may wish to start include National Geographic,
one. You could take Muse’s motto to heart: “Do not follow where the Better Homes & Gardens and
path may lead. Go, instead, where there is no path and leave a trail.” In Family Circle. Sports Illustrated
any event, a magazine offers a more freewheeling and inventive format ranked 15th on one recent list.
than perhaps any other kind of publication. The combined circulation of
Magazines are generally written in a feature style with less timely all the magazines in the United
news and a greater emphasis on people and personalities. This format States is more than 369 million.
often fits the needs of school publications with their two- to four-week
production schedules much better than does the breaking news style of
newspapers. The magazine format also allows more room for photos and
the use of graphics to illustrate articles. Some schools have found that
magazines are easier to produce in page form on small computer screens
than are broadsheet newspapers.
Some schools have changed the format of their newspapers to a
magazine style to help overcome the problem of long time lapses
between issues. Although the school may produce fewer issues of a
news magazine than it did of a newspaper, those issues may have many
more pages. This helps a staff that needs more time to plan and produce
each issue. It also gives readers what they want to read in the school
publication—stories about people and more features on issues like
drug abuse and relationships—and fewer stories that have grown cold
between issues.
Some schools are even producing their yearbooks in a magazine-style
format. Typically, three or four installments are printed during the year.
The yearbook staff then passes out a special binder with the last install-
ment to hold everything together. The formality of a hardcover yearbook
has given way to the more casual design and feel of a magazine.
Often, students who work on a magazine feel a strong sense of own-
ership. The students who produced Muse, for example, felt they were
breaking new ground with each issue. That spirit can sometimes lead to
trouble, as it did with a “swimsuit issue” that began as an effort to spoof
the late winter swimsuit specials but ended up offending some who
didn’t get the joke.

“We take a little bit of an off-center look at things,” said staff writer
Ted Genoways. Another writer, Jodi Ash, added, “There aren’t many
ways we can publish our kind of writing. Muse gives me an opportunity
to do what I do best.”
In any event, working on magazines is usually fun and exciting. As
another Muse writer, Jennifer Wyatt, put it, “I love it when I can write
something that makes people laugh. Anything you can do to make
people enjoy being alive is worth striving for.”
Does your school have a forum where student writers, designers and
artists can stretch their imaginations and creativity? If not, can you
imagine what that forum might look like?
Magazine Concepts
From Traveler to Vogue, Premiere to Bon Appetit, and People to Soap Opera
Update, the nation’s approximately 22,000 magazines reflect the aston-
ishing variety and diversity of American life. You may be familiar with
the major magazines that specialize in news (Time, Newsweek and U.S.
News and World Report), sports (Sports Illustrated and ESPN The Magazine)
and fashion (Glamour, Vogue and Seventeen, to name just a few). However,
you might be surprised to know just how wide-ranging the world of
magazines is.
Virtually every hobby and interest has its own magazine, and often
not just one. Think about the last time you stopped by a doctor’s or
dentist’s office. How many different magazines were in the waiting
room? Newsstands and book stores are other places where you can begin
to sample the enormous range of magazines published every week. In
fact, publishers start hundreds of new magazines each year, though, of
course, most of them don’t survive.
Choosing a Format Different magazine formats serve the

needs of different readers. Three of the most common kinds of maga-
literary magazine zines found in high schools today are the literary magazine, the general
a magazine that publishes interest magazine and the special interest magazine. If you decide to start
short stories, poetry, essays a magazine at your school, you will probably want to choose from one
and art of these categories.
• Literary magazines publish short stories, poetry
creative arts magazine and essays. These magazines often include art in vari-
ous media, such as pen-and-ink illustrations and pho-
a magazine that includes
tography. Sometimes schools publish a hybrid called a
prose and poetry, as well as
creative arts magazine. This format includes the
feature stories, editorials, art
traditional prose and poetry but adds lively feature stories,
reviews and student surveys
serious editorials, arts reviews and student surveys.
• General interest magazines have perhaps the broad-
general interest magazine est appeal. Such magazines usually feature a wide variety
a magazine that includes a of articles in the hope of printing something of interest to
wide variety of articles everyone. People, one of the country’s most popular maga-
and attempts to interest zines, carves out a broad niche in the publishing scene by
almost everyone claiming anyone and everyone for its subjects.
418 MIXED MEDIA

• Special interest magazines target people with a special interest magazine
strong interest in one particular area. On the national a magazine that targets
level, for example, Essence features the success stories of people with a strong interest
African Americans, as well as health and beauty advice. in a particular topic
Model Railroading suits those who like to work with model
trains. In a school, the athletic department may publish a
monthly magazine devoted to sports.
One other type of magazine may be circulating through your school
as an “underground” publication. Zines—short for magazines or fanzines zine
(made popular by the fans of certain punk music groups)—have prolifer- a small magazine with a
ated as desktop publishing and photocopy machines have become avail- limited circulation that is pub-
able to more and more people. (Zines is pronounced Zeens.) Photocopied lished by a few people, often
and often distributed hand-to-hand, the little magazines may nurture using desktop publishing
many creative ideas and design innovations. They also may contain self- programs and photocopiers;
indulgent rantings and ravings. shorts for magazine or fanzine
Some zines are the handiwork of a single person. Others gather sub-
missions from a wide range of guest contributors. Some are well designed
using computers. Some are crude cut-and-paste efforts. Most zines come
out haphazardly, as their production fits the whims, time and fiscal
resources of their creators. “It’s just hard for people to put them out every
month,” explains Garth Johnson, who runs a small record store that sells
zines on the side. “Whenever people have a chunk of time or are bored or
are at the copy shop, another issue comes out.”
With top prices around $3, zines are cheap. Most people who produce
zines are in high school or college. But there are a few older writers as well,
such as the creators of bOING bOING. Carla Sinclair and her husband,
Mark Frauenfelder, began their zine when they pasted some of their
thoughts on layout boards, made photocopies, stapled the pages together
and then watched the issues sell out at $2.95. The name bOING bOING,
says Sinclair, was meant “to sound energetic and childlike.”
The zine soon added a slick cover, and circulation numbers grew.
Sinclair was happy with the growth. But, as the only full-time employee,
she became a bit frazzled. “It used to be fun to earn $10 a year from this
thing. Now it takes all day to fill subscriptions, sell ads, market the maga-
zine and take care of our mail orders. I don’t have time to be creative
anymore.” Despite the zine’s initial success, Sinclair said any further
expansion would cramp her style. “The greatest part of what I do is that
I can write about anything I want and nobody can tell me not to. Doing
a zine really spoils you.”
Soliciting Material Let’s imagine that you are a staff member

of a new magazine at your school. One of your greatest challenges—a
challenge perhaps even tougher than choosing a concept for your maga-
zine or establishing a theme for a particular issue—is gathering material.
When staff members set out to gather art and articles, they should
explore every potential resource for contributions. They should seek
cooperation from the teachers of writing classes. The English depart-
ment is an obvious possibility, but so are other departments. The sci-
ence, mathematics, social studies or vocational departments could be

solicited for contributions. Any courses that give students the opportu-
nity to express themselves are potential sources for the magazine.
One student editor sent an open letter to each teacher in the school
asking for the submission of any work the teacher felt was worth pub-
lishing. “What is Coyote material?” he asked in the letter, referring to the
name of the magazine. “Obviously, it’s well written. Secondly, it is acces-
sible to the general community. Most importantly, it takes a different
perspective on things than is usual or may simply be about an unusual
topic. It might just be unusually insightful. It does not have to be satiric
or even faintly amusing. Our interest is to let the unique voices of our
school community speak in their own ways.”
You might seek material from clubs or students who work on other
campus publications. You might also provide a submissions box, where
students can discreetly drop off their work. You may wish to protect an
individual author’s identity, but you shouldn’t accept anonymous work.
If you accept anonymous work, you have no way to know if the author
was a student or not. Periodic contests to encourage writers to contribute
to the magazine can help sometimes, too.
Magazine staff members should be keenly aware of the need for variety
and should be systematic about making the most of their school’s poten-
tial. The staff should brainstorm ways to make the magazine represent all
kinds of talent in the student community. They might ask themselves
whether the magazine is a place for all kinds of voices to be heard.
Your Beat
1. Imagine you are going to approach a publishing journal published in the United States, gives this
company with an idea for a new magazine. What information.)
would the magazine be called? What would some of • Any trends you can spot by looking back over the
its articles be? Who would be the intended readers? past year’s issues
Here are a few examples to get you thinking: • What a young writer or designer can learn from
• Cue (a magazine for people interested in theater) this magazine.
• Women in Sports 3. Test your knowledge of the magazine market. Work
• Adventure (great places to visit and things to do) in small groups, and see which group can think of
• Movement (the world of dance) the most magazine titles. List as many magazines
• The Love Connection (advice for singles) as you can under each of the following categories:
• Elite Eating (the magazine for the modern chef) • News magazine
2. Give an oral report on your favorite magazine. • Consumer magazine
Plan to cover these topics: • Literary and creative arts
• An analysis of its primary purpose and target • Business magazine
audience • Men’s magazine
• A brief discussion of its history • Women’s magazine
• Some of the competitors in its particular niche. • Technical magazine
(Writers’ Market, a resource published annually • Medical magazine
that describes virtually every magazine and • Special interest magazine
420 MIXED MEDIA

YEARBOOK AND MAGAZINE LAYOUT
Visual appeal is a crucial element in the success of both yearbooks
and magazines. Making these publications visually appealing is the job
of the designer or layout artist. In Chapter 15 we covered the terminol-
ogy and fundamentals of design. In this section we’ll look at the special
opportunities designers have with yearbook and magazine layouts.
Perhaps nowhere else in the world of school publications is there so
much room for creativity.
Yearbook and magazine layouts are very similar, so we’ll consider
them together. For the most part, we’ll refer to layouts as if we were
designing a yearbook. Remember, however, that the same ideas apply
to magazines. When special considerations apply to magazines only,
we’ll say so.
Mosaic Style
Most yearbook layouts are based on the mosaic concept of design. mosaic concept of design
Basically, elements are arranged in a pinwheel fashion, clustered around a design concept in which all
a central focal point. What makes the design work is consistent inter- elements are arranged in a
nal margins, or spaces between elements. Each element should be the pinwheel fashion, clustered
same distance—usually one or two picas—from all adjoining elements. around a central focal point
The result is an organized and attractive page design. We will lead you
through a five-step process for creating good mosaic layouts. First,
though, you have some planning to do.
Before You Start Design your magazine or yearbook two

pages at a time. That is, think and plan in terms of facing pages. As we
said earlier in the chapter, facing pages are referred to as a double-page
spread. Readers usually see two pages at a time. It’s almost impossible to
bend a yearbook cover back upon itself, as you might with a comic book.
Furthermore, two-page designs (spreads) give you twice as much room
to create exciting and interesting layouts. By concentrating your design
efforts on spreads, you also avoid producing pages that fight each other
when placed side-by-side.
Another important consideration before you actually begin drawing
a layout is to choose the number of columns your pages will contain. column
A column is the standard width you have chosen for your stories. Columns the basis for constructing a
help provide order and control in your layout. They do not limit your cre- page layout. A column is the
ativity, despite what you might suppose. Almost all yearbooks and maga- standard width for copy cho-
zines use some form of column design on the next page. (See Figure 18.4.) sen for a particular yearbook
Once you’ve gained a little experience drawing layouts, you will find section or magazine
that there are many variations on a basic six- or eight-column format,
including a strange beast called a plus column. Some layout methods
even use as many as 11 columns across a single spread. You’ll learn more
about these strategies later in this section.

FIGURE 18.4
TYPICAL COLUMN DESIGNS
2 column/page 3 column/page
4 column/page 5 column/page
2 plus column/page 3 plus column/page
422 MIXED MEDIA

You may want to gather all your materials together before you start,
although you can certainly practice creating layouts with imaginary pic-
tures and stories. The essential elements of a spread are elements of a spread
• photos things that must be included
• a headline in a double-page spread,
• body copy including photos, a headline,
• cutlines and planned white space body copy, cutlines and
When you have chosen the number of columns you’ll use—six is a smart planned white space
choice for basic layouts—gathered your materials together, and obtained
a layout dummy sheet, you’re ready to begin designing. The following is
a five-step guide to creating good mosaic-style layouts.
Step 1: Start with a dominant photo Every lay-

out should contain one photo that is at least twice as big as any other
picture on the spread. A dominant photo gives the reader’s eye a focal
point when looking at a page. It should be the best picture you have
available for that spread—one with excellent content, sharp focus and
good contrast.
The dominant photo should be tightly cropped and full of action or
emotion. Generally, it should include students. Photos of pretty scenery
and school buildings without people don’t make good dominants. As a
general rule, place the dominant photo so it touches or crosses the gut-
ter (the gap in the middle of the book or magazine between two facing
pages). Placing a picture so that it runs across the gutter is one of the
simplest and most effective ways you have to unite the two facing pages.
(See Figure 18.5.)
FIGURE 18.5
LAYOUT WITH ONE
DOMINANT PHOTO
Dominant Photo

FIGURE 18.6
LAYOUT ESTABLISHING
EXTERNAL MARGINS
Dominant Photo
Step 2: Add other pictures, keeping consistent

internal margins An internal margin, as we said earlier, is the
space between elements (pictures, copy or graphics). The recommended
spacing between each element is one pica or two picas. All the elements
on the spread should be separated by the same amount of space.
Try to use a variety of picture sizes and shapes, with no two exactly alike.
Mix verticals, horizontals, small pictures and large pictures. Make sure,
though, that none of them is more than half as large as the dominant
photo. Use only rectangular shapes. Don’t use circles, ovals, stars or other
unusual shapes. These shapes prevent a designer from maintaining consis-
tent internal margins and often call too much attention to themselves.
Add these pictures one by one, working out from the center. Maintain
external margin a balance across the spread as you go. To establish the external margin,
the frame around the spread which is the frame around the spread, at least one element on each side of
the layout must touch the outside margin. (See Figure 18.6.)
Step 3: Don’t fill the spread completely; leave

white space to the outside Every spread needs room
for copy and captions. As you add pictures, think about where these
elements will fall. Be sure to leave room for a caption above, next to or
underneath every picture on the spread. You may group two or three
captions together, but each caption should still be either above, below or
424 MIXED MEDIA

adjacent to the picture it describes. Don’t allow any pictures to fall into
the external margin unless they bleed off the page. To bleed a picture bleed
means to run it off the edge of the page. Bleed no more than one picture to run a picture off the edge
off the side, top or bottom of the spread. Avoid bleeding small pictures. of the page
(See Figure 18.7.)
Step 4: Create a horizontal eyeline At this point,

you can take a deep breath and then begin to revise your layout. Adjust
your pictures to create an eyeline—an imaginary line running straight eyeline
across the double-page spread. The eyeline is created by aligning the tops an imaginary line running
and bottoms of several pictures or of the copy blocks. Never draw the eye- straight across the double-
line in the exact center of the spread (see the example in Figure 18.7). The page spread
dominant photo either establishes the eyeline or, for the sake of variety,
breaks it.
Many yearbook companies number the pica lines on their dummy
pages to make it easier to create the eyeline. A horizontal eyeline is an
excellent way of uniting two facing pages, as is a dominant photo bleed-
ing across the gutter. The use of these two techniques together is espe-
cially powerful. (See Figure 18.8 on the next page.)
FIGURE 18.7
LAYOUT WITH BLEED PHOTO
Dominant Photo
Make one photo bleed off the page

FIGURE 18.8
HOW TO CREATE AN EYELINE
Dominant Photo
Step 5: Add copy last; keep all copy to the

outside of the pictures Use your column format to place
the copy. Make sure that stories, headlines and captions span the width
of one, two, three or four columns. Don’t let any copy fall into the exte-
rior margin or into the gutter. Place the copy to the outside of the pictures
to focus the reader’s attention squarely on the design rather than on
trapped white space. (White space will be discussed in more detail later in
the chapter. See Figure 18.9.)
A Few Additional Tips

• Secondary layout elements include rule lines, tints and
other graphic devices. Use these elements to help unify
the spread by grouping several related elements together.
Any other use is simply decoration. Make everything on
your layout serve a purpose.
• Keep column widths consistent for both copy and cut-
lines. The column layout method will help you accom-
plish this. Unless you have a special reason to do other-
wise, set all copy in your magazine or in one yearbook
section at a standard width. The number of columns used
per spread may vary from section to section of a year-
book. However, the number should be consistent within
each section.
• Never let headlines run across the gutter. Words can get
trapped in the crease, and word spacing is nearly always
distorted.
426 MIXED MEDIA

Out Take
Specialty Magazines
If Cat Fancy strikes yours, join A recent edition of the guide listed successful magazines found a unique
the club. The United States leads more than 900 new magazines, includ- niche in the market. This group
the world in the production of spe- ing Craft, Heart Healthy Living and includes Nude & Natural, the official
cial interest magazines, such as Cat Death + Taxes. The last magazine is magazine of the Naturist Society.
Fancy, Tattoo and Mini Truckin’. about music, not Benjamin Franklin, Among recent start-ups were Geek,
The best source for locating whose quote about the things no the first magazine “embracing the
odd or esoteric publications is the one can avoid inspired the title. geek culture,” and Good, a magazine
Guide to New Magazines, a catalog Some magazines published only one that aimed to stimulate intellectual
published annually by Samir Husni, issue, and some died right away. thought and benevolent action.
a University of Mississippi journal- For example, Lottery! The Magazine
ism professor who scours news- for the Winning Lifestyle faded
stands in search of new titles. away quickly. However, some of the
Headline goes here FIGURE 18.9

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PICTURES
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The Fine Points of Layout
LONDON AND PHILADELPHIA,
Modifying the basic mosaic design, varying the number of columns,
July 13, 1985—An estimated bleeding photos off a page and managing white space are all ways you can
worldwide audience of 1.5 make your publications look distinctive. Remember that rules are made
billion tuned in to watch the 16- to be broken—if you know what you are doing.
hour Live Aid concert broadcast Modifying the Mosaic Design You can choose any
simultaneously from London
number of variations on the basic mosaic style to give each section of your year-
and Philadelphia.
Performers included Paul
book its own look. We mention just a few possibilities here. (See Figure 18.10.)
McCartney, David Bowie, • Mondrian. The Mondrian style (named after modernist
Madonna, Tina Turner and painter Piet Mondrian) is becoming increasingly popular.
Joan Baez. The broadcast fea- To create this style, the designer draws one horizontal
tured film of concerts given in and one vertical line on the spread. The lines must inter-
countries around the world and sect somewhere, but not in the center of the spread. The
the first televised performance designer has now divided the layout into four separate
by a Russian rock group. areas. Next, a large design element is placed in the larg-
The unprecedented music
est quadrant, and other, smaller elements are placed in
marathon was broadcast to
more than 80 countries simul-
the remaining three quadrants. The two crossed lines
taneously using the larg- then become part of the internal margins. The Mondrian
est intercontinental satellite layout style holds the spread together particularly well,
hookup that had ever been thanks to the creation of two eyelines.
attempted up to that time. • Isolated element. This style is achieved by specifically
The Live Aid campaign raised isolating one or two design elements (by surrounding
pledges of over $70 million for them with white space) to clearly establish emphasis. This
African famine relief. layout style is especially effective for division pages, where
the designer may wish to highlight one outstanding pic-
ture by itself.
• Modular. A modular layout style consists of one large
rectangle, which may encompass the entire double-page
spread. This rectangle is subdivided into many smaller
elements by the use of consistent internal margins.
Headlines and copy are then placed to the outside areas
of the spread. Unlike a mosaic layout, with its familiar
irregular outline, the modular layout fills the pages to the
margin on each side.
• Hanging it from a line. This design style is based on
the placement of an imaginary horizontal line somewhere
across the top portion of a spread. The designer then
places all photos and art elements above or below this
imaginary line. Copy is placed on the opposite side of the
line from the photos. The style may be reversed simply by
changing the relationship of the copy and photos. The
resulting change in design can give a distinctive personal-
ity to a special section of the yearbook or magazine.
• Skyline. The skyline style is accomplished by starting
with a large, vertical rectangle. This element, acting as the
base structure, is complemented by staggered elements to
give the appearance of a city skyline. The vertical nature
of the elements slows the readers down, however, as they
move from left to right. Therefore, this style might be
used best in mini-mags or other special pages.
428 MIXED MEDIA
FIGURE 18.10
YEARBOOK LAYOUT STYLES
-ONDRIAN )SOLATED¬ELEMENT -ODULAR
¬¬¬¬4HE¬-ONDRIAN¬STYLE¬ PLACED¬IN¬THE¬REMAINING¬THREE¬ ¬¬¬¬¬/NE¬STYLE¬OF¬LAYOUT¬IS¬CALLED¬ ¬¬¬¬¬-ODULAR¬LAYOUT¬STYLES¬
SOMETIMES¬REFERRED¬TO¬AS¬LOCAL¬ QUADRANTS¬4HE¬TWO¬CROSSED¬ vISOLATED¬ELEMENTv¬4HIS¬STYLE¬IS¬ CONSIST¬OF¬ONE¬LARGE¬RECTANGLE¬
POINT ¬IS¬BECOMING¬INCREASINGLY¬ LINES¬THEN¬BECOME¬PART¬OF¬THE¬ ACHIEVED¬BY¬SPECIFICALLY¬ WHICH¬MAY¬ENCOMPASS¬THE¬
POPULAR¬&IRST¬THE¬DESIGNER¬ INTERNAL¬MARGINS¬4HIS¬LAYOUT¬ ISOLATING¬TWO¬OR¬THREE¬DESIGN¬ ENTIRE¬DOUBLE¬PAGE¬SPREAD¬
PLACES¬INTERSECTING¬HORIZONTAL¬ STYLE¬IS¬PARTICULARLY¬EFFECTIVE¬IN¬ ELEMENTS¬PHOTOS¬COPY¬OR¬ 4HIS¬vLARGEv¬ELEMENT¬IS¬THEN¬
AND¬VERTICAL¬LINES¬ANYWHERE¬ON¬ OPENING¬AND¬DIVISION¬SPREADS¬¬¬¬ ARTWORK ¬TO¬CLEARLY¬ESTABLISH¬OUR¬ SUBDIVIDED¬INTO¬MANY¬vSMALLERv¬
THE¬SPREAD¬EXCEPT¬THE¬CENTER¬¬ DESIRED¬EDITORIAL¬EMPHASIS¬ ELEMENTS¬BY¬USING¬A¬CONSISTENT¬
!¬LARGE¬DESIGN¬ELEMENT¬IS¬ 4HIS¬LAYOUT¬STYLE¬IS¬ESPECIALLY¬ INTERNAL¬MARGIN¬(EADLINES¬
PLACED¬IN¬THE¬LARGEST¬QUADRANT¬ EFFECTIVE¬FOR¬DIVISION¬PAGES AND¬COPY¬ARE¬THEN¬PLACED¬TO¬
AND¬OTHER¬SMALLER¬ELEMENTS¬ARE¬ THE¬OUTSIDE
3OMEWHERE¬OUT
THERE¬IS¬STUFF
3OMEWHERE¬OUT
THERE¬IS¬STUFF
#OMING¬THIS¬MONTH
4HIS¬IS¬!N¬!LL¬0URPOSE¬
(EADLINE
(ANGING¬IT¬FROM¬A¬LINE $OMINANT¬PHOTO 3KYLINE

¬¬¬¬¬(ANGING¬IT¬FROM¬A¬LINE¬IS¬A¬ COPYPHOTO¬RELATIONSHIP¬4HE¬ ¬¬¬¬¬4HIS¬LAYOUT¬STYLE¬IS¬CREATED¬ ¬¬¬¬¬3IMILAR¬TO¬THE¬DOMINANT¬
DESIGN¬STYLE¬WHICH¬IS¬BASED¬ON¬ RESULTING¬CHANGE¬IN¬DESIGN¬ BY¬SPACING¬ONE¬VERY¬LARGE¬ PHOTO¬SKYLINE¬STYLE¬IS¬
AN¬IMAGINARY¬HORIZONTAL¬LINE¬ IS¬BEST¬UTILIZED¬IN¬DEFINING¬ ELEMENT¬ANYWHERE¬ON¬THE¬ ACCOMPLISHED¬BY¬STARTING¬WITH¬A¬
BEING¬PLACED¬ACROSS¬THE¬DOUBLE¬ DIFFERENT¬EDITORIAL¬SECTIONS¬OF¬ DOUBLE¬PAGE¬SPREAD¬3MALLER¬ LARGE¬VERTICAL¬RECTANGLE¬4HIS¬
PAGE¬SPREAD¬4HE¬DESIGNER¬ THE¬BOOK¬¬¬ LESS¬DRAMATIC¬ELEMENTS¬ARE¬ ELEMENT¬ACTING¬AS¬THE¬BASE¬
PLACES¬ALL¬PHOTOS¬AND¬ART¬ THEN¬PLACED¬ADJACENT¬TO¬THE¬ STRUCTURE¬IS¬COMPLIMENTED¬BY¬
ELEMENTS¬TO¬EITHER¬THE¬TOP¬OR¬ PAGES¬VISUALLY¬SUPPORTING¬ STAGGERED¬ELEMENTS¬GIVING¬THE¬
BOTTOM¬OF¬THIS¬IMAGINARY¬LINE¬ THE¬DOMINANCE¬OF¬THE¬DESIGN¬ APPEARANCE¬OF¬A¬CITY¬SKYLINE¬¬
AND¬COPY¬IS¬PLACED¬TO¬THE¬ ELEMENT 4HE¬VERTICAL¬NATURE¬OF¬THE¬
ALTERNATE¬SIDE ELEMENTS¬TEND¬TO¬SLOW¬THE¬
¬¬¬¬¬¬4HIS¬MAY¬BE¬REVERSED¬AS¬ READER¬IN¬THIS¬VISUAL¬PROGRESSION¬
SHOWN¬BY¬CHANGING¬THE¬ FROM¬LEFT¬TO¬RIGHT
4HIS¬)S¬4HE¬!LL¬0URPOSE¬(EADLINE
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4HIS¬)S¬4HE¬!LL¬0URPOSE¬(EADLINE
&OR¬0LACEMENT¬/NLY

Varying the Number of Columns No one can say
that one specific number of columns is best for all design purposes, but
experience provides a few guidelines. Most designers prefer using an odd
number of columns per page (usually three or five). That pattern makes
it less likely that the design will be symmetrical or, in other words, have
perfect balance.
If you decide to use an even number of columns (usually two or four),
you can still use a clever modification to ensure a nonsymmetrical
design. Try a 2 plus column approach. The idea is to divide the page into
two and a half columns. Most designers use the extra column for pulled
quotations, mug shots or interesting infographics. You can also use the
plus column (the half column) to create an interesting shape for a photo.
The photo could be one and a half or two and a half columns wide, pro-
viding that it extends into the plus column. A 4 plus column approach
also works well.
Bleeding Photos Art school students are often told to “work
to your image area.” This is good advice for yearbook and magazine
designers as well. Allow your creativity to stretch beyond the traditional
one-inch margins that surround most published work. A photograph
that slides provocatively off a page can have a dramatic effect and cap-
ture the reader’s attention. But beware. As with all aspects of design, the
key word with bleeds is restraint. A steady diet of bleeds across the gutter
can become just as monotonous as no bleeds at all.
Bleeds help unify spreads and move the reader from page to page. In
addition to photos, you can bleed graphics, too. A rule running across the
gutter between two pages is another example of a unifying bleed. As illus-
trated in Figure 18.11, this can be a simple and beautiful device for creating
the illusion of one page from two—if, that is, your printer and binder do a
good job. If the book or magazine is not printed and bound properly, those
bleeding rules will pass each other like two ships in the night.
Page layout and design software, such as QuarkXPress and Adobe
InDesign, allow you to create bleeds with ease. These programs include a
pasteboard that allows you to position elements beyond the edges of the
page. Thus, creating a bleed in these programs is as simple as extending
your artwork one-eighth of an inch over the edge of the page.
Once your document is laid out, it’s time to proof your work. Many
laser printers can print only to within a quarter-inch of the paper’s edge.
This means that your bleeds won’t print if you’re trying to print a year-
book-size page on a standard 81⁄2-by-11-inch piece of paper. One way to
get around this problem is to use the page layout program’s Scale option
to print a reduced version of the page. In our experience, 65 percent
works well. You can also select “Reduce to Fit” in some programs.
Managing White Space Use white space to make design
elements stand out. White space provides a background that emphasizes
whatever it surrounds. You can strengthen your message by using white
space to focus the reader’s attention on your words and ideas.
The opposite of carefully plotted and planned white space is trapped
white space, white space in the middle of a page. Avoid this trapped white
space, as it creates unsightly holes and leads to an unfinished look.
430 MIXED MEDIA

Headline goes here FIGURE 18.11
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HOW BLEEDS CAN MAKE
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White space also helps avoid perfectly balanced pages. Perfect bal-
ance can lead to boredom and interrupted eye movement. A moment of
indecision often occurs when a reader’s eyes are faced with equal-sized
elements. “What do I look at first?” the reader wonders. That’s one
reason a dominant photo is so important—it tells the reader where to
look first as he or she turns to a spread. White space also can help create
a more dynamic kind of balance (nonsymmetrical) as it creates areas of
unequal size.
Your Beat
1. Collect a group of five photos and design a year- b. Create a layout using one of these styles:
book or magazine spread with them. You can add a Mondrian, isolated element, modular, “hang it
headline, story (any length you like, but somewhere from a line” or skyline.
between five and 10 column inches) and captions to 2. Scan several magazines or yearbooks from other
complete your design. To make the assignment more schools, if they’re available. Identify a favorite and
challenging, try these two ideas. a least favorite layout. Explain your reasons to your
a. Create a layout in each of these column formats: classmates, and ask them to share their favorites
2, 3, 4, 5 and 2 plus. with you.

Chapter Review
Show that you know the meanings of the following key terms by
correctly using them in complete sentences. Write your answers
on a separate sheet of paper.
title page ladder column
folio signature elements of
table of contents mini-mag a spread
opening section tip-in external margin
double-page magazine bleed
spread literary magazine eyeline
closing section creative arts
colophon magazine
people pages general interest
mug pages magazine
panel pages special interest
theme magazine
logo zine
end sheets mosaic concept
division pages of design
Open Forum
1. Two students at your school are killed in a car accident after a bas-
ketball game one rainy night. It was a one-car accident. The accident
report said the car hydroplaned and jetted across the highway. It
rolled into the opposite ditch, and both students were thrown out of
the car. They were not wearing seat belts. The alcohol levels in their
blood were above the legal limit. Will you recognize their deaths in
the yearbook? What facts will you use in the story? Would you omit
anything? Why?
2. You are the editor of the yearbook. The staff has chosen the theme “Just
Who Do We Think We ARE?” As the pages are being finished, you notice
that there are no pictures of the Minority Student Union or the Association
of Native American Students. You question the omissions at the next staff
meeting. The organizations editor says she decided to cut them and give
the extra space to the spirit squad “because more people see the spirit
squad in action, and they work hard to let everyone know who we are.”
The staff is divided on the issue. What is the issue? How would you, as
editor, decide what to do?

432 MIXED MEDIA
Finding the Flaw
Consider the following yearbook or magazine layouts carefully. Each has
a major problem. Identify it, and show how you would correct the problem.
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Media Watch
1. Author Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., noted that “High school is closer to the
core of the American experience than anything else I can think of.”
His statement is certainly true in the sense that nearly everyone—
famous and nonfamous alike—passes through high school. If you
really want to know the deep, dark secrets of your favorite celebri-
ties, read their high school yearbooks.

MEDIA WATCH, continued
You may find, for example, interesting pairs of classmates. Actor

Robert Redford and baseball great Don Drysdale were class-
mates at Van Nuys High School in 1954. Golfer Arnold Palmer
and “Mr.” Fred Rogers of television fame were a year apart at
Latrobe, Pennsylvania High School. Actors Rock Hudson and
Charlton Heston were two years apart at New Trier High School in
Winnetka, Illinois.
“Our society is obsessed with celebrities,” said Seth Poppel, the
owner of more than 500 celebrity high school yearbooks. Poppel
was largely responsible for the Memories Magazine Yearbook, a
fast-selling collection of celebrities’ high school graduation photos
that was published in the 1990s.
Poppel once paid $200 for a copy of a yearbook from Commerce
High School in Commerce, Oklahoma. The yearbook contained
pictures of its most famous graduate, Mickey Mantle. Poppel’s
prize find was Elvis Presley’s yearbook from Humes High in
Memphis, Tennessee. His most expensive purchase was a $4,000
copy of Lou Gehrig’s yearbook. But the Holy Grail of yearbook col-
lecting has eluded Poppel. “Babe Ruth went to high school at St.
Mary’s Orphanage in Baltimore,” Poppel said. “He left in 1914, and
I’ve been trying to ascertain if any yearbook was published with
the graduating class.” Be on the lookout—if you find the Babe’s
yearbook, your fortune may be made. Meanwhile, look through old
yearbooks from your school to find photos of famous graduates.
Portfolio
To prepare for the following exercises, gather a variety of magazines to give
you some raw material. Check with your journalism teacher to see if he or
she has examples of yearbooks from other schools that you could borrow.
1. Select five magazine layouts that you admire. Make notes about
any changes you would need to make to adapt the layouts for a
school publication.
2. Clip five ads that give you ideas for yearbook themes. Highlight the
words or phrases you like best. Jot down suggestions for carrying
the theme throughout the book.
3. Look through yearbooks from other schools. Make a list of ideas
for feature stories that you might adapt for your book.
4. From other yearbooks, copy or sketch layout ideas for theme
pages and division pages, as well as for each section of your book.
Note what you especially like about each layout idea and how you
might change it to make it more appropriate for your book—maybe
a change of typeface or a different headline treatment.
434 MIXED MEDIA

Chapter 19
Broadcast
News
We have reconstructed the Tower of Babel,
and it is a television antenna.
—Ted Koppel, television broadcaster
435
the meaning of these terms: • discuss the major differences between a news story
broadcast journalism prepared for broadcast and one written for a newspaper,
natural sound • explain why broadcast writing is usually informal
reveal and conversational,
mass media • list the advantages radio has over other communication media,
announcer
• identify the crew positions needed for a typical
deejay television production,
newscaster
news package
• discuss the role the Federal Communications Commission
plays in regulating the broadcast media,
commercial
television station • create a script for a news story in both radio and television formats.
public television
station
syndicated
programming
I
digital cable n this chapter you will learn about the unique characteristics of
broadcast journalism—radio and television. Unlike print journal-
television
ism (newspapers and magazines), where readers can return again
talent
and again to check facts or review a message, broadcasters have a
script small and fleeting window of opportunity to get their message across.
pronouncer Broadcast messages have a brief life. As a listener or viewer, you have
cart one chance to catch the message, and then it’s gone. The fact that
incue broadcast news is here one second and gone the next has a great deal
outcue to do with why broadcast news takes the form it does.
total running
time (TRT)
stand-up
script rundown HOW BROADCAST NEWS DIFFERS
FROM PRINT NEWS
What if Abraham Lincoln were alive today and traveling by train
from Washington, D.C., to Gettysburg to dedicate a new Civil War
cemetery? What if people in the news media anticipated a major presi-
dential address from Lincoln that would touch on issues of national
importance? How would they organize their news coverage?
If the reporters worked for CNN (Cable News Network), a round-
the-clock television news network, they would probably schedule a
30-minute program with live, on-the-scene reporting. They might have
problems with Honest Abe, however, because the Gettysburg Address
lasted only about two and a half minutes.
We can almost imagine a reporter saying to herself, “He’s done
already? What do we do now?” Meanwhile, an editor in a nearby com-
mand truck might be muttering, “What’s that four score thing? Why
doesn’t he just say 87 years?”
Thinking about how television reporters might cover the Gettysburg
Address gives us a good chance to see both the strengths and weaknesses
436 MIXED MEDIA

of broadcast journalism. Broadcast journalism is the transmission broadcast journalism
of news on television or radio. The great strength of broadcast is, of the transmission of news on
course, its immediacy—its power to give a viewer or listener the feel- television or radio
ing that “I’m there” as news is happening. Television gives viewers the
sights and motions of an event. Radio gives listeners sounds: the crack
of the bat at a baseball game or the boom of an explosion.
Broadcast news segments are limited by time, not space. Many sto-
ries must be told in 30 seconds or less. That’s not very long to cover
a story in any detail. In fact, if you took all the words spoken during
a 30-minute television news show and printed them in a newspaper,
they wouldn’t even cover the front page. Generally speaking, print
journalism provides greater substance in its reporting. Broadcast jour-
nalism, however, often lends itself better to our fast-paced lives and
short attention spans.
Writing to Pictures and Sounds

Television news broadcasting combines words and video images.
In television, as one observer notes, “you can show the sunset.” That
means that most of the time, television news reporters write their
stories to fit the pictures, a process that generally involves “underwrit-
ing.” In other words, reporters don’t try to describe what viewers can
see for themselves but rather provide brief snippets of supplementary
information. Typically, the pictures carry the story, and the words serve
mainly to complement what the viewers see. “One always writes with a
picture in mind,” explained longtime television reporter and CBS cor-
respondent Charles Kuralt.
Video images dominate television news. A high school broadcasting
class, for example, decided to do a story on winter activities in the area.
The students began with the normal interviews—talking to students
who enjoyed skiing and ice skating, plus local merchants who rented or
sold winter sports equipment. But one of the students thought the story
wasn’t exciting enough. He suggested they try a “sled cam.” One of the
students in the class had a toboggan, and the students made arrange-
ments to meet at a local hill on a snowy afternoon. The student who sat
in the front of the toboggan held a camcorder while the others pushed
and steered. Before long, the students had enough thrilling sled cam
videotape (complete with swoops and spills) to build their story. They
used sound bites from the interviews to provide supporting information
but made their trips down the slope the main visuals for the story.
Radio news broadcasts, like television news broadcasts, consist of
more than just words. In radio news, reporters use natural sound to
present a story. Natural sound, or nat sound for short, refers to the natural sound
noises and voices that can be heard at the scene of a news event. the noises and voices that can
Elizabeth Arnold of National Public Radio (NPR) says natural sound be heard at the scene of a
can be used to make a point or establish a mood. In print news, for news event, which radio news
example, you can’t capture the rasp in an old man’s voice when he reporters work into their
says he doesn’t want a cut in Medicare. Typically, radio news reporters reports; also called nat sound
work moments of natural sound into their reports every two or three
sentences.
BROADCAST NEWS 437

Former CBS News anchor Dan
Rather hosts Dan Rather Reports,
a TV news magazine, and writes
a syndicated newspaper column.
The Dramatic Style of Broadcast Journalism

Broadcast news generally requires a little tension, a little drama, a lit-
tle something extra to pull listeners or viewers in. Broadcast writers try
hard to sustain the interest of the viewer or listener by creating a feeling
of drama or suspense. Those who write for broadcast make an effort to
find an especially dynamic verb, to avoid dense collections of facts, and
especially to round off numbers so they are more listener-friendly.
Newspaper stories are top-heavy. The lead in a newspaper story gives
the essentials. Then, as the story continues, the information becomes
less and less important. This is because newspaper stories are designed
to let readers read as much or as little as they like. Newspaper reporters
don’t even know where their story will end. Layout designers reserve the
right to cut the bottom off a story to make it fit the space available.
In broadcast news, however, reporters try to hold a listener’s interest
throughout the story. That’s why clever writers introduce new thoughts
as the story moves along. One technique some broadcast reporters use
reveal is called a reveal. This technique requires the writer to hold back a key
a technique in broadcast piece of information and then reveal it as the story develops. For exam-
news in which the reporter ple, a reporter might begin a broadcast news segment this way: “Maven
holds back a key piece of Johnson is an airline pilot. He’s been flying from Los Angeles to New York
information and then reveals and back several days a week for the past twenty years.” So far, so good,
it as the story develops but nothing very interesting has been said. Now comes the revealing part
of the story: “Johnson is blind.” A typical newspaper reporter might write
the same story this way: “A blind pilot has been flying the friendly skies
for twenty years.” That story, however, does not approach having the
kind of impact or listener appeal that the broadcast version does.
A story also ends quite differently in broadcast news than in print
news. “I give equal attention to the end of a story,” noted Kuralt. “The
way a story ends gives the thought or feeling a viewer will take away.”
Frequently, broadcast reporters save their most poignant piece of infor-
mation for the end. No editor could afford to cut from the bottom in
television or radio reporting.
The Conversational Style of Broadcast

Journalism
Andy Rooney of CBS’s 60 Minutes suggests that broadcast news aims
for a middle ground between how people talk and how they write.
438 MIXED MEDIA
“When we talk,” Rooney says, “we repeat ourselves and beat around
the bush.” Those flaws can be avoided in broadcast news writing, but
the sound should still be conversational. After all, on both television SAN JOSE, California, 1909—
and radio, the announcer is still saying the news to an audience. The first radio station to have
Broadcast stories must above all be clear. The viewer or listener has a regular schedule of programs
only one chance to grasp the meaning of a story. A newspaper reader was experimental station FN,
can take five, 10 or 20 minutes to study a story, but a television or owned by Charles D. “Doc”
radio listener must grasp a story in as little as 30 seconds. This requires Herrold of San Jose, California.
a certain simplicity in language and presentation. On top of a local bank build-
In newspaper writing, reporters may use long sentences full of ing, Herrold constructed an
clauses. Consider this lead from the Baltimore Sun, regarding an unusual antenna that was so large that
wires from it spread to the tops
Chinese cultural custom.
of several nearby buildings.
Under pressure from international animal-rights groups, the Chinese Using a primitive microphone,
government has drafted regulations to prohibit the feeding of large he began live broadcasting in
mammals—such as live cows, pigs and sheep—to tigers and lions as 1909 with a program of news
a form of public entertainment. and music every Wednesday
That lead is more than a mouthful, especially from a broadcast perspec- night.
tive. The sentence is far too long and clogged with dependent clauses Doc built receivers and dis-
tributed them to hotel lobbies
and participial phrases. Much of the vocabulary, too, is inappropri-
so people could hear his sta-
ate for the conversational style of broadcast reporting. Words such as tion. A local store placed receiv-
drafted regulations and prohibited, for example, are within most adults’ ing sets in a special listening
reading vocabularies but are rather hard to follow in spoken conversa- room and hooked up telephone
tion. A broadcast version of that story might start like this: receivers so customers could
Lions and tigers and bears will have to settle for pet food instead of listen to the music.
snacking on cows and pigs if new laws in China take effect. Herrold’s wife, Sybil, may
have been the first woman
Clear and direct language is at the heart of effective broadcast writ-
on radio. She hosted a music
ing. “Whenever I see ‘which’s,’” explains Joyce Davis of NPR, “I take program for young people and
them out.” Davis says that besides simplifying language and shortening even accepted requests for
sentences, she tries to find a lead “as grabby as possible.” You’ve got to songs.
hook the reader after the first five or ten seconds of the story, she says. Herrold also opened a broad-
Print journalists try to hook readers, too, but broadcast writers face a casting school in 1909.
greater challenge in holding their audience’s interest throughout the Today, station FN is San
entire story. Francisco’s KCBS.
Your Beat
1. Record a local television news show, and compare 2. Take a class survey to find out where students get most
its coverage with that of a local newspaper published of their news—both local and national. Where do they
the next morning. Did the same stories get covered? turn first to find information about a breaking story?
Were some stories ignored on the television news?
What differences can you detect in the way a given
story was covered by each medium? If possible,
record a local radio news show and make a similar
comparison.
BROADCAST NEWS 439

THE WORLD OF RADIO
An unknown speaker once said that “of all the peoples in the world,
Americans, with their millions of television and radio sets, stand in
great fear of a moment of silence.” That statement certainly seems to
apply to teenagers, who are perhaps the most important group of radio
listeners in America. Arbitron, the company that compiles radio rat-
ings, says its surveys show that about 93 percent of teens aged 12 and
up listen to the radio at least once a week. “Radio is simply a part of
their daily lives,” concluded one study.
Not only is radio immensely popular with teens but it is also the most
mass media universal of all the mass media (the means of communication that
the means of communication can reach large audiences). Nowhere is there a patch of land or stretch
that can reach large audiences of ocean so remote that it cannot be reached by radio signals beamed
from more than 44,000 stations worldwide. Over a third of those sta-
tions are located in the United States, where nearly every home has at
least one radio. In fact, with about 800 million radios nationwide, we
have an average of nearly three radios for every citizen.
Another form of radio broadcasting, Internet radio, is also vying for
listeners. It is estimated that about 70 million people from around the
world listen to Internet radio each month. With more than 10,000
online radio stations, people can listen to millions of songs, talk shows,
and sporting events from all over the world. In recent years, satellite
radio has become popular with millions of listeners. Radio signals
are broadcast from communications satellites to listeners and cover a
much wider range than conventional radio. Listeners can hear their
favorite stations anywhere in North America.
What Radio Does Best

Radio has a number of significant advantages over other forms of
communication.
• First, radios are portable, inexpensive and convenient. You
can take them with you wherever you go.
• In emergencies, radio keeps people informed. In times of
extreme danger, such as blizzards, tornadoes and floods,
radio can save lives.
• Radio news coverage is fast and adaptable. When a major
news event occurs, radio can sometimes get the story first.
Reporters armed only with cellular phones can be on the
air instantly. Television reports require heavier, bulkier
equipment, and most television stations have limited
resources for broadcasts from remote sites.
• People can listen to the radio while they are doing other
activities, such as driving, working, cleaning, and even
halfheartedly trying to wake up. This mobility is impossible
while watching television because most sets are large.
• Unlike television, radio doesn’t need visuals to cover a story.
Thus, radio stations can run more newscasts—sometimes
every hour—than television stations. They can therefore
update information on stories more frequently.
440 MIXED MEDIA
Radio Touches Your Imagination Out Take
Radio can swiftly take you to the outer reaches of your imagination.
Images Overwhelm Words
It can put a circus, the Super Bowl or a music festival between your ears.
Radio provides the sounds, and you provide the rest. Consider this: A Former President Ronald
team of experts would need months to create the following commercial Reagan’s “media handlers”
for television. Two people in a radio studio could do it in minutes: understood the power of images.
“Fred, we’re here today on the shores of Lake Michigan to witness When the government cut its
an incredible demonstration.” support for nursing homes, for
“Yes, that’s right, Frank. A team of scientists is about to create the example, Reagan was filmed
world’s largest cup of hot chocolate.” visiting a nursing home. The
“It looks like they have just begun. Let’s listen.” film appeared on television, and
(sounds of Lake Michigan being emptied—water sucked down the drain) the bad news faded. The image
“Amazing, isn’t it? Look at that mud!” was so much more powerful
(sounds of someone stepping in and out of mud.) than the words being spoken
“Catch this, Frank. Hundreds of tankers are pulling up to the that people—over 50 percent
shore.” of the viewers, according to the
“If I don’t miss my guess, Fred, they’re loaded with hot choco- television network’s own sur-
late.” vey—still believed that Reagan
(sounds of tankers rolling to a stop, then pumping liquid) supported nursing homes.
“Look at the steam rise. And hey, what’s that?” Source: Adapted from Larry Gonick,
“We’re scheduled to have a fleet of crop-dusting planes fly over Cartoon Guide to (Non) Communi-
next, and they’re loaded with whipped topping. Here they come.” cation (New York: HarperCollins).
(sounds of planes flying over and then sound of a whipped cream can
shooting out cream)
“That’s incredible! A mountain of cream on top of a lake of
steaming hot chocolate.”
“Well, there you have it. I thought I’d seen it all. Looks like
another world first for radio.”
Radio’s sound effects, simple and yet completely convincing, give radio
a special kind of intimacy—the kind that gives listeners a feeling of
being at the heart of the action.
Radio is probably a vital part of your life. It brings you the latest
in music and keeps you up-to-date on local and national news. Radio
is also a constant companion, staying with you while you wash your
car, do the laundry
This deejay might be reading
or struggle with your a fanciful script just like the one on
homework. What you this page.
may not realize is that
radio also offers some
of the best opportuni-
ties to enter a broad-
casting career. Many
young people have
found that a part-time
job at a radio station
can eventually lead to
full-time work as a dee-
jay or to a position in
television.
BROADCAST NEWS 441

Working in Radio
If you’re willing to start at the bottom, work hard and learn the
business inside and out, you have an excellent chance to break into
radio—perhaps even before you finish high school. Among the many
famous people who started out in radio are Ronald Reagan, Dan Rather
and George Carlin.
Beginning a Radio Career The radio industry cur-

rently employs over 100,000 people, a number that is likely to grow as
more stations go on the air. An average-size station employs between
20 and 25 people. About a third of those will have on-air responsibili-
ties. Entry-level positions in radio seldom pay well. In fact, many small
stations may start you at little better than minimum wage. But the
experience gained at these low-budget operations more than makes
up for the small salaries. During the first year or two in radio, you
pay your dues by learning the ropes. The small radio station provides
inexperienced people with a chance to become involved in all facets
of the business.
On-Air Positions People who speak on the air often become

familiar companions as they pass the day with us on the radio. On-air
positions include announcers, deejays, newscasters, sportscasters, talk
show hosts and the people who lend their voices to the hundreds of
commercials we hear every day.
announcer • An announcer is anyone who reads commercials, pub-
a person who reads com- lic service announcements, promotions or station iden-
mercials, public service tifications. The duties of an announcer vary, depending
announcements, promotions on the size of the station. At a small station, announcers
or station identifications on also work as writers. For example, a midday announcer
the radio who is on the air from 10 a.m. until 3 p.m. may also be
responsible for writing the 4 and 5 p.m. newscasts and
any commercials that are needed.
deejay • A deejay is the host of a music program. Deejays must
the host of a radio music be announcers and entertainers, especially during radio’s
program; short for disc jockey prime time (from 7 to 9 a.m. and from 5 to 7 p.m.),
when people are listening in their cars driving to and
from work. Deejays are actually on the air less than you
might think. Music and commercials take up at least 50
minutes of every hour. A typical hour on the morning
show of a full-service station may consist of 15 min-
utes of news, 14 minutes of commercials, six minutes
of sports, 12 to 15 minutes of music and five minutes
of network news. That leaves just six minutes or so for
the host to speak. Many of today’s most popular deejays
have sidekicks, and most specialize in comedy.
newscaster • Newscasters, like other journalists, work hard at know-
the person who reads the ing their subjects. A newscaster is someone who reads,
news over the air; in televi- and often writes, the news over the air. Newscasters must
sion, also called an anchor study the court system, law enforcement, education and
a host of other topics of public interest to give credibility
442 MIXED MEDIA

Being a deejay takes more than
a good voice and love of music. You
have to have technical skills and the
ability to do more than one task at
a time. Some deejays serve as their
own programmer, sound engineer
and announcer.
to their reports. Because news stories on radio are very

short, the newscaster must understand their complete
context to give listeners a balanced perspective.
In particular, newscasters must be familiar with the way radio news
stories are put together. Most stories, for example, use natural sound
(recordings made on location in the field on audiotape). Natural sounds
include the noises of an event, such as the sirens of a fire engine or news package
the chantings of a group of protesters. A radio story may also include a a complete news story,
sound bite—a brief portion of a taped interview. Sound bites are simi- including natural sound,
lar to the quotations in a newspaper story. Finally, the newscaster may sound bites and the
either prepare or introduce a news package. A package is a complete reporter’s narration
story, including natural sound, sound bites and the reporter’s narration.
Your Beat
1. Find out about the local radio stations in your area. same survey to your classmates’ parents. How can
Which station is affiliated with which network? Who you account for whatever differences you find?
owns the stations? Are any of them independent 3. Interview a station’s general manager. Ask what
(not affiliated with a network)? qualities the manager looks for when hiring young
2. Take a survey to find out which radio station is the people to work at the station.
most popular among your classmates. Give the
BROADCAST NEWS 443

Out Take THE WORLD OF TELEVISION
Wasted Words The word television comes from the Greek word tele, meaning “far,”
and the Latin word videre, meaning “to see.” In other words, television
On May 9, 1961, Newton
means “to see far.” And when it comes to seeing far, nothing quite
Minow, then-chairperson of
approaches television, either in the sheer abundance of its programs or
the Federal Communications
the vast size of its audience. It offers a mammoth supply of news, fun,
Commission, stunned a meet-
art and sport at the touch of a button. It is the next best thing to curl-
ing of professional broadcasters
ing up in front of a national fireplace.
by denouncing the quality of
“Deal or no deal?” “The tribal council has spoken.” If these catch-
television: “Sit down in front of
phrases sound familiar to you, welcome to the club. The United
your television set when your
States has become a nation of TV addicts. Whether you are home
station goes on the air . . . and
alone, snowbound, bedridden or trying to stave off boredom, televi-
keep your eyes glued to that set
sion is probably one of your favorite companions. It gives you the
until the station signs off. I can
time, the weather and the latest news. It plays, sings, whistles and
assure you that you will observe
dances. It takes you to movies and theaters, concerts and operas,
a vast wasteland.” That famous
prizefights and baseball games. It brings you face to face with floods,
critique of television came from
earthquakes and fires; introduces you to presidents, kings, emirs and
a speech that Minow gave, in
sultans; and teaches you French, home decorating tips and first aid.
which he evoked T. S. Eliot’s
Unfortunately, it is also, as many critics have observed, “chewing
famous poem The Waste Land.
gum for the eyes.”
Thirty years later, Minow
At its best, television can touch your heart and mind. It delivers
observed that his speech
generous amounts of information and entertainment on command. It
was remembered for only two
can bring an entire nation together to celebrate (as it did at the dawn
words: vast wasteland. Those
of the new millennium) or to mourn (as it did following the devasta-
two words, however, were not
tion caused by Hurricane Katrina). At its worst, television can numb
the ones he wanted remem-
us. Critics charge that it stifles conversation, promotes violence among
bered. Minow was more con-
children and may be one of the causes of illiteracy.
cerned with the public interest.
Nevertheless, television remains a tremendously important medium
Echoing another well-known
because it can reach enormous audiences. Consumer guides report
phrase—this time from John F.
there are televisions in about 98 percent of all American homes. In
Kennedy—Minow explained, “To
fact, we are rapidly nearing the day when there will be a television
me the public interest meant,
set for every man, woman and child in the United States. This perva-
and still means, that we should
siveness has enabled television to reach amazing numbers of people.
constantly ask, ‘What can tele-
In 1969, about 125 million Americans watched Neil Armstrong “take
vision do for our country?’”
one giant leap for mankind” on the moon. In 1985, a worldwide
Source: Adapted from “‘Vast audience estimated at 1.5 billion people watched Live Aid, a benefit
Wasteland’ Author Still Displeased concert for famine victims in Africa. More than any other medium of
With TV” by Tim Jones, Chicago communication, television has the power to make all of us residents
Tribune. of a single global village.
The Tuned-In Generation

Unless you’re not a TV fan, you’re part of a tuned-in generation.
Recent studies indicate that American students watch an average of
23 hours of television a week. If you keep up that pace, you will have
spent a full year of your life in front of the “boob tube” by age 70. The
Nielsen Company, whose powerful ratings system determines the fate
of your favorite shows, reports that a television set is on at least six
hours a day in the average American home.
444 MIXED MEDIA
Television journalism has changed our political process beyond
recognition. The first televised debate between John F. Kennedy and
Richard Nixon helped Kennedy gain supporters because he was more
dignified and attractive than Nixon. Today, televised political debates
are a major part of every campaign. News broadcasters also scrutinize
private lives of our leaders and celebrities more than ever before.
Who Owns the Airwaves?

According to the CIA World Factbook, there are about 21,000 television Would Abraham Lincoln's
stations in the world. Approximately three-fourths of the 2,200 television appearance help or hinder him in
stations in the United States are commercial television stations. That today’s political arena?
means that they depend on advertising to provide their income. Most of
these stations are affiliated with one of the four major networks—ABC,
NBC, CBS and Fox—that provide the great majority of their programs, commercial
including news programs each evening. Commercial stations produce television station
some of their own shows, but they must run network programming dur- a television station that
ing prime time (the evening hours from 8 to 11 p.m., Eastern Standard depends on advertising to
Time). Other television stations are public television stations. They provide its income
rely on grants and donations to pay their operating costs.
A local station (a station based in your town or area) produces some
of its own programming (such as news or local talk shows). It also takes public television station
programming from the network it’s affiliated with, such as Lost or 24. a television station that relies
A station may also purchase syndicated programming. Syndicated on grants and contributions to
programming refers to television shows produced by independent pay its operating costs
companies, such as Access Hollywood or Wheel of Fortune. Syndicated
programming also includes shows that are in reruns or have aired for
many seasons, such as The Simpsons or Law and Order. syndicated programming
The signal provided by both commercial and public stations is free original television shows
to viewers, assuming they have a receiver and an antenna. Yet millions produced by independent
of Americans choose to pay for their television by subscribing to digital companies. Local stations
cable televison. Digital cable television is one of the fastest-growing purchase this programming
areas of the television industry. Digital cable companies receive signals to use during non-network
from many different sources and then transmit the signals via fiber- hours.
optic cables to consumers.
Digital cable transmits regular network programs as well as 24-hour
digital cable television
news, weather and sports; programming from independent stations;
first-run movies; and special events like the Olympic games. Viewers television sent to consum-
can also digitally record television shows and pause, rewind or fast- ers via fiber-optic cables.
forward live shows. Consumers pay to receive
Television networks have branched out into the Internet world, and digital cable television
many Web sites specialize in streaming television. It is estimated that programming.
one out of every 10 of the world’s Internet users watch online television
programs. Networks such as NBC and ABC now allow viewers to watch
online reruns of their shows, many of which contain commercial ads.
Video-sharing sites such as YouTube have also proven profitable for
networks. NBC and CBS have set up their own channels on the site and
feature teaser clips from many popular programs to entice new viewers.
People can also download commercial-free episodes from services like
iTunes and watch television on their computers or MP3 players.
BROADCAST NEWS 445

Careers in Television
Television offers an exciting and rewarding field for ambitious young
people, especially those who enjoy a competitive atmosphere. Broadcasting
also provides a way to get involved in your community because television
stations play a major role in the daily lives of the people they serve.
The best place for beginners to find employment in television is
usually at a small commercial station, an educational station or a
local cable company. Because small stations have fewer employees
and jobs often overlap, working at a small station will probably give
you a chance to learn many different aspects of television production.
Beginners, however, must be prepared to work odd hours, weekends
and holidays. Experience brings better working conditions and, even-
tually, a chance to work at a larger station.
Jobs in Programming A programming department selects,

plans and produces the programs that the station broadcasts. Nearly
every station produces some of its own shows, including news and sports
events. The program director not only plans the daily schedule but also
develops the station’s policies together with the general manager and
the sales manager. Others who work in the programming department
include producers, directors, writers and public relations directors. Most
stations also have a news staff, which includes a news director, reporters,
writers and assignment editors.
Crew Positions for a Typical Production The

production of a television news program requires teamwork. It takes
total cooperation from both the people who speak and perform before
talent a camera (called the talent) and those behind the camera (the produc-
the people who speak and tion staff). One of the largest staffed departments for most commercial
perform before a camera at a television stations is undoubtedly the newsroom. Each member of the
television station news team has a unique and important role within the newsroom,
although at some smaller stations, the functions of staff members
overlap.
• News Director. In charge of newsroom operations and
actually runs the show. He or she is responsible for decid-
ing which shots the viewer will see during a newscast or
production. The news director is also responsible for hir-
ing and firing staff members, managing the budget, con-
ducting salary reviews and determining schedules. As the
head of the news operation, the news director makes key
editorial decisions about news content.
• Assignment Editor. In charge of day-to-day assignments
within the newsroom. Throughout the day, this person
keeps in contact with crews in the field and communi-
cates with producers about the status of stories. Along
with other staffers, the assignment editor maintains a
file of current and future news events. Typically, mem-
bers of the public first contact the assignment editor
with information, questions or story ideas.
446 MIXED MEDIA

How do you think this reporter
contributes to her community? What
are the responsibilities that go along
with being a local celebrity?
WASHINGTON, D.C., May

1946—A government freeze
on the construction of new
television stations and a halt in
the production of television sets
during World War II slowed the
momentum of the developing
television industry. The number
of stations broadcasting dropped
from the 18 licensed on July 1,
• Producer. Typically responsible for putting together a 1941, to six by the end of the war.
single newscast. He or she determines the story place-
The rush resumed in May
ment within a newscast and the amount of time to 1946, however, when Dumont
allow for each news story, weather and sports. The offered television receivers for
producer may write the news the anchors will read sale. RCA and Philco quickly fol-
on the air and may also be responsible for timing the lowed. Twenty-seven companies
show. The best producers are those who have worked were manufacturing television
as reporters or photographers. However, field experi- sets by the mid-1950s.
ence is not always a requirement, especially at smaller Early marketing efforts were
stations. made uncertain by high cost, lack
• Reporter. Responsible for covering local stories within a of regulations and manufactur-
community. Reporters work with news photographers ing standards, and the specula-
tion that color sets would soon
in gathering information and conducting interviews for
make black-and-white sets obso-
one or more stories. Reporters then write stories and edit lete. Even so, in one year, 1948,
footage for broadcasts. Reporters are also responsible for the number of stations on the
live reporting and occasionally serve as fill-in anchors air jumped from 17 to 48, and
when the main anchor is unavailable. Reporters may the audience multiplied by 4,000
be responsible for a specific beat (such as education or percent.
health) but may also cover a wide variety of stories out- Five- to seven-inch receivers
side their assigned areas. sold for $375 to $500 in 1948,
• Photographer/Editor. A key position in a television news plus $45 to $300 for installation.
operation. A photographer/editor is responsible for Prices dropped by almost half in
the early 1950s.
shooting all the local footage that the news station
The first color programming
broadcasts. In some cases, the photographer acts as the
was telecast in 1953, but it was
reporter to gather information. The photographer/edi- not until December 1966 that
tor is also responsible for technical aspects of the on- more color television sets were
air product, such as editing footage and running live sold than black-and-white sets.
shots. Improved studio cameras with
• Anchor. Responsible for reading the newscast on the air. enhanced color quality, defini-
Anchors work on the front lines in a news organization and resolution, plus the
tion and are the people the public most identifies with. Christmas season, stimulated the
An anchor may help write some of the newscast. The year-end sales.
anchor participates in community events and frequently By 1967, about 16 percent of
homes had color sets.
speaks to the public. An anchor’s performance may help
determine news ratings.
BROADCAST NEWS 447

Out Take • Technical Director. Usually acts as crew chief and does the
video switching (the process of choosing which of sev-
The Voice That eral camera signals to send to viewers).
Caused a Seizure • Camera Operator. Operates a studio camera and often
manages lighting.
Whether you have a pleasant • Floor Director. Coordinates all studio activities, including
voice or not, you have probably camera operation, microphones and lighting. He or she
never driven anyone up the wall relays the director’s instructions to all studio personnel.
simply by speaking. That is not • Graphic Artist. Prepares titles, slides and other materials
the case with television personal- needed for visual presentation.
ity Mary Hart, whose voice once • Character Generator. Operates the character generator, a
caused an epileptic seizure. device used to put words on the screen.
According to Dr. Venkat • Audio Engineer. In charge of all audio operations. During
Ramani, who reported the case a production, an audio engineer runs the audio control
in the New England Journal of board, which raises and lowers microphone levels.
Medicine, Hart’s voice caused one • Set Designer. Designs and constructs the sets and provides
of his patients to have seizures. the necessary props.
In a laboratory test, Ramani
said, his patient would rub her
stomach and hold her head, “and Broadcast Ethics
then she would look confused
and . . . like she was far away Explicit sex! Full frontal nudity! Blood and gore! Well, not quite.
and out of it” when he played a Since the television industry began, those who produce its programs
tape of Hart’s voice. He added have been accused of presenting material that shocks and offends. To
that the woman has not had what degree are broadcasters guilty of these charges? Are they simply
any seizures since she stopped giving the public what it wants? Are there guidelines, rules or restric-
watching Hart on television. tions that govern what can and can’t be shown, said or played?
“It’s the pitch and quality of
the voice as a sound, rather than The Federal Communications Commission
what she’s actually saying,” com- Television depends on a limited resource, the airwaves, to deliver mes-
mented Dr. Marc Dichter of the sages to its viewers. According to U.S. law, the airwaves are owned by
University of Pennsylvania Medical the people. They are a natural resource, just like water or air, and they
School. Swamped with hundreds cannot be bought or sold. Because so many people would like to use a
of requests for a response, Hart portion of the airwaves, though, some government regulation is neces-
could only say, “My heart goes sary. Without the assignment of space (what we frequently call chan-
out to anyone with this problem.” nels) by a central authority, communications would be chaotic.
Unless you sound like a For this reason, Congress established the Federal Communications
piece of chalk squeaking on the Commission (FCC) in 1934. The FCC is an independent federal agency
blackboard, you can probably composed of five commissioners appointed by the president. It licenses
draw some confidence from this radio and television stations and assigns frequencies for their use. It
strange story. At one time, nearly determines the call letters a station will use and regulates the amount
all the voices in broadcasting of power a station can have.
were rich, masculine baritones. More to the point, the FCC also sets standards that must be met if
Now, however, there’s room for a station hopes to have its license renewed. The number of commer-
a wide variety of voices. Yours cials a station may carry, for example, is strictly limited by the FCC.
may soon be one of them. (Fortunately, there is no rule yet to prevent all of us from switching
channels during those commercials.) What about the content of the
Source: Adapted from “That’s
programs themselves, though?
Entertainment,” Science News.
448 MIXED MEDIA

Tabitha Soren
S
he was MTV’s top his mind only days before the it’s more casual and there’s not
political reporter. Wait election, but by then he was a lot of posturing. I ask differ-
a minute. MTV’s what? already trailing MTV regu- ent questions, they are caught
Tabitha Soren, youthful vet- lar Bill Clinton. By contrast, off guard, and they act more
eran of two presidential elec- Republican senator Bob Dole, human because they have to
tions, brightened the some- at age 72 one of the old- think of an answer on the spot.”
times mundane campaign trail est candidates for president, During an interview in the
in the 1990s with her unique appeared on MTV’s Choose Oval Office, for example, Soren
brand of personal reporting, or Lose election program to asked President Clinton what
a style well suited to MTV’s be interviewed by Soren. he thought about the death of
young and restless audience. Soren grew up in a military Jerry Garcia, the lead singer
A novelty when she covered family that moved frequently. for the Grateful Dead. That
the Clinton-Bush race in She developed an early inter- kind of reporting may not lead
1992 at the age of 24, Soren est in foreign affairs. She to major scoops, but it can
became an accepted member came to MTV from a televi- reveal the person behind the
of the mainstream media in sion station in Vermont, where pose, a Soren specialty.
the Clinton-Dole race in 1996. she anchored the late news Soren continued to work as
“Politicians, because they and served as statehouse a journalist after her years at
notice us getting noticed,” correspondent. At MTV, MTV and produced a number
Soren explained, “are now she became a new kind of of documentaries and reports
making an effort to appeal to reporter. She deliberately on such topics as women in the
this voter block.” MTV viewers avoided the sort of glamour military and teen pregnancy.
are primarily those in the 16- sometimes projected by other Source: Adapted from “Prime Time” by
to 30-year-old age bracket. major network reporters. Frazier Moore. Star Express, Lincoln, Neb.
In 1992, President George Indeed, her fingernails were
H. W. Bush noted that he sometimes painted purple.
was not a “teeny bopper” and “I think I act differently than
therefore had no business a lot of reporters,” Soren said.
being on MTV. He changed “When I interview someone,
Self-Censorship The FCC is rarely involved with specific

cases of censorship. When broadcasters complain that their ideas have
been rejected as being unacceptable, they are usually complaining
about the major television networks, which set their own standards for
what is acceptable and in good taste. In the 1950s, for instance, Lucy
Ricardo was never allowed to refer to herself as being “pregnant” on
I Love Lucy, even though there was little doubt she would soon be a
mother. Times have changed. Almost 50 years later, the cast of Saturday
Night Live went out of its way to show off a new attitude toward censor-
ship. In a skit set at a nudist club, the cast stood behind a bar, appar-
ently undressed, and discussed the human anatomy in graphic terms.
But not everything is acceptable. MTV, the all-music channel, has
rejected videos that were too explicit. The networks all observe some rules
of thumb about what should be shown during prime time (8 to 11 p.m.,
BROADCAST NEWS 449

Eastern Standard Time) and family time (8 to 9 p.m., Eastern Standard
Time). Advertisers occasionally pull their ads if they find something
objectionable in a program. Parent groups have put considerable pres-
sure on the networks to monitor the level of violence in children’s
cartoons.
Student broadcasters who tape their own stories may find that their
“street” interviews sometimes must be carefully edited. All of us, and
teenagers in particular, tend to speak in an earthier way than what is
normally accepted in television, South Park excepted. So student report-
ers should expect to spend extra time doing video editing when they
use unrehearsed interviews.
Your Beat
1. Challenge one another to bring your funniest home 2. Keep a television viewing log for a week. Ask your
videos to class. Watch for technical mistakes, such parents and siblings to do so as well. Compare the
as camera movement that is too rapid. viewing habits of teenagers in your class with those
of the younger children and older adults.
PREPARING A BROADCAST SCRIPT

Just like a newspaper reporter, a radio or television journalist will
write news and feature stories that are important and interesting to
the local audience. But the style in which those stories are written is
different than the style for newspaper stories. In radio and television,
script journalists write their stories in the form of scripts.
the form in which a story is
written for radio or television
Editing a Broadcast Script
Broadcast scripts must be prepared for reading aloud. Whatever the
station’s style, the important thing is that the script be easy to read
aloud. The person who will be reading from the script may not have
had time to practice it before going on the air or may be looking into
the camera while reading from a scrolling teleprompter screen.
Some stations prefer scripts typed in all capital letters; some use capi-
tal and lowercase letters. Some stations double-space scripts; some pre-
fer single-spaced or even triple-spaced scripts. Some indent paragraphs;
some don’t. Individual newscasters may even devise their own editing
styles. The secret is to learn the station’s style and use it.
Broadcast scripts are edited using special copyediting symbols. Some
of the symbols for broadcast are different from those used in print
450 MIXED MEDIA (Continues on page 452)

PEGGY RUPRECHT FORMER REPORTER FOR KMTV IN OMAHA, NEBRASKA
I usually work a 40-hour week, but my work-

week begins Sunday evening. I’ll work
1:30 to 10:30 p.m., then Monday through
Around this time, the producers and assign-
ment editor have another meeting to talk about
what stories will go in the show. The produc-
Thursday I work 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. However, ers will make a final decision on what stories
every reporter’s schedule is different. Some they want in their newscast. After I return from
work weekends, some work nights. the field with my video and interviews, I must
When I come to work, I usually take a few log the interviews and begin writing the story.
moments to go through my mail and messages. The photographer will look through the video
At least once a week, I’ll call sources on my beat and decide what will be used in the final story.
(education) to find out what’s happening around After I finish writing the story, I usually have
town. Sources are a good way to keep up-to- one of the producers or the assignment editor
date on what’s happening in the community. check it over. Producers read the story, check-
They can also provide good ideas for stories. ing to see that it is both clear and accurate.
Every morning during the week, the entire After the script is approved, I’ll work with the
news department assembles for a meeting. photographer to edit the package. A full story
We talk about what’s happening that day, and is usually no more than 90 seconds long, but it
everyone shares information about events we may take us an hour or more to edit the story.
should cover or stories we should do. The pro- All this must be done before the assigned
ducers will share their ideas for the news that newscast. If I have the lead story for the
needs to be covered. Then the assignment edi- 5 p.m. news, I must be finished by 5 p.m.
tor passes out assignments for the day. While No exceptions. Missing a deadline is not
reporters make calls to set up interviews for their acceptable in the news business.
stories, the producers will look at network video After I’m done writing the package, I may
and go through the Associated Press (AP) wire write a smaller version of the story (VO, VO/
to see what other stories they’re interested in. SOT) for one of the other newscasts. If I have
The producer works up a tentative rundown on time at the end of the day, I may make addi-
how the newscast will look for that evening. tional contacts with sources about future stories.
I then head out with a photographer into Sometimes, breaking news will force me to work
the field to work on a story. It may take me overtime, but even when I’m not at work, I’m
all day to work on the story. The assignment constantly keeping my eyes open about events
editor makes contact with sources about cur- that would make good stories for our station.
rent or future stories. The assignment editor Background. A television station in a
will also keep in touch with crews in the field medium-sized market can often expect candi-
about the status of a story. The producer will dates for positions as television news report-
begin writing news copy and start thinking ers to have strong writing and verbal skills.
about what stories she wants in her show. The physical requirements for the position
Afternoon reporters and photographers include good vision and hearing, the willing-
come in at 1:30, so assignments are made out ness to endure prolonged standing and the
for them. Anchors also arrive about this time ability to help lift and carry camera equip-
and may work with the producer writing stories. ment weighing approximately 25 pounds.
BROADCAST NEWS 451

journalism, because the copy is meant to be read aloud easily and with
meaning rather than to be read silently. For instance, in editing print,
one line is drawn through words to be omitted. This leaves the words
still legible so that they can be reinserted later if desired. In broadcast,
words to be omitted are completely blacked out so that the announcer
can’t possibly say them by mistake.
In print, the transposition sign is used to change the order of words
or letters. The transposition sign is never used on a broadcast script,
because it is confusing and might cause an announcer to hesitate or
lose his or her place in the script while reading. Words or letters to be
transposed should be completely crossed out and rewritten in the cor-
rect order on a broadcast script.
Other marks, called rehearsal marks, may be added to the broadcast
script to assist the announcer in reading with meaning. Underline or
capitalize words to be stressed. Use ellipses (. . .) or dashes (—) to indi-
cate longer pauses:
The doctor says the quarterback will NOT be able to play Friday
pronouncer . . . but MAY be able to return by next week.
the phonetic spellings of Broadcast scripts include pronouncers, the phonetic spellings of
unfamiliar words or names unfamiliar words or names that are included to assist the announcer in
that are included in broadcast pronouncing the words correctly. The pronouncer appears in parenthe-
scripts to help the announcer ses above or following the correctly spelled word:
correctly pronounce the words Shots were fired in Bihac (BEE-hotch) today.
Shaquille (sha KEEL) O’Neal
Sinead (sha NAYD) O’Connor
A pronouncer is not a substitute for the correct spelling. The names
of people and places mentioned in the script are often superimposed
on the television screen, and their spellings are taken from the script.
Phonetic spellings have appeared on the screen unintentionally when
the correct spellings weren’t included in the script.
Correct spelling is as important in broadcast scripts as it is in print.
Someone will be reading these scripts aloud to an audience, and mis-
spelled words are more likely to be mispronounced. Words with the
same spelling but different pronunciations, such as wind, read, resume
and suspect, are also likely to be mispronounced. Avoid using them
whenever possible.
Numbers in broadcast scripts are written as words from one through
nine and as numerals from 10 through 999. Numbers greater than 1,000
are written as words exactly as they should be spoken, with hyphens
connecting the whole number: one-hundred-thousand-nine-hundred-fifty;
three-million dollars or twenty-one-year-old. Some stations mix numerals
and words: 3-million dollars or 21-year-old. Years are written as numer-
als: 1776 or 1999.
Formatting a Broadcast Script

The way a script looks—including the words a newscaster will read
and instructions about when prerecorded material will be inserted and
for how long—is called a format. Formatting broadcast scripts has been
simplified by computer templates designed to prepare news scripts. The
452 MIXED MEDIA
Broadcast scripts provide
directions for newscasters, camera
operators, technicians and the
director.
templates are fill-in-the-blank forms that ask preparers to insert infor-

mation such as the slug, time and script for each story. Whether the
script is formatted by hand or by computer, the slug should appear in
the upper left corner. It includes the one- or two-word name assigned
to the story, the initials or name of the reporter, and the time of the
newscast when the script will be used. The following is an example of
a slug for the first page of a story:
HOMECOMING/tws/3 p.m.
Each page of the broadcast script should be marked at the top and
bottom so that the person reading the script knows, simply by glancing
at the top or bottom of the page, whether the pages are in order, there
is more to come or this is the last page. The slug on pages after the first
page includes the page number.
HOMECOMING/tws/3 p.m./p.2
Even if each story is typed on a separate page, which is a system that
cart
some stations prefer, the pages should be numbered so there is no con-
fusion between the newscaster and the director or technical assistants a short tape cassette that
as to what comes next. The end of each story or page in broadcast is contains insertions of voices
marked with the same signals used in a print story: (more), (end), (###) or music for use in a radio
or -30-. broadcast
Broadcast scripts also include instructions to directors and technical
assistants. Cues must be indicated to let everyone know when a sound incue
bite or film clip is to be inserted or when the announcer is to do a the first five words of a cart
voice-over (VO). During a voice-over, the newscaster reads from a script
while the viewer watches prerecorded videotape.
Radio scripts are simpler than television scripts, because they only outcue
need to cue the announcer about the insertion of recorded voices or the last five words of a cart
music. These insertions are sometimes put on special tape cassettes
called carts. The first five words (incue), the last five words (outcue)
and the total running time (TRT) of the cart should be noted on total running time (TRT)
the script. Total running time refers to how long the entire tape seg- how long an entire tape
ment lasts; that way the newscaster can tell whether the correct tape is segment lasts
running when it comes on, as well as when the tape is about to end.
BROADCAST NEWS 453

Radio Script Format Radio scripts are usually typed across
the page with margins of approximately one inch on each side. This
produces a script that will take roughly four seconds per line, or 30
seconds per eight lines, to read. Figure 19.1 shows an example of a cor-
rectly formatted radio script.
Television Script Format Television scripts are more

complicated than radio scripts because they must include cues and
instructions to the director. The television news script is divided into
two columns. The left-hand column of the script contains all the infor-
mation the director and crews behind the scenes need to make the pro-
duction run smoothly. The right-hand column contains the news copy
the talent reads, along with any sound bites from sources in the field.
In television news, there are four basic script types: the reader (RDR),
the package (PKG), the voice-over (VO) and the voice-over with sound
on tape (VO/SOT).
• Reader (RDR).This script is the most basic in broadcast-
ing. It is the closest thing to a newspaper story. The
reader contains no video, and the anchor who reads
this script appears on the air the entire time. The news
department uses reader scripts for visually poor stories or
stories where there is no video.
• Package (PKG): This type of script is usually the longest
and most in-depth type of script (Figure 19.2). It con-
tains copy the reporter writes, along with natural sound
and interviews (sound bites) from sources in the field.
On a package, you will hear the reporter’s narration and
stand-up will see him or her in a stand-up. A stand-up is the
when a reporter appears part of the package when a reporter appears on camera,
on camera to explain the explaining information about a story.
information in a story • Voice-Over (VO): This script uses video during part or all
of the story the anchor is reading but contains no inter-
views, just natural sound from the video source.
FIGURE 19.1 HOMECOMING/tws/3 p.m.

A WELL-FORMATTED RADIO Homecoming royalty will be crowned at the dance
SCRIPT following Friday’s football game against Central.
Chair of the Homecoming committee, Jeanne Johnson,
said she expects it to be an exciting coronation:
(CART #1, TRT - :25)
INCUE: “The king and queen will . . .
OUTCUE: “begin about 10:15 in the gym.”
Parents and friends are invited to attend the coronation.
(# # #)
454 MIXED MEDIA

FIGURE 19.2
EXAMPLE OF A PACKAGE SCRIPT
PAGE 50 -<WIDE OR RAFTER OPEN>-

TIME CAPSULE -<RELIEF>-
LORETTA
IMAGINE FINDING PART OF YOUR FAMILY’S HISTORY
FROM MORE THAN 70 YEARS AGO.
THAT’S WHAT HAPPENED IN PAPILLION WHERE THE
SCHOOL DISTRICT RECENTLY FOUND PART OF ITS
PAST.
CHANNEL THREE’S PEGGY SMITH SHOWS US A
TIME CAPSULE AND THE TREAURES HIDDEN INSIDE.
ROLL EJ PKG
-<N.S.5:59>-
THE 74 YEAR OLD TIME CAPSULE CAME FROM
AN ERA WITHOUT COMPUTERS OR TELEVISION . . .
WHERE HORSES AND BUGGIES STILL OUTNUMBERED
CARS.
#Linda Tafoya -<6:38-6:46>-i saw an ad for a chevy that was $525.
#Papillion INSIDE THE METAL BOX . . . A GLIMPSE INTO THE
PAST . . . FROM OLD NEWSPAPERS TO THE NAMES OF
SCHOOLCHILDREN.
-<N.S.12:43>-here i am right down here . . .
#Bud Schwab -<21:05-21:14>to see all those names . . . recognize
#79 Years Old the ones you went to school with . . .which was a long, long
time ago . . .
THE BOX EVEN HELD A BALLOT FOR A THIRTY
THOUSAND DOLLAR SCHOOL BOND ISSUE . . . IT
PASSED BY ONE VOTE.
#Milton Fricke -<16:59-17:06>-if they hadn’t built the school i’d
#86 Years Old been in a room with three grades in it.
#Peggy Smith -<SNDUP 2:51-3:00>-the school district is tearing down this

#The Midlands News Channel old building to make room for the new administrative offices.
it was here . . . under the old cornerstone, where they found
the time capsule.
-<13:37-13:44>-bud schwab was a first grader when the
#Dr. Harlan Metschke cornerstone was put in . . . he explains why there is a time
#Superintendent, Papillion/LaVista capsule behind the cornerstone.
-<N.S.15:37>-what grade were you in . . .
AND NOW, ANOTHER GENERATION OF STUDENTS
HAS A CHANCE TO LEARN FROM THE PAST. WITH
PHOTOGRAPHER BOB JIMENEZ AND PEGGY SMITH
CHANNEL THREE NEWS.
2-SHOT
THE ITEMS IN THE TIME CAPSULE WILL BE PLACED
loretta ON DISPLAY IN THE DISTRICT’S NEW MEDIA CENTER
ONCE THE BUILDING IS FINISHED.
BROADCAST NEWS 455

• Voice-Over with Sound On Tape (VO/SOT): This script is
read by the anchor (Figure 19.3). It contains video, along
with an interview with a source in the field. All four
kinds of television scripts may be written by a producer,
an anchor or a reporter.
The director needs to know the type of script being used for each
segment of a television news broadcast. Thus, the left-hand side of the
script may include any of the following:
• When the newscaster will be reading at the same time a
videotape is running (VO).
• When a computer graphic (CG) will be inserted.
• What the speakers will be saying live from the studio
(O/C, which means On Camera, or LIVE).
• When sound and picture will be on tape (VO/SOT).
• When there is a live picture from a remote location
(REMOTE).
• The time for each segment and the total time (TST/TRT).
• Whatever end-of-page or end-of-script marks are appro-
priate (for example, ###).
On the script, a cue should appear directly across from the line
where a change or insertion will occur. Figure 19.4 shows an example.
FIGURE 19.3 Welfare Reform/:

EXAMPLE OF A VO/ 45/PR/7-23-99
---<Wayne reads>-----
SOT SCRIPT A: Wayne
ctor
Roll cue line tells dire The Senate has given its OK for a bill to
when to roll video
overhaul the nation’s welfare system.
TAKE EJ VO------------- ------------------------------------------
#Washington, D.C. Super
The House passed a similar version of
pose the
Super means to superim the bill just last week.
D.C.” over
words “Washington, The proposed bill limits lifetime welfare
en
the bottom of the scre
assistance to five years and gives states
control of welfare money in the form of block
grants.
Democratic support for the bill is mixed.
Cue for audio person The President also has some reserva-
tions.
TAKE EJ SND FULL------- ------<TAKE SOUND FULL>-----
#President -<soundbite>-“what we should be asking
is does this weaken the protection we give
EJ VO CONTINUES------ children?”
--------------------------------------------
During the last Presidential campaign,
the President promised voters welfare reform.
Both the House and Senate must now
work on a compromise to a welfare bill before
handing it to the President.
456 MIXED MEDIA

HOMECOMING/tws/3 p.m. FIGURE 19.4
A BROADCAST TELEVISION
__________O/C (ANNOUNCER) SCRIPT SHOWING CUES
HOMECOMING ROYALTY WILL BE
CROWNED FRIDAY NIGHT IN
KIEWIT GYMNASIUM FOLLOWING
THE GAME AGAINST CENTRAL.
VO BEGINS _______ (VO)
REHEARSAL FOR THE
CEREMONY WAS HELD IN THE
GYM THIS MORNING. BECCA
BURNETT, HOLLY HO AND
TRT: 10 NICOLE RUSH ARE CANDIDATES
FOR QUEEN, AND JOE SCHEER
(SHARE), MARIO RODRIGUEZ
AND TIM HAYES ARE CANDIDATES
FOR KING.
__________O/C (LIVE)
THE PUBLIC IS INVITED TO
ATTEND THE CEREMONY.
(# # #)
Script Rundowns
Once the producer determines all the news stories that will be run
in the newscast, he or she assembles them on a script rundown. The script rundown
rundown contains a number of elements, including the initials of the instructions prepared by
anchor reading the story, the slug (name of the story), the script type a television producer that
(VO/SOT, VO and so on), the initials of the reporter who wrote the include the initials of the
story and the length of the story (see Figure 19.5 on the next page). anchor reading the story,
The producer typically places hard news or spot news stories near the slug, the script type,
the top of the script rundown. These are the stories that will appear the initials of the reporter
first on the air. However, the producer may also lead the newscast with who wrote the story and the
stories that have a broad appeal, even if those stories are human inter- story’s length
est or feature stories. On the opening day of the College World Series
in Omaha, Nebraska, for example, many of the local stations begin the
newscast with events happening at the ballpark.
Specialized news stories (consumer, health or education stories, for
example), may run in the second segment of the newscast (the part of
the newscast that comes after the first commercial break). National or
international news stories may also run in this segment. At many local
news stations, weather coverage comes in the middle of the newscast,
and sports runs near the end. However, some stations are experiment-
ing with placing these segments in other locations.
BROADCAST NEWS 457

Television news is a fascinating, demanding and exciting enterprise.
Some news shows are staged in mammoth studios with millions of
dollars’ worth of equipment and large crews. Other, more modest
productions take place in tiny, makeshift quarters (in high schools, for
instance) with a few hundred dollars’ worth of equipment and a crew
of two or three. In either case, the success of the production begins and
ends with the producer, the person who is responsible for pulling the
whole project together.
FIGURE 19.5
SCRIPT RUNDOWN
Anchor Slug Script Reporter TRT
M Welfare Reform PKG PR 1:45
L Housing Project Study VO/SOT WH :45
L Teen Pregnancy Rate RDR JJ :20
Your Beat
1. Write and record a five-minute newscast about the ries in which they appeared and the format in which
activities of a single day in your school (use audio or they were handled (VO/SOT, PKG, LIVE and so on).
video, whichever is more readily available). Compare Notice any graphics or other distinguishing features
your decisions on the order and time allocated to of the newscast (for example, consumer/medi-
each story with those of other students in your class. cal segments). Get together and compare notes.
2. Ask a local television station for a copy of one of its What did you like about the newscasts? Which one
anchor scripts. Practice reading the script with as seemed to give the most news information? Which
few errors as possible. one was the most pleasing to watch, and why? What
3. Watch a local late television newscast one night, differences did you observe?
and have one or two of your classmates watch the
competition’s newscast. Write down the order of sto-
458 MIXED MEDIA

Chapter Review
broadcast public outcue
journalism television total running
natural sound station time (TRT)
reveal syndicated stand-up
mass media programming script
announcer digital cable rundown
deejay television
newscaster talent
news package script
commercial pronouncer
television cart
station incue
Open Forum
1. Design a schedule for one day of programming for your own experi-
mental television station. The schedule should reflect the prime
purpose of the station, which is “to serve the public interest of those
in the viewing area.” Your schedule should cover one 24-hour day.
It can include past or present programs from other networks, brand-
new programs of your own creation or some combination of the two.
2. Invent your own radio station. What would your format be? What
kind of listeners would you try to attract?
3. Imagine you are an alien on another planet who is somehow able
to get television reception from Earth. What conclusions would you
draw about American life from watching our television?
4. Should television stations pay private citizens for their home videos
in cases where the videos contain newsworthy footage (an airplane
crash, for instance, or a crime being committed)? Create a role-
playing scenario for you and your classmates to dramatize a discus-
sion over this issue at the station among the producer, anchor and
reporters.
5. Should television stations be allowed to broadcast shocking events
such as executions?
6. The artist Andy Warhol once said that everyone in America will be
famous, but only for 15 minutes. What do you think he meant? What
role has television played in creating celebrities?

Journalism Online go to glencoe.com and enter QuickPass code JM7824c19. BROADCAST NEWS 459
Finding the Flaw
1. Watch a live television news broadcast carefully. Try to spot any small
slipups. (As with any live broadcast, there are certain to be a few.)
Watch for anchors who don’t look at the screen (they are looking
toward the wrong camera), tapes cued improperly or tape that isn’t
available at all. Notice how anchors or reporters cover their mistakes.
Most correct themselves immediately when they misspeak. You
may gain a new appreciation for how professional most live news
shows are.
2. Listen to a radio newscast to try to find any flaws. The newscaster
may stumble over the script, wait for a natural sound that isn’t avail-
able or have to cover when the wrong sound bite is played. How dif-
ficult is it to read through a five-minute newscast without making a
single mistake?
Media Watch
1. Obtain a copy of the diary that Arbitron (the company that compiles
radio ratings) asks people to keep for a week. (You can probably
get a copy from a local radio station.) Have everyone in your class
keep a similar diary for a week, and tabulate the class results.
What conclusions can you draw from the information?
2. Arrange for your class to tour a local radio station, or invite a sta-
tion manager, program director or deejay to visit your class as a
guest speaker.
3. Find out what goes on behind the scenes at a television station.
Many local cable television companies offer free instructional
courses on television production. Sign up for one.
Portfolio
1. Write a five-minute newscast based on events at your school.
Include short clips of interviews with key school personnel.
2. Take a story from Time, Newsweek or U.S. News & World Report.
Rewrite it as a radio news story. Using a tape or digital recorder,
practice reading the story as you would read it on the air. Listen
as you play it back at least twice. Make notes on the following:
(a) Is the meaning of what I said clear? (b) Did I go too fast or too
slowly? (c) Was my delivery smooth or choppy? (d) What vocal
characteristics do I need to work on?
460 MIXED MEDIA

Chapter 20
New Media in
Journalism
It’s about democratization, where people

can participate by writing back. Just as
everybody has an e-mail account today,
everybody will have a blog in five years.
Journalism won’t be a sermon anymore, it
will be a conversation.
—Sabeer Bhatia, creator of Hotmail
461
the meaning of these terms: • explain what blogs and other forms of new media are
post and their importance to and effect on journalism,
blog • discuss whether or not posting is the same as reporting,
blogger
• describe what an online story should and should not be,
Web community
Model T
• discuss the major differences between writing for online media
and traditional media,
podcast
vidcast • explain what it means to be a new journalist,
RSS feed • create a podcast.
golden nugget
logging
R
ob Curley, vice president of Washingtonpost.Newsweek
Interactive, reminds us that “the most important part of
newspaper is news, not paper.”
The growing use of news blogs, text messaging and other technology
means that today, anyone can report the news in an instant to people all
over the world. Media professionals are rushing to use technology as they
adapt to a world where “old” news can mean anything posted more than
10 minutes ago.
More and more frequently, high school publications departments
are asking reporters to produce news for print, broadcast and online
delivery. “While some multimedia journalists—especially the younger
ones—can handle a variety of tasks efficiently and professionally, there
is concern that most will only practice mediocre journalism,” explained
Carol Lomicky, a University of Nebraska-Kearney journalism professor.
“Technology is pushing journalism, and we need to find out how we can
best utilize it to meet our needs and those of our consumers.”
This chapter will look at ways the news media has changed and what
issues these changes create for a new generation of reporters. You’ll learn
about blogs and Web communities and how they influence and impact
traditional media. You’ll also learn how to write for online publications
and how to create a podcast.
NEW MEDIA
The advent of the Internet has created many new opportunities for
news reporting. Some technological advances—including e-mail, instant
messaging, YouTube and portable devices like the iPhone—allow virtually
post anyone the opportunity to post ideas and “news events” on Web pages,
to put content, such as audio blogs and online networking sites such as MySpace and FaceBook.
or video, on the Web so that Traditional news sources are taking notice. To meet their audience’s
others can have access to it appetite for interactivity, many news sites invite people to participate in
the news reporting process. Users can give instant feedback on stories,
send story ideas and tips via e-mail or upload personal photos and video
clips for use on the air.
462 MIXED MEDIA
But does the ability to post “news” make just anyone a reporter? Can
anyone write anything they want? In this section, you’ll learn about the
role blogs, Web sites such as YouTube and mobile devices play in the UNITED STATES, February
world of journalism. You’ll also learn about the pitfalls of posting and of 2005—Founded in a garage
believing everything you read. in Menlo Park, CA, YouTube
(YouTube.com) was officially
launched in December. It
Blogging Minds Want to Know quickly changed the news
Though Boston Globe columnist Alex Beam called them an “infinite echo and entertainment world and
chamber of self-regard,” blogs—personal online journals—have become became the leading place for
an undeniable source of online communication and news dissemination. millions of users to watch and
share videos.
In fact, in October 2005, it was reported that there were 19.6 million blogs
In 2006, Google acquired
(short for “Weblogs”) on the Internet, with nearly 70,000 more being cre- YouTube. By 2007, dozens
ated every day. And it’s not just the average person “with an axe to grind” of national brands—such as
starting blogs or posting on them. Newspaper reporters and columnists, CBS, Coca-Cola, GMC and
broadcast journalists, authors, celebrities, athletes and politicians all have Sundance—were partnering
blogs. Blogs offer all of these people a more immediate medium than news- with YouTube as a way to pro-
papers or television to share news or to publicize an opinion. mote and market their prod-
Some blogs, such as Daily Kos and Talking Points, have such a large num- ucts and services and learn
ber of readers that they have their own reporting staffs and advertisements more about their customers.
on their Web sites. Adding to their popularity, many blog sites also have a
feature that allows readers to comment on what the blogger has written.
Blog readers can post their opinions and instantly receive feedback from
other readers. Reporters regularly scan blogs and the corresponding com-
ments to get story ideas.
Blogs have become an important part of the political process—much like blog
television did when the first debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard a personal online journal
Nixon aired. Republicans and Democrats debated issues during campaigns
on hundreds of different blogs. Candidates began reading blogs to get a
sense of public sentiments, and candidates such as Howard Dean began
using bloggers, or people who write blogs, to raise money and spread his blogger
message. a person who writes a blog
For the 2008 election, candidates such as Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama,
Mitt Romney and Rudolph W. Giuliani started their own blogs. Visitors
to Clinton’s blog, for example, got the latest news about her, saw her cam-
paign commercials (uploaded from YouTube), posted their own comments,
donated money to her campaign, planned events, joined or started groups
or even started their own blogs. Other bloggers supported the candidate of
their choice.
Some think that bloggers have encouraged more mainstream journalists
to report on stories they might have ignored in the past. For example, in
2002 Senator Trent Lott praised Strom Thurmond for running for president
in 1948 as a segregationist. The media barely mentioned it. Bloggers, includ-
ing Joshua Micah Marshall on the Talking Points blog, were quick to point
out that this type of comment wasn’t unusual for Lott. The media finally ran
with the story, and Lott was forced to step down as Senate majority leader.
Politicians haven’t been the only subject of bloggers. CBS News anchor
Dan Rather was criticized by bloggers who claimed his reporting was flawed.
They claimed that a report on George W. Bush’s military service was based
on unverified documents. Some believe that the fallout from these blogs
forced Rather to resign from CBS.
NEW MEDIA IN JOURNALISM 463

Creating Web Communities
YouTube, MySpace and FaceBook are other examples of nontradi-
Web community tional news sources that have created Web communities, or sites
a Web site on which people where people can share information about themselves or other people.
can share information about Web communities have become so big that both traditional and
themselves or other people new media are gobbling them up to try to cash in on this latest trend.
Media mogul Rupert Murdoch bought the social-networking and blog-
ging service MySpace in 2005, and Google soon followed by acquiring
YouTube in 2006.
YouTube is everywhere on the Web when it comes to online video.
Visitors to the site can find everything from television shows, broadcast
news clips, local news stories and campaign commercials to personal videos,
musical performances and amateur films. The result? Rarely seen videos and
obscure news now make headlines throughout the online community.
Shortly after its founding, YouTube made it even easier to capture and
post breaking news. Because news happens any time and any place, it
started a service that enabled people to upload videos from their cell
phones and mobile devices directly to YouTube’s Web site. Users simply
e-mail video straight from their cell phones, iPhones or PDAs. Many
Web sites, including news services, allow people to subscribe to have
specific types of news sent directly to their phones or PDAs.
Artist Andy Warhol once said, “In the future, everyone will be
famous for 15 minutes.” Little did he know just how right he would be:
YouTube and other Web communities have given every person a venue
to be seen and heard.
Out Take
The Old Versus the New
In March 2007, Viacom sued Google When it comes to the digital world, peers in the media industry, we are
and YouTube for “massive intentional however, copyright is a bit unclear. focused on finding the right business
copyright infringement.” According to Although not the first lawsuit of an model for professionally created content
the complaint, Viacom claims YouTube “old” media company suing a “new” to be legally distributed on the Internet.
has a “brazen disregard” of the law, media company, it was the largest copy- We want our audiences to be able to
and it “harnessed technology to willfully right lawsuit to date—$1 billion. In fact, access our programming on every plat-
infringe copyrights on a huge scale, old media and new media rarely see form and we’re interested in having it live
depriving writers, composers and per- eye to eye or think the same way. Sites on all forms of distribution in ways that
formers of the rewards they are owed.” like Google think giving people access protect our talented artists, our loyal cus-
Viacom claims that YouTube had to more books, movies and informa- tomers and our passionate audiences.”
posted 160,000 clips from its television tion will make people buy more things. Did Viacom really want to go to
and cable programming—including Jon Companies like Viacom, however, court? Probably not. It merely wanted
Stewart’s The Daily Show and MTV’s simply see their revenues dwindling to make a point, and to make money.
reality shows and music videos—with- as people view their wares for free. According to owner Sumner Redstone,
out permission or paying for them. As one Viacom rep said, “Like our “If you want to use us, pay us.”
464 MIXED MEDIA

The End of News as We Know It?
Has technology given everyone the potential to be a journalist? Yes
and no. Remember, for something to be news, it must be new and
timely information, be of interest or importance and have widespread
impact on people’s lives. So does a video of your friends doing some-
thing funny at a party qualify as news? Not really. It may be amus-
ing and new, but most likely it will not have a widespread impact on
people’s lives.
As with any Web site, when you read blogs, watch videos on
YouTube or read profiles on MySpace, be mindful of who posted them
and why. Consider the source, and don’t believe everything you read
or see. Some people post biased information. Others may be simply
lying. Remember, reliable news comes from trustworthy sources.
Blogs and sites such as YouTube may be good places to look for story
ideas, but before you run with a juicy tip, make sure to check several
sources and your facts. If you’re posting a story, remember that the
rules of journalism apply to new media as much as they apply to the
traditional media. You are not protected from libel or defamation sim-
ply because you’re posting in cyberspace.
In other words, the average person with a video recorder and a com-
puter won’t replace the trained reporter. While blogs and Web commu-
nities have invaded the Internet and have become a rather influential
force, they won’t be replacing newspapers, broadcast news or radio any
time soon. They will most likely continue to be an extremely useful,
interesting and interactive alternative that gives a voice to millions.
Your Beat
1. Find a blog that interests you. For one week, note 3. Research libel and defamation cases against bloggers
the kinds of information the bloggers are posting, or sites like YouTube, MySpace and FaceBook. Choose
including opinions, rumors and facts, and whether one, and explain why you do or do not think it’s an
the bloggers are writing to entertain, inform or per- example of libel or defamation.
suade. Respond to at least two blog postings.
2. Choose a story idea from a blog or YouTube, and find
other sources to confirm it. Then write the story.

NEWS ON THE WEB
According to a 2006 study by Pew Internet and American Life
Project, about 50 million Americans read news on the Internet every
day. In fact, the study found that reading the news is the third most
popular online activity—right behind checking e-mail and doing
research. Based on those numbers, it’s not surprising that newspapers,
radio and television networks have added interactive online versions
to retain existing readers, listeners and viewers and snare the techno-
savvy online users. At these sites, users can contribute photographs
and video, participate in polls on local issues, add their comments to
forums or blogs or send story tips and ideas. They can also question
reporters about their stories in online chats.
As the news industry becomes more attentive to the needs of the
audience, the roles of reporters, photographers and editors are chang-
ing. Reporters who used to rely on more conventional tools, such as
tape recorders, now carry video cameras and laptops from which to
edit and upload content from any location. Print reporters are add-
ing podcasts to their online stories, many of which are produced and
uploaded directly from their newspaper’s newsrooms.
What does all this mean? Today’s journalist has ceased to be identi-
fied as a print journalist or a broadcast journalist. Today’s journalist
must be skilled in researching and writing news stories, photograph-
ing or filming events for broadcast or podcast stories, producing and
uploading Web news stories and incorporating contributions from the
general public in many cases. Today’s journalist must deliver more
news more often to more people in more platforms.
Today’s journalism students are

learning how to produce content for
several different forms of media.
466 MIXED MEDIA

Surviving the Web 101
Becoming a new journalist isn’t as easy as it may seem. Online
THE WORLD, Summer 1991—
news pioneer Bill Mitchell points out the dangers of writing for the
British software engineer
Web: “Because of the additional tools at the reporter’s disposal, there consultant Tim Berners-Lee
are at least a couple of dangers: (1) failure to focus hard enough at invented the World Wide Web
the reporting stage to get the details that might—or might not—be in 1989 in Geneva, Switzerland.
conveyed by the streaming video or audio accompanying the story, Two years later, it was made
and (2) an imprecision and incompleteness in the writing, based on available on the Internet and
the assumption that these other tools will deliver those parts of the to the world.
story left out of the narrative. This will be a challenge for the jour- He came up with the idea
nalist of the future, who will be expected to work simultaneously in for a document-linking system
several media. Not impossible and not necessarily detrimental to the when he was working at CERN,
story, but clearly an undertaking that will require extraordinary focus the European Laboratory for
Particle Physics, because he
as well as skill.”
needed a way to organize his
In order to survive on the Web and in the future, journalists have notes. He created the software
to approach their stories and their audiences differently. First and Enquire, which, as he put it,
foremost, journalists must recognize the fact that online readers kept “track of all the random
aren’t passive—they know what information they want, and they go associations one comes across
find it—and they have access to hundreds of thousands of stories. in real life and brains are sup-
While it’s tempting to want to break a story first, if you don’t have all posed to be so good at remem-
the facts or your writing is sloppy, being first won’t save you. Readers bering but sometimes mine
will simply go to a different site, and they may never come back. wouldn’t.” The program was a
Second, you need to consider all the ways you can tell a story online sort of “hypertext” notebook
and figure out which way is best. Sometimes the best way to tell a that linked words in one docu-
ment to words in another doc-
story is the old-fashioned way—in prose. However, some stories may
ument. The words were linked
be better told through audio, video, or graphics. Consider all of your by number, and the related
options first, and then tell your story in the best way. Like Mitchell document would automatically
says, don’t simply write a story and then throw in some techno bells be retrieved.
and whistles. Make a plan, and tell your story that way. The program was a suc-
Finally, adjust your style for the Web. Your sentences need to be cess, but it was limited only
detailed, but they should be short and conversational. According to Berners-Lee’s computer. So
to a former writer for the Washington Post’s Web site, “People aren’t he began to think about how
looking for a block of text; they want to know what’s going on. And he could link documents from
they want to know it quickly. A news story might have to be con- anyone’s computer. He created
densed into three sentences . . . and people are on the lookout for the a coding system (HTML), an
addressing scheme (URLs), a set
link, which is usually tied to the noun of the sentence.” Remember
of rules (HTTP) and a browser
though, short doesn’t mean light on information. Get it right, or risk and called it the World Wide
losing readers. Web. Its debut suddenly made
the Internet accessible and
understandable to the average
person, and the two became
nearly synonymous. Within
five years, 40 million people
were logging on—up from
600,000 in 1991—and for a
time, the number of users dou-
bled every 53 days. Who would
think that one man’s method
of organization would change
the world?

Out Take NEW WAYS OF REPORTING
Posters Beware Online news is news just like television news is news or newspa-
per news is news. Online reporters write with a defined audience in
While anyone can post any-
mind. They also choose their subjects and organization pattern on
thing on the Web and places
the same characteristics of news described in Chapter 3—timeliness,
like MySpace, posters should
prominence, proximity, conflict, impact and human interest. Online
beware. Free speech may be a
reporters, however, must approach the production of news differently
Constitutional right, but it doesn’t
from media with set deadlines, such as traditionally defined morning
give posters the right to fabricate
or afternoon newspapers or the morning, noon, late afternoon and
facts or stories. Even on the Web,
evening news blocks honored by network television.
writers are subject to the laws
The most important difference between writing online news and
that govern other media outlets.
writing news for traditional media is not the structure of the lead or
Four former Pennsylvania
whether the story is organized in an inverted pyramid or in a “T”
students learned that lesson the
structure. The key difference is the frequency with which information
hard way. In December 2005,
is added to the original entry. Online reporters know people are check-
four students posted mock pro-
ing news sites often during the regular workday or school day. They
files of their principal Eric Trosch
know that headlines, news blurbs, one-sentence summaries and leads
on MySpace. Trosch sued the
attract online readers’ attention. A short lead or an update to a story
students, claiming defamation
that changes often satisfies online news users’ needs better than a fully
of character by posting “unsub-
developed story held until all the details are in and the interviews
stantial allegations, derogatory
completed.
comments and false statements.”
In section 2, you learned some basics of writing for the Web. In this
According to ABC News legal
section, you’ll learn how to structure your story, keeping in mind that
contributor and Court TV News
frequent updates are an important aspect of online reporting.
anchor Lisa Bloom, Trosch “has
a pretty strong case. This is equiv-
alent to putting a giant billboard
over the school saying the principal
is a drunk, the principal is a drug
addict. . . . That’s clearly defama-
tion under the law if it’s not true.”
Trosch isn’t the first, nor will
he probably be the last, person to
be defamed on the Internet. But
cases like this might teach ama-
teurs a lesson that professional
journalists live by: Only print it if
it’s true.
Journalists still use traditional

reporting techniques. Even journalists
who write for the Web must master tra-
ditional reporting skills, such as taking
good notes during press conferences.
468 MIXED MEDIA

Inverted Pyramid
Though it seems old-fashioned, the inverted pyramid style is still the
structure of choice for most writers. According to Jakob Nielsen, a Web
designer, “the inverted pyramid becomes even more important since we
know from several studies that users don’t scroll, so they will very fre-
quently be left to read only the top part of an article.”
Just like in print, however, the readers who are interested will con-
tinue to read to get the details. The difference is that newspaper readers
can simply turn the page to read more. Online, readers have to scroll
down to get the rest of the story. But too much scrolling is annoy-
ing, so online writers need to split their stories into coherent chunks.
“Each page,” Nielsen explains, “would be structured as an inverted
pyramid, but the entire work would seem more like a set of pyramids float-
ing in cyberspace than as a traditional ‘article.’” That means the online
reporter has to think of one story as multiple stories. Each set of details
and facts needs to begin with the most important so the reader
doesn’t have to scroll the entire page.
Writers can also take advantage of links, so readers interested in certain
details can get more information (including video and audio) by clicking on
the link. Readers who aren’t interested in those specific details can simply
move on.
Model T
Model T method used to organize a
The Model T is similar to the inverted pyramid in that the lead—or the news story. A summary of
horizontal part of the T—summarizes the story and tells the reader why the the story and its importance
story matters. The vertical line of the T is the rest of the story. Basically, it’s is placed at top of the story,
a “stack of blocks” that gives readers the rest of the details. which is like the horizontal
Although studies show that online readers read about 75 percent of an part of the letter T. The rest of
article—versus 20 to 25 percent of a newspaper article—long chunks of text the story’s details are located
are difficult to read. Therefore, online writers need to break up text—stack underneath the top in a sec-
the blocks—as much as possible. More than print writers, online writers tion that corresponds to the
need to utilize subheads, run-in heads and bulleted lists. Paragraphs need to vertical line of the letter T.
be short, as do sentences. And updates or breaking information need to be
added in a way that makes sense and doesn’t look like a random addition.
In general, online writers need to take advantage of all the interactive
features Web sites offer without making the story suffer. Don’t lose the story
in a bunch of graphics; let the graphics and features enhance your story.
Your Beat
1. Rewrite one of your print stories for publication on a 3. Read a print newspaper story, and then locate the
Web site. Include ideas for video, audio and graph- same story on the newspaper’s Web site. Compare
ics. Then explain how the story changed. and contrast how the stories were treated. How did
2. Interview a reporter for a local newspaper. Ask how the styles, structure, facts and details differ?
the Internet has changed or affected his or her job.

Out Take
SuperDesk
Many high school and college media
centers across the nation are adapt-
ing a new work method known as the
“SuperDesk.” Modeled along the lines
of Florida’s Tampa Tribune multimedia
newsroom, SuperDesk is a communi-
cation system that brings together the
leaders of the campus television station,
radio station, student news Web site and
weekly student newspaper for a weekly
planning and assignment meeting. Also
in attendance are the beat directors who
are each responsible for stories in differ-
ent areas of campus life such as sports,
fine arts, cultural events, student activi-
ties and administration and academics. The SuperDesk method encourages reporters to be able to produce for print,
Members of the SuperDesk team radio, television, Web and other media.
are expected to circulate story ideas
in advance of the weekly planning and breaking news story, to be prepared news on the same topic in more than
assignment meeting. Story ideas and to gather and share information one medium. By the time media pro-
angles are discussed before being quickly, and move among platforms to duction students are sophomores and
assigned to beat directors who pass give their community the fastest and juniors, they are able to produce news
them along to reporters, photographers most reliable coverage possible. stories for any of the student media.
and page designers. Beat directors SuperDesk functions success- This cross-training, along with the
maintain regular contact with report- fully because at its base is a core requirement to specialize in one or two
ers and SuperDesk members about of staffers continually being trained forms of media, prepares graduates who
the status of each story in process. as cross-platform journalists through are versatile and able to move seam-
Open and continuous interaction introductory courses in news writing, lessly into positions in multimedia news-
among SuperDesk members enables audio, video, and new media, includ- rooms. They may be expected to work
them to act quickly in the case of a ing the Web. A student often prepares in all formats from day one on the job.
470 MIXED MEDIA

Angela Grant, Multimedia Producer
W
hen Angela Grant Texas at Austin. “It was a new video news package, or “dead-
was hired as the first program. We took the same line video,” uploaded each day.
multimedia producer basics as everyone in journal- Deadline videos take up
at MySanAntonio.com, she had ism and a few courses unique about 75 percent of her day,
already written her own job to Web publishing. We learned Grant said. “Every day I have
description the summer before. html, audio and video edit- an assignment that has to be
The 2006 summer interns ing, Dreamweaver and Flash, shot, edited, produced and
at the San Antonio Express- and we had a course in blog- published to the Web site.
News were the first to be given ging and citizen journalism.” “Students who want to
the title “multimedia intern.” “I’m really proud of the become multimedia journalists
Part of their assignment was Express-News. They decided it should watch online video—be
to write a job description for was necessary to have a more an online video consumer. It’s
a multimedia producer. Grant dynamic Web presence and easier to produce what oth-
was hired as the multimedia jumped into this multimedia ers want to watch if you think
producer at the San Antonio thing headfirst, even though no like the audience. Invest in
Express-News following her one there knew exactly what a cheap video camera and
summer internship. She contin- I would be doing and there practice shooting and editing
ued to edit her job description was no budget for equipment using some of the freeware
as she began creating video or my salary!” Grant said. available on the Internet.
for MySanAntonio.com, the In its first year, the multime- “Then, if you decide to
joint Web site of the Express- dia staff at MySanAntonio.com become a journalist, you can
News and channel KENS 5. grew by three producers. The immediately go to work for a
“There are always new things producers found themselves newspaper as a multimedia
to learn, and no one to teach having to work staggered shifts producer.” Grant offers informa-
me,” Grant said about the multi- so that someone was covering tion and critiques to amateur
media producer’s job. Grant has the news all day. The goal for videographers on her blog,
a degree in multimedia jour- each producer is to have one NewsVideographer.com.
nalism from the University of

PODCASTING THE NEWS
The New Oxford American Dictionary declared “podcast” the Word of
the Year in 2005. Skeptics thought it might be a passing fad. However,
in the years since then, podcasting has become one of the essential
new media tools for journalists in every field from newspaper to
magazine to broadcasting.
podcast The word podcast is a combination of the words iPod and broadcast.
a broadcast to an MP3 player An audio podcast is an audio file that is automatically downloaded to
your MP3 device every time you plug it into your computer. A video
vidcast podcast (sometimes called a “vidcast”) works much the same way.
a video podcast Often, podcasts include interviews with interesting people, reviews of
performances or news analysis. Many newspapers and magazines use
podcasts as a way to give viewers extra material or to transport them
to the scene of a story. For other journalists, the podcast isn’t just a
supplement to the story; it is the story.
Most podcasts work on a free subscription basis, and this is part
of their appeal. Unlike listening to music that you already know,
the podcast content is always new. Typically, when you sign up on
a Web site to download one podcast, you have the option of allow-
ing each newly posted podcast to be automatically downloaded to
RSS feed your MP3 device. Like blogs, podcasts use RSS feed, or Really Simple
technology that sends users Syndication technology. These feeds send users new content when-
new content each time a Web ever their favorite Web sites are updated. You can still listen to pod-
site is updated casts on your computer, but podcasts are designed to be mobile and
accompany you while you do something else.
Elements of a Podcast
Before you write your own podcast, listen to a wide variety of pod-
casts to get ideas about the length, the writing style and the tone you
want. A podcast shouldn’t simply be the audio version of your print
story. Consider how you want to retell the story, and what sounds
might make it come alive.
Once you’ve thought of all the elements you want to include in
a podcast, it’s time to think about sound elements. Do you need to
record an interview with someone? Do you need to record a sound
effect (for example, the sound at an awards ceremony or the sounds
you hear at a carnival)? These sounds are all easily recorded on an
inexpensive hand-held recorder, but they do require some planning.
If you are writing a story and a podcast about safety issues at the
carnival, remember to take your recorder along when you go to the
carnival. Always check your recording before you leave an interview
to make sure you actually have recorded the interview successfully.
Most likely, you’ll collect a lot more sound material than you have
time to use in the podcast. Three minutes is roughly the maximum
472 MIXED MEDIA

amount of attention that peo-
ple are willing to give to a
radio story, a TV news story
or a podcast. It can seem over-
whelming to turn a 30-minute
interview into a two-to-three
minute podcast. An easy way
to start is to pick out all of the
quotes from an interview that
you want to use.
Finding the
Nugget
Radio journalists face this
problem every day, and
they often call radio-friendly
quotes “the golden nuggets.”
A golden nugget is a mem-
orable quote that is easy to
understand. These nuggets
usually aren’t statements of fact (unless the fact is really surprising), You can access thousands
rather they are quotes that tell the listener how the subject felt about of podcasts using an MP3 player
something, what her analysis is of a situation, or what his opinion and a computer.
is of what might happen next. Good sound quotes from a subject
should be very short, usually 10 to 15 seconds long, so keep in mind golden nugget
that a golden nugget may be only a part of a really long sentence. a memorable quote that is
To find these golden nuggets, start by logging your recording, or easy to understand
transcribing the interview. You don’t have to write down the exact
words, but your log should be pretty accurate, and should indicate logging
what time on the tape the interviewee said something (this will make writing down what was said in
editing the podcast a lot faster). As you examine the log, first take out an interview as you listen to a
the parts of the interview that you don’t need, elements that aren’t recording of it
crucial to the story or tangents that you weren’t going to use anyway.
Now look at the interview transcription and take out the quotes that
you think you could paraphrase more efficiently or in fewer words.
With the quotes you have remaining, pick out the best three to five
golden nuggets.
Scripting
Now that you have identified the quotes you are going to use, you’re
ready to write your podcast script. A good place to start is to use the
order of your quotes to build the structure of the story. Now fill in
the gaps. What do listeners need to know before and after they hear
each quote?

Remember that podcasts are more conversational than traditional
news writing. It would sound funny to say, “John Doe, 32, of Smithville
said he voted for the measure.” With podcasts, it’s better to say, “John
Doe lives in Smithville and he says he supports the measure.” Use
your quotes to advance the story, and always read your script aloud.
If you stumble over a sentence while reading it, the listener will prob-
ably have trouble understanding the point of the sentence. While you
read the script, time yourself to find the length of your podcast. If it’s
more than three minutes, cut out unnecessary material to get to the
main idea more efficiently. Don’t forget to use a snappy, attention-
grabbing lead!
Writing a podcast is just as difficult as writing a good story, but luck-
ily, the mechanics of audio editing are pretty simple. There are several
free audio editing programs available on the Internet that can show
you how to load in your quotes, record your narration and mix in some
natural sound. For some excellent examples of student podcasts, go to
http://podcast.transom.org/.
Out Take
Podcast Explosion
directly downloaded to the phone.
In 2006, about 27 million people had Despite the exponential growth,
listened to podcasts. By 2010, the traditional media like radio shouldn’t
number of podcast users is expected worry too much. A study by the radio
to reach 60 million. According to Marc ratings service Arbitron shows that
Freedman of the Diffusion Group, a radio’s future isn’t bleak: “The prolifera-
consumer technology research com- tion of digital broadcast platforms such
pany, “It’s dramatic in terms of per- as Internet radio, satellite radio, HD
centages, but you need to recognize and podcasting is a testament to the
that we’re just at the beginning.” popularity of radio programming.”
The driving force behind the pod- Many experts believed satellite
cast explosion is the growing popular- radio listeners and podcast users would
ity of MP3 players like the iPod. By steal radio’s audience. But accord-
2010, it is expected that 54.3 million ing to the Arbitron study, “Seventy-
people will buy digital players. Plus, seven percent of Americans say they
the technology keeps improving. MP3 expect to listen to AM/FM radio as
players are not only getting smaller, much as they do now despite increas-
but they have more memory than most ing advancements in technology.”
people can use. Many cell phones Television didn’t kill radio,
also have MP3 players, as well as and it looks like podcasts and
Internet access so podcasts can be satellite radio won’t either.
474 MIXED MEDIA

JOE GISONDI, SPORTS BLOGGER
S ports blogger Joe Gisondi says, “Sports has

been a big part of my life, from the time I
played Wiffle Ball with my father after church on
uses the notebook to record key plays, comments
and scoring (team-player-minute), red cards and
yellow cards, starting lineups and substitutions.
Sundays to when I covered sports for several Covering Tennis
newspapers in Florida. Now, I teach journal-
When Sports Illustrated’s Jon Wertheim cov-
ism at Eastern Illinois University and advise our
ers a tennis match, he goes old school, break-
daily student newspaper (DENnews.com).”
ing out pen and paper to take notes amidst the
Gisondi’s blog, “On Sports,” provides
aisles of laptops. He divides the page into two
commentary on the issues of the day, but
vertical halves. On the left side, he scribbles
it also features tips for anyone who wants
about on-court actions, writing notes like “lots of
to cover sports for fun or a career.
double faults,” “lost four straight after streaker
“I want to help other young kids as they
crossed the court” or “looks heavier than nor-
chase their dreams of covering sports,” Gisondi
mal.” On the right side of the page, Wertheim
explains. “I want to give students practical,
writes what he calls “atmospheric jottings” that
hands-on advice on how to cover individual
include anything from the words on a fan’s ban-
sports, everything from football to cross country.
ner to the weather to the music played on the
“I also try to interject humor whenever I can.
public address system during breaks in the
Sports can, at times, be a serious business, but
action. Says Wertheim: “Basically, anything you
games are supposed to be fun. Sometimes, I
wouldn’t pick up watching at home on TV.”
think we as sports journalists forget that. I do
not report scores like ESPN, nor do I comment On Track and Field
like Deadspin [the sports Web site]. Instead, I Covering a track meet is like reporting on 14
work to teach young sports journalists how to (or more) little stories. It’s just a matter of which
improve. I can’t think of a better thing to do.” events to focus on—the 100 meters, 1,500
Here are a few excerpts from “On Sports”: meters, the long jump? Most of these choices
Covering Soccer are made before the meet begins. Fewer readers
understand the rules or know the athletes in a
Scott French always brings four things to any
sport like track. That means a reporter needs to
soccer game he covers—binoculars, a stopwatch,
find a human-interest angle that even non-track
tape recorder and a flexible composition note-
fans can enjoy. “When you cover track and field
book. That way, French, who has covered the
and swimming, maybe two out of a hundred read-
World Cup and Major League Soccer, can follow
ers are really devoted to the sport,” says New
the games more precisely. The binoculars enable
York Times sportswriter Frank Litsky. “You can’t
him to gather details about plays across the field
write for two people. You have to pull in the others
(or from high in a press box). A stopwatch enables
by focusing on people. Like the swimmer with the
him to accurately record the time of key plays
defibrillator or runner recovering from cancer. If
at stadiums and fields where scoreboard clocks
you tell stories, you can get people to read them.”
are not used (or available). After games, French
tapes players and coaches. During the game, he

Chapter Review
post podcast
blog vidcast
blogger RSS feed
Web community golden nugget
Model T logging
Open Forum
1. How have blogs and Web communities affected the way in which
people get their news? Do they have a greater impact on how peo-
ple perceive newsworthy topics? Do people trust them more than
traditional forms of news media? Are reporters acting responsibly
when they get story tips from blogs?
2. You’re out with your friends, and one of them falls into the river.
You capture it all on video. It’s hilarious, but it’s also very embar-
rassing for your friend. Should you post it on the Web? Why or
why not? Do you think people who post videos of others should get
approval before you post? What effects might posting videos have
on the people in them?
3. What effect does podcasting have on how people perceive the
news? Is it always better to see or hear the news than read about
it? In today’s fast-paced society, are podcasts a more efficient way
of getting the news without having to stop and read?
4. Why do you think Web communities are so popular? Do you think
everyone wants to be famous? Have you or would you post on one
of these sites?
5. What makes someone a reporter? Does posting on a blog, creating
a podcast or uploading a video make someone a reporter? Explain.

476 MIXED MEDIA
Finding the Flaw
Find the flaws in the following report on a local paper’s Web site. Then
rewrite the article using the Model T method to organize the story.
ONLINE
NATIONAL WORLD BUSINESS POLITICS SCIENCE ARTS TECH HEALTH TRAVEL
Suspect caught 15
minutes after robbery
by Dan Druff
SPRINGFIELD—Around 7 p.m.
last night a while male pulled
a knife on a Downtown Motel
employee, demanding the money
behind the counter.
Downtown Motel
Cass Cassell pulled up to the
motel riding his motorcycle. When A patrolman spotted the suspect
he entered the motel, he pulled heading west on 11th Street.
a knife from a sheath on his belt The patrolman pursued Cassell
and said, “Get the money.” for two miles until he lost con-
trol of his chopper. Cassell was
Cassell, who was wearing a uninjured after the crash. He pro-
black leather jacket with a skull ceeded to get in a scuffle with the
and crossbones on the back, officer, but the officer had Cassell
told the lady to lay down behind in custody around 7:15 p.m.
the counter and not to get up.
Once Cassell had the estimated Links:
$260, he fled the scene on his Downtown Motel Web site
motorcycle. Springfield Police Web site

Media Watch
1. Work with a partner to create a questionnaire asking people where
they get their news—online, television, radio, satellite radio, pod-
casts, blogs—what types of media they use most often and how
they use those media. Then ask 20 people to take the survey.
Compare your results with the class. Discuss why some forms of
media may be more popular than others.
2. As a class, choose four podcast categories and create a list of cri-
teria for judging them. Nominate the podcast you think deserves the
title of “Best Podcast” for each category. Play your nominees for the
class, and have the class vote to choose the winning podcasts.
Portfolio
1. Work with a partner to produce a podcast to accompany a story
from the school or local newspaper. Remember, a podcast is not a
retelling of a print story. Use sounds and music to make the pod-
cast come alive. If possible, gather quotes from people mentioned
in the article. Present the podcast to the class with a copy of the
news article.
2. Choose a topic that interests you, and use a blog startup Web site
to create a blog online. Make entries in the blogs, and then ask
your family, friends, or classmates to visit the blog and post their
ideas or responses. Keep the blog running for one week.
478 MIXED MEDIA

Chapter 21
Public
Relations
Public sentiment is everything . . . with

public sentiment nothing can fail. Without
it, nothing can succeed.
—Abraham Lincoln
479
the meaning of these terms: • define public relations,
public relations • understand what is involved in a public relations career,
public
• recognize the technical skills needed for a public relations career,
media blitz
teleconference
• apply public relations concepts to individual situations,
video news conference • write in public relations formats.
photo opportunity
news release
fact sheet
video news release (VNR)
B-roll
Y
ou like journalism, but you’re not sure you want to be a
media alert reporter. You like desktop publishing, but you’re not sure you
public service want to spend every day in front of a computer.
announcement (PSA) You like working with people, and you want a career that will allow
you to continue to use your communications and journalism skills.
You like living on the edge, moving in the fast lane, never knowing
when you wake up in the morning exactly what you will be doing that
day.
You like organizing things, coordinating events and taking care of
details.
You’ll like practicing public relations!
THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Microsoft Corporation paid more than $300 million in advertising,
public relations and sales promotion to launch its Windows 95 operat-
ing system. The company paid $12 million for rights to use the Rolling
Stones’ hit “Start Me Up” in its broadcast campaign. It paid $537,000 to
sponsor the rollout day edition of the London Times so that 1.5 million
readers could receive the day’s paper at no cost. It paid late-night televi-
sion host Jay Leno to be co-host with Microsoft CEO Bill Gates at the
unveiling ceremony in Redmond, Washington. It paid the managers of
the CN Tower in Toronto and the Empire State Building in New York
City to decorate the towering buildings in red, white and blue bunting
and lights for the occasion.
Microsoft’s advertising campaign was supplemented by a massive
public relations campaign. Promotions directed to the media got
Windows 95 mentioned in every major television news and talk show
and joked about in late-night monologues. The promotional campaign
was such a success that by the time stores opened—many of them at
12:01 a.m.—on rollout day, Windows 95 was a household word, and
computer owners around the world were waiting in line to buy it.
The advertising campaign worked, but it was the special promotions
and communications with the media that made Windows 95 news and
480 MIXED MEDIA

started the media talking about it. Because the media treated the debut
of the new operating system as news, the public started talking about it,
looking forward to it and waiting anxiously to spend their money on it.
What Is Public Relations?

Public relations is the transmission of information to the public public relations
through the media in order to make people aware of a business, orga- the actions and communica-
nization, issue or event, in a positive way. Public relations is unpaid tions carried out by public
media exposure for a business or organization. Information from public relations practitioners; the
relations sources appears as news content on television and radio and department or division of
in print. It appears in public service messages promoting social issues a business or organization
such as health, safety and a clean environment. responsible for establishing
Public relations messages use many of the same principles as adver- and maintaining relations
tising. Advertising is the way a business or organization promotes its between a business or
product through paid-for messages. Public relations is the way a busi- organization and its publics;
ness or organization promotes itself. The time or space for advertising a management function that
must be paid for by the product’s sponsor; the time or space for public helps define an organization’s
relations information is free of charge to the source. philosophy through interac-
That does not mean that public relations is free. It is paid for by the tions within the organization
business or organization sponsoring it. The sponsor pays the public and with publics outside the
relations professionals’ salaries; pays for mailings to target audiences; organization
and pays for the production of promotional items, from letters to
T-shirts to store displays. All these things provide publicity for the
sponsor and the sponsor’s products.
People who practice public relations have many titles. They are
called communications managers, information officers, media special-
ists, and news service and public relations directors.
Public Relations Responsibilities

In today’s global community, no one who does business with the
public can escape having a public image or practicing public relations.
Governments, companies, organizations, businesses, schools and
individuals have public images and public relations responsibilities,
whether they want them or not.
Every telephone call a company employee answers, every letter a
company employee sends, every ad a business buys, every face-to-face
or online contact between a business and a consumer becomes a public
relations event. This is because it contributes to the attitudes people
have about the business and the people who are associated with it.
Your school is a business. Whoever answers the telephone at the
school represents the whole school as far as the caller is concerned. The
coach represents the whole school when a reporter asks for an inter-
view. You represent your whole school when you go to sell an ad for the
newspaper or when you attend an event at another school. People hear
and see you, and they get the idea that everyone at your school is like
you. Your interactions with the public create the impressions people
have of you and of your school.
PUBLIC RELATIONS 481

From international corporations right down to your local school
district, from the president of the United States to the mayor of the
smallest town, people recognize the need for good relationships with
the people who support them. Many employ public relations profes-
sionals to help create and maintain the positive relationships they’d
like to have with the public.
Public relations professionals work hard to build favorable impres-
sions through the publicity and information they distribute and
through interpersonal contact with the media and the public. In spite
of careful management, however, events happen that give people nega-
tive impressions:
• An airplane crashes, and passengers look skeptically at
that airline the next time they plan a trip.
• The president of a major nonprofit organization admits
having paid for parties for himself and his friends using
money donated for research. Donors decide not to give
any more money to that organization.
• A ride at a major amusement park collapses, and people
are injured. Parents decide to take their children some-
where else this summer.

Michael Hancock, Denver City Council President
F
or Michael Hancock, Next, Hancock worked as Writing was not Hancock’s
having good communi- a strategic planner for the favorite subject, but he says
cations skills was the National Civic League, a he was forced to do more of it
key to landing an internship national nonprofit organization, when he went to college. “It was
in the office of Denver mayor in Denver. His job included a pain, but I benefited tremen-
Federico Peña. During college, long-term planning, consult- dously from the experience,”
Hancock began sending out ing for local government, he said.
résumés and requesting intern- leadership development and Students should not be afraid
ships. He says it was his com- research. The job also required to have their work critiqued,
munications skills that helped writing and designing publica- Hancock says. “Whether it is
him most. “You’re really judged tions. Hancock is currently the writing or speaking, being cri-
more by your ability to commu- Denver City Council President. tiqued can help students feel
nicate in speaking and in writ- Hancock, who majored in more confident and comfort-
ing than anything else,” he said. political science and minored able in the work they do.
Hancock, a native of in communication arts in col- “There are three things every
Denver, worked as an adviser lege, says his decision to student should learn: the ability
to the mayor on community study communications was to participate in and understand
and youth issues for about one of the single most sig- the information superhighway,
six months. He said it was a nificant decisions he made in the ability to write well and
great job to get right out of college, because he learned the ability to listen,” Hancock
college, even though some many of the things that have said. “These three things will
of the work was tedious. helped him on the job. set you up in the world.”
482 MIXED MEDIA

• Someone substitutes the word thief for a student’s name
under the football picture in the yearbook. The school
gets negative publicity.
• A few students are arrested for vandalizing school prop-
erty, and all students become the subjects of public
suspicion.
• Three individuals encode a racist message in their per-
sonal descriptions in the yearbook. It becomes national
news, and the whole community looks bad.
• A student newspaper column complains that local police
officers target high school students and ticket them
more often than other age groups. Police records show
this assertion to be untrue, and student journalists get
the reputation of being careless, irresponsible reporters.
Although none of these incidents was the fault of the school, the
business or the public relations department, each created negative
impressions for everyone associated with the group. That’s where pub-
lic relations comes in. Quick action and intense effort are needed to
overcome unfavorable impressions created by such incidents.
The job of public relations professionals is to explain the mission
of their employers to the public and to provide complete and hon-
est information to the media. When an error is made or an accident
happens, public relations officials tell the public what the company is
going to do to fix it.
Public Relations and You

You’re already on your way to being a public relations professional,
because you’re learning to put together messages about your school
and get them out to the people who are interested in the school. When
you plan the content of a yearbook or write an article for your school
newspaper, you are practicing to become a public relations profes-
sional. You’re thinking about the students who are your main audi-
ence, or your public, the people who have the most interest in your public
topic. You’re choosing the content they’ll want to see or read. You’re a group of individuals who
also working hard to put out a newspaper or book that will represent share a common interest
your school well when parents and people in your community see it. or characteristic and are
You are a public relations professional representing your school. targeted to receive specific
You’re also learning how to think like a journalist and work with messages related to their
the media. Today’s public relations professional is an information man- common interest or
ager—a communications specialist who knows how to get messages out characteristic
to people through the media.
Public relations has become so important that its practice has grown
into a multibillion-dollar business in the United States alone. Nearly
200,000 professionals worked in public relations in 2004, according to
the U.S. Bureau of Labor. Employment for public relations specialists is
expected to grow faster than that of other occupations through 2014.
You could be one of them if you have strong speaking and writing
skills, current computer knowledge and the ability to build positive
working relationships with people.

Practicing Public Relations
Public relations is a growing profession. In today’s complex global
society, businesses, governments and organizations must have people
who can communicate their ideas to their publics and communicate
the concerns of their publics back to management.
Public relations professionals are bridge builders, according to public
relations practitioner Peter F. Jeff. Jeff believes that the job of public
relations professionals is to build bridges between groups such as com-
panies and their customers, employers and their employees, celebrities
and their fans, and school districts and the taxpayers who support
them. The public relations person’s goal is to help his or her employer
establish and maintain effective relationships with consumers, employ-
ees, other businesses and the media. Messages travel back and forth,
much as the traffic on a bridge goes both ways. The underpinnings that
support the public relations communications bridge are basic commu-
nications skills: listening and responding.
Public relations people listen carefully to their bosses to understand
what the people in charge believe the public should know about their
companies. They listen to consumers by doing surveys and studying
consumer trends. They listen to what employees are saying to learn
about their job-related concerns. They listen to those who make the
laws and regulations governing their industry. They listen to their con-
sciences. After evaluating all the information they have gathered, they
create responses that are as honest and informative as possible.
Public relations professionals create messages using basic writing
and speaking skills in traditional formats (news releases, speeches and
letters) and in electronic formats (video, Web pages and e-mail). They
make daily calls to the media and other organizations in order to build
relationships that give them and their employers credibility. They work
to create positive public relations for their employers in as many ways
as they can.
Today’s successful public relations professionals share the bad news
as well as the good news. As communicators they succeed because they
put complicated business problems and policies into words the average
consumer can understand.
SALLY FORTH reprinted by permission of King Features Syndicate.
484 MIXED MEDIA

Your Beat
1. Quickly give a word or words that come to mind National Public Radio American Idol
when you see each of these names: Elvis Presley
Disney Kanye West Your response is the public relations image each
AARP Chicago Cubs name has for you. Compare your responses with
Red Cross Colorado Rockies those of your classmates. Decide if each name has
IRS Michael Jackson a positive, negative or neutral image in your class.
Phillip Morris Company Barry Bonds 2. Find examples of news, such as the airplane crash
Nabisco Peyton Manning or the yearbook fiascoes described earlier, that might
The president of the Washington, D.C. contribute to the public relations image of a business
United States Hollywood or individual. If the news has a negative impact, what
Motown Records CNN do you think the subject can do to overcome the
MTV Avril Lavigne image created by the news?
THE ETHICAL APPROACH

TO PUBLIC RELATIONS
When the Chrysler Corporation was in financial trouble, it took the
problem to the public. Chrysler promised that if the public stuck with
it through a rebuilding period, the company would provide buyers a
quality product. Chrysler gave its promise to the public through the
“Car Buyer’s Bill of Rights”:
1. Every American has the right to quality.
2. Every American has the right to long-term protection.
3. Every American has the right to friendly treatment,
honest service and competent repairs.
4. Every American has the right to a safe vehicle.
5. Every American has the right to address grievances.
6. Every American has the right to satisfaction.
Source: Seitel, Fraser P. The Practice of Public Relations, 6th ed.
(Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1995), pp. 356–357.
The company backed its “Bill of Rights” with a board to which consum-
ers could take complaints and conducted periodic surveys to measure
consumer satisfaction. The strategy worked. One reason that Chrysler
is in business today is that people could see that the company was try-
ing hard and being honest with them.
The classic example of potentially negative public relations turned
positive by honest communications with the public is Johnson &
Johnson’s handling of Tylenol poisonings in 1982. Johnson & Johnson
was faced with the news that six Tylenol users in the Chicago area
had died as a result of taking Tylenol capsules that contained cyanide.

Because of the public relations
efforts that Johnson & Johnson
made during the 1982 Tylenol
poisonings, Tylenol is a trusted
household product again today.
It was later proved that the cyanide had been placed in the Tylenol cap-
sules by one or more individuals after it left the manufacturing plant,
but Johnson & Johnson’s credibility had already been damaged.
Company officials listened to their instincts to be open and honest
with the public. They decided they would get as much information out
as quickly as they could, no matter how that information made them
look. They answered thousands of calls from consumers and the media
and held numerous news conferences in the next few days. Through
the media, the company immediately announced a recall of 93,000
bottles of extra-strength Tylenol capsules in the Chicago area and told
the public about its investigation of the manufacturing and distribu-
tion processes to try to locate the source of the problem.
Johnson & Johnson first said there was no cyanide in their plants.
Then, on the second day, its public relations department announced
that the information was incorrect. Cyanide was stored on the premises,
but it was not used in the production of Tylenol. The company knew
that having to correct the information would make it look doubly bad,
but it was committed to being open and honest with the public.
Johnson & Johnson sent millions of telegrams to doctors and hospi-
tals to warn them about the Tylenol, and they suspended all advertis-
ing to reduce consumer awareness of the product. By the second week
486 MIXED MEDIA

after the crisis, Johnson & Johnson had recalled over 31 million bottles
of Tylenol at a cost of over $100 million. The company also had posted
a $100,000 reward for information about those responsible. Through
news releases and advertisements, they offered to replace Tylenol cap-
sules already purchased if consumers would return them.
Johnson & Johnson’s willingness to take the lead in informing the
public about the situation paid off. A consumer survey about two weeks
into the crisis showed that 87 percent of Tylenol users realized that the
company was not responsible. However, almost two-thirds said they media blitz
were afraid to use the product again.
a public relations strategy in
Johnson & Johnson refused to allow the incident to destroy a suc-
which a company uses many
cessful product. To overcome consumers’ fears, the company designed a
types of media simultane-
new triple-safety locked, tamper-resistant package. Johnson & Johnson
ously to get a message to as
then used an all-out media blitz to show the new, safer package to
many people as possible
the public. In a media blitz, a sponsor uses many types of media simul-
taneously to reach as many people as possible with a message. Johnson
& Johnson staged one of the world’s first teleconferences, a satellite teleconference
hookup that linked the media in 30 cities in a video news confer- a conference via satellite
ence. Through the video news conference, the company was able to hookup that links individuals
share information with reporters in many locations simultaneously or groups at two or more
and respond to their questions individually. The company distributed locations or sites; used to
news releases; held media briefings; published ads; distributed infor- share information simultane-
mation directly to employees and local distributors; and sent letters ously with multiple locations
and telegrams to doctors, hospitals and consumers. Company officials and allow persons in remote
appeared on network news and television talk shows to talk about their locations to interact with
plans for Tylenol. persons at the site from which
Johnson & Johnson wanted to make sure people understood that the communication originates
the company was more interested in consumer safety than in making
money. Telling the truth, at the risk of bankrupting their own com-
pany, paid off. Within six months, Tylenol had recaptured 95 percent video news conference
of its previous sales. a news conference held at a
Johnson & Johnson’s success was not yet complete, however. Four location with teleconferencing
years later, a New York woman died after reportedly taking Tylenol capabilities so media in remote
capsules containing cyanide. This time Johnson & Johnson recalled all locations can interact with
Tylenol capsules and replaced them with tablets that were more dif- news conference speakers and
ficult to alter. The withdrawal of its product cost Johnson & Johnson participants; a news confer-
more than $150 million, but its immediate, honest approach saved the ence delivered simultaneously
company and its reputation and product. to multiple locations
Your Beat
1. Why do you think Chrysler’s promise to the public, 2. What other public relations options did Johnson &
the “Car Buyer’s Bill of Rights,” was a successful Johnson have in handling the first reports of Tylenol-
strategy? What would have made it fail? related deaths? What options did the company have
in responding to the death of another person four
years later?

Out Take THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSIONAL
Bias-free Barbie It takes a certain personality to handle the chaos of a public relations
job. Some people thrive, and others can’t survive, in the fast-paced,
Mattel, Inc., made a political blunder
high-stress world of public relations.
when it introduced Teen Talk Barbie.
“Math class is tough,” Barbie said.
“Sexist,” the American The Public Relations Personality
Association of University Women
Successful public relations professionals are organized, detail-minded
said, referring Mattel officials
individuals who have exceptional speaking, writing and communica-
to the AAUW research on how
tions skills. They are able to take leadership roles and to delegate
schools treat girls differently
responsibility. They are flexible, adaptable, open-minded people who
than boys.
can make sound judgments. They are willing to take risks based on
Mattel immediately announced
solid research. They have creative, original ideas of their own. They
that it would remove the offen-
believe in an ethical, honest approach and possess the integrity to
sive computer chip. It offered to
stand up for it.
change the chip for purchasers
Among their job responsibilities are:
who returned the offending doll.
“In hindsight, the phrase ‘Math • working with the media
class is tough,’ while correct • building relationships and partnerships with other
for many students both male organizations
and female, should not have • writing news releases and preparing public service
been included. We didn’t fully announcements
consider the potentially nega- • designing and producing newsletters and company
tive implications of this phrase,” publications
wrote Mattel's then-president • managing crises
Jill E. Barad in a letter to the • arranging special events
president of the AAUW. • conducting consumer surveys
• handling consumer relations
Source: Adapted from Seitel, Fraser • ghostwriting speeches, articles and letters for their
P., The Practice of Public Relations, employers
6th ed. (Prentice Hall: Englewood
Cliffs, NJ).
• giving speeches and presentations
• formulating policies and procedures
• managing the image of company officials
• advising senior management
• working with volunteers
• money-raising
The Public Relations Events Planner

Planning, organization and time management skills are crucial to
the success of all the activities journalists and public relations profes-
sionals do. Planning events is part of the job for many public relations
professionals. Although it may not seem that planning a formal cer-
emony or a gala party is a job for a journalist, these activities draw on
many of the same skills used in other facets of journalism. Speaking to
those who will get the information and plan the event, writing invita-
tions and knowing how to get media coverage require the same kind
of organization and knowledge a reporter uses in planning, researching
and writing a story.
488 MIXED MEDIA

If you find out in advance
how an event is planned, you can
create your own photo opportunity.
A photographer positioned the
camera where the Special Olympics
torch bearers would light the Special
Olympics Flame of Hope during
opening ceremonies.
Let’s say your school is going to celebrate a special anniversary, maybe

25 or 50 years. The superintendent appoints a committee to plan the
event. The first thing the committee members will do is research other
anniversaries and special events to see how they have been observed.
They’ll research schedules and calendars to find an appropriate date.
They’ll ask what special things the superintendent wants. After evaluat-
ing their research, they’ll recommend a plan of action.
Once they have a plan, the committee members will appoint sub-
committees and assign tasks. They’ll get a calendar and, working back-
ward from the date of the event to the present date, they’ll set times
for each step to be completed.
They’ll communicate with the honored guests and speakers, write
introductions and speeches for guest speakers, and make sure the
media know about the event. They’ll send invitations and have pro-
grams printed. They’ll plan a seating arrangement and figure out how
to get the cake cut to provide the best photo opportunity—a conve- photo opportunity
nient way for photographers to get a good picture—for the media. an event staged or arranged
On the day of the anniversary celebration, the committee members in such a way that photog-
will check to see that the right number of chairs are set up, test the raphers can take the best
microphone and greet the guests. They’ll know who is going to clean possible photographs; photo
up after the event. They’ll have a plan for evaluating the success of the opportunities may feature
event. Finally, they’ll make notes about what worked and what could persons as well as events
have been improved to put in the file for future committees.
Technical Skills in Public Relations

Writing tops the list of technical skills the public relations profes-
sional needs. Virtually every phase of public relations requires some
writing, so being proficient with the mechanics of English is a must.
Experience with journalistic style and editing techniques is especially
helpful in writing news releases and producing company newsletters
and magazines.
Public speaking is a close second in importance. Public relations
professionals are called upon to make introductions, give speeches and
presentations, and conduct educational seminars for company employ-
ees. As the official source of information in the company, the public
relations professional may be asked to speak to a television audience
as part of an on-camera interview or to narrate a series of promotional
messages for radio.
Computer skills also rank near the top of the list of necessary tech-
nical skills. Public relations professionals use computers in the same
ways reporters do: to write and edit, to do online searches and to send
e-mail. Many public relations departments use desktop publishing to
produce company publications and promotional materials, and some
have their own printing shops. Most companies have Web sites, which
the public relations department maintains.
Knowledge of the principles of photography is helpful to those
who take the photographs for their publications or who must place
the photo images on the page. With scanners and digital technology,
photography has become as much a computer skill as a camera skill.
High school journalists are learning the skills that public relations
professionals use as they write stories, interview sources and use
computers to produce publications that represent themselves and
their schools.
Your Beat
1. Find out how public relations is handled in your 2. After talking to someone in your school about public
school. If your school district has a public relations relations, write your definition of public relations as
professional, invite him or her to class to talk about it pertains to you and to your school. Compare your
the job. If the school does not have someone whose definition with the definitions created by your class-
job description is public relations, find out who is mates. List the personality traits, skills and special
responsible for media relations for the school and knowledge you think a person in a school public rela-
invite that person to speak to your class. After listen- tions role needs to have.
ing to the speaker, brainstorm with your class to 3. Invite a reporter or editor to talk about what makes
make a list of the public relations communications effective public relations people good at getting their
tools your school uses. These might include special messages in the media. Ask how a public relations
activities, news releases, a district newsletter, a person can help the media get information and cre-
sports information director and the students ate stories. Ask what actions obstruct the media in
themselves. their efforts to get stories. Finally, ask what public
relations professionals can do to build credibility and
rapport with individuals in the media.
490 MIXED MEDIA

THE PUBLIC RELATIONS MESSAGE
Public relations professionals have to get their messages out quickly NEW YORK, April 30, 1939—
and accurately so the media can communicate those messages to the David Sarnoff chose the 1939
public. They use telephone, television, fax machines, mail, e-mail and World’s Fair for the launch of
telecommunications satellites to tell their messages to the media daily, regular television broadcasting
and more often in emergencies. by the National Broadcasting
One reporter, Carla Marinucci of the San Francisco Chronicle, thinks Company.
The first telecast from the
they’re overdoing it. In one month she received 109 pounds of
World’s Fair featured President
“releases, videotapes, glossy magazines, posters, expensive glossy fold-
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the
ers and plastic foam packing materials” that she classified as public first president to appear on
relations pieces. Marinucci’s experience is not unusual. television.
The best public relations professionals heard what Marinucci and The telecast was the culmi-
others were saying and have stopped using cutsey approaches and glitzy nation of a quarter of a cen-
promotional packages that look contrived and gimmicky. They realized tury in the broadcast business
that they were responsible for their own bad image. Today’s professional for the Russian-born Sarnoff,
prefers a businesslike approach to information distribution. whose name first came to the
Sometimes an immediate public relations response using not only public’s attention as that of the
print media but also the Internet becomes necessary to control dam- Marconi wireless radio opera-
tor who first picked up the dis-
age. A good example is the public relations effort of Mattel, Inc., in the
tress signals from the Titanic
summer of 2007. From late July through early September, the world’s
in 1912.
largest toy manufacturer was hit by waves of bad publicity when it was Sarnoff believed radio would
forced to recall nearly 20 million toys because of safety concerns. There become a fixture in the average
were three recalls in about a five-week period. No sooner had one recall household. He hoped to cre-
ended than news of another hit the media. ate a radio network that would
The first and largest recall focused on toys with magnets that could broadcast entertainment, infor-
fall off. Children could choke on the magnets or swallow them. The mation and education.
other recalls occurred when U.S. inspectors discovered that lead-based Sarnoff worked his way up
paint had been used on toys manufactured in China. Lead-based paint in the Marconi Company, and
is hazardous to small children and is banned in the United States. when it was bought by Radio
Corporation of America in
The use of ads, news media and press conferences put Eckert in the
1919, he was made commercial
spotlight for hundreds of millions of people. However, the use of such
manager. In 1930 he became
media outlets is a traditional response. It was the use of the corporate president of RCA, the parent
Web site that helped focus Mattel’s message and demonstrated the company of NBC.
ways in which the Internet can become an effective tool in public rela- Sarnoff was also one of the
tions. Using the site, Mattel was able to offer more detailed information first to realize the value of tele-
about the recalled toys, the actual shipments of the toys and the stores vision. In 1923 he predicted it
to which those shipments had been sent. would transform the way peo-
Mattel responded to the crisis in several ways and through wide- ple communicated.
spread use of the media. It purchased full-page ads in the nation’s larg- In 1932 Sarnoff built an
est newspapers in which the CEO, Bob Eckert, wrote a letter of apology experimental television station in
the Empire State Building in New
directed to parents. In the letter, Eckert, a father of four, wrote, “noth-
York City. The station, W2XF,
ing is more important than the safety of our children.” He directed par-
became the center for RCA’s
ents to the company Web site where they could get a detailed list of all experiments. By 1937 the station
toys being recalled. He then laid out the steps that Mattel was taking to had mobile recording units on
make certain that the toys problems did not occur again. He concluded the streets of New York.
the letter by stating, “Our long record of safety at Mattel is why we’re The first live coverage of a
one of the most trusted names with parents, and I am confident that fire was carried on W2XF in
the actions we are taking now will maintain that trust.” 1938.

These are some of the toys
recalled by Mattel in the summer
of 2007.
The Web site—which appeared in more than 15 languages for users

around the world—showed an online video of Eckert speaking from
his office. He repeated his apology, and then directed consumers to
links on the Web that had more detailed information. Clicking on
product-name links brought users to sites that had manufacturing
codes, product photos and a Frequently Asked Questions feature. This
helped confused customers figure out if they had purchased a toy from
a recalled batch. Those who had could then receive prepaid mailing
labels through e-mail and return the toys for a refund.
Not only did this use of the Web site help public relations with
customers, it helped with large toy store chains that carried Mattel
products. Places such as Wal-Mart and Toys “R” Us were able to avoid
costumer complaints by directing people to the Mattel Web site.
Getting Messages to the Public

Companies often turn to technology to get a message out quickly
when there isn’t time to arrange a press conference. Public relations
agents can quickly and efficiently reach thousands of reporters or
broadcasters by e-mailing or faxing news releases or by sending
video footage or sound bites directly to TV stations. They can also
use Web sites, blogs and text messages to reach millions of people
around the world.
news release A news release is information from a source that has an interest
information prepared in in getting information out to the public. News releases come from non-
a news story format and media sources such as businesses, nonprofit organizations and public
distributed to the media relations companies. They provide information to the media. News
to share information and releases can be faxed or e-mailed; however, some releases are still mailed
generate publicity and may include video footage, product samples or photos. A press
release is written in a story format and includes a headline, dateline,
fact sheet lead, body and contact information. A fact sheet is like a news release,
a list of facts; similar to a but instead of being written in news story format, it lists bulleted facts.
news release in that it is News releases and fact sheets give reporters names and phone numbers
a way to communicate of persons to contact for quotations, photographs or interviews.
information quickly and Reporters should be cautious when using news releases. They are
easily to the media good for story ideas and basic information, but they should never be
used without verifying the facts and changing the style to that of the
492 MIXED MEDIA
publication or station. Quotations and information from other sources
should be added to balance the story.
A video news release (VNR) is a news release in the form of a com- video news release (VNR)
plete story ready to be aired. A VNR consists of video with a complete a news story in the form of a
audio commentary. A VNR can be anything from an interview with the complete story ready to be
star of an upcoming movie to a medical breakthrough. These “news aired
releases” are actually produced by a company that wants press, so they
are a bit like commercials, and some companies spends hundreds of
thousands of dollars producing them.
VNRs are also produced for the Web and have been turned into podcasts,
which gives them a longer lifespan and makes them accessible to people
around the world. VNRs can even become news when reporters or colum-
nists report on them or write about them in their blogs.
When VNRs were first introduced in the 1980s, they were a welcome
novelty. Soon the media was flooded with many VNRs, and viewers realized
that these segments were not necessarily news but video segments produced
by companies rather than reporters. Many broadcasts no longer use VNRs
because they feel they reduce the broadcast’s credibility. Some stations still
use B-rolls, which is edited footage that stations can use to illustrate the B-roll
stories they write themselves. B-rolls provide pictures of news events and extra video footage, sent
sound bites from sources to which local stations may not have access. separately or along with a
VNR, for use by television
Dateline stations in preparing their
own stories
NEW YORK, 1904—Former New York Two years later he wrote his first book
Times and New York Journal reporter on the subject and taught the first col-
Ivy Ledbetter Lee opened a publicity lege course on public relations.
firm dedicated to honest and truthful Bernays, like Lee, believed that pub-
promotion of clients in New York City lic relations was more than just public-
in 1904. ity and press agentry. He categorized
One of the first public relations pro- public relations as being in the field
fessionals, Lee led the movement away of sociology rather than journalism
from the promoter’s practice of white- because, he believed, it had more to do
washing the public to responsible pub- with influencing people’s actions than
lic relations through a philosophy of with presenting information.
being open and honest with the public. For instance, he convinced one com-
He is credited with having provided pany to sell bacon not by promoting
the public relations profession with the the company’s name but by promoting
first code of ethics. the idea of a nutritious breakfast.
Lee saw his job as adjusting relation- Bernays was one of the first people
ships between clients and their publics. to demonstrate that public relations
The movie industry, the American could influence legislation. When
Tobacco Company, the American short hair for women came into fash-
Red Cross, Standard Oil, Chrysler, the ion, women stopped buying hair nets.
Rockefeller family, and Harvard and A hair net company hired Bernays,
Princeton universities were among who then emphasized the use of hair
Lee’s clients. nets as a health and safety measure for
Another contender for the title food service personnel and for women
“father of public relations” is Sigmund working with machinery. Laws were
Freud’s nephew, Edward L. Bernays. passed requiring the hair nets, and sales
In 1921, Bernays, 20, began to call increased again.
himself a “public relations counsel.”

Writing a News Release or Fact Sheet
A good news release is written like a good news story. It starts with a
direct lead that puts the 5 Ws and an H at the top, and it uses inverted
pyramid organization. For more on organizing a news story, review
basic news writing in Chapter 6.
A news release from the National Institute for Automotive Service
Excellence (ASE) is shown in Figure 21.1. Note that the release has a
news lead that contains the 5 Ws and an H:
• Who: automotive repair technicians
• What: want to change the image of their profession
• Where: Herndon, Virginia
• When: data released on July 12, 1995
• Why/how: responded to a survey by Stanford and ASE
The information is in descending order of importance. Additional
information is highlighted in fact sheet style. This informative report
on a survey simply states the findings. Like an objective news story, it
does not state the source’s opinion. If the writer had said, “ASE is proud
and happy to share the results of our special survey,” it would sound
as though ASE were trying to make itself the center of attention rather
than focusing on the information.
News releases may quote company spokespersons or experts express-
ing opinions or offering interpretations. Quotations should be short
and punchy and not take longer than 10 seconds to read aloud if
there’s a possibility they may be used in a broadcast story. This news
release from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH), for instance, quotes the NIOSH director:
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
recently released an alert which details hazardous jobs for ado-
lescent workers. The document reveals that motor vehicle deaths
accounted for the greatest number of work-related deaths of 16-
and 17-year-olds between 1980–1989. Motor vehicle deaths include
delivery services, road construction work, and work at gas stations.
Other leading causes of death include machine related incidents,
electrocutions, assaults and violent acts, and falls. Related research
indicates that many adolescent workplace deaths may be associated
with activities prohibited by child labor laws.
“While the benefits of working are clear, we must recognize that
thousands of adolescents are injured or killed in the workplace each
year,” said Dr. Linda Rosenstock, NIOSH Director. “Work should be
a fulfilling and educational life experience for young people, not a
life threatening one.”
media alert News releases that announce upcoming events are called media
a news release that announces alerts. Media alerts give data such as the time and place of the event
an upcoming event and why it is being held. If the media alert concerns a person who
will be appearing or making a speech, biographical background and
the topic of the speech are important. Quotations from someone who
knows the person or the person’s reputation may be included.
494 MIXED MEDIA

FIGURE 21.1
SAMPLE NEWS RELEASE
New sRe l e ae, s e

hno logy Driv Sui te 2
05 Dulles Tec
135
71-3421
Herndon, Virginia 220
(703) 713-3800
ation
For Further inform
t: Richard White
contac
Nancy Guzik
. . . A Profile of
And the Survey Says pair Technician
tom oti ve Re
Today’s Au
e page 2 of 2
ee-fourths of automotiv
2005 . . . . Nearly thr ASE News Release
Herndon, VA -- July 12, public’s ima ge of the ir pro fession
anxious to change the sulting
repair technicians are sity Press & ConOth
duc ted by Stanford Univer er key findings in the
according to a sur vey con
h the Nat ion al Ins titute for Automotive survey include:
ss, in con jun ctio n wit
Psychologists Pre • 65% of the technic
E).
Service Excellence (AS ians receive 10-35 hou
rs of update training
ng Intere st Inv ent oryand usedovebyr three-fourths of the sur
veyed technicians exp
a year,
ted as par t the the Stro inte resthsin returning to sch ressed an
The sur vey was con duc es stu den ts’ stre ngt ool.
nse ling too l ma tch
owned career cou ed automo-
U.S. schools. This ren time the survey includ • 43% have bee
fessions. For the first n in the auto repair bus
and interests with pro s. iness between 11-20
me cha nics in its inventory of occupation have 3-10 years of exp
erience, and 22% hav years, 29%
tive mo e been in the business
mo st like re
to than 21 years.
ures they would
e asked what job feat the general
When technicians wer uld like to see a change in • 42% hav
tha t the y wo e been at their presen
change, 72% respond
ed
nician . For ty-s ix per cent would like t job 3-10 years, while
lic’s ima ge of the automotive repair tech ed cha nge s in
bee
the nmaat n-
their present job for
11-20 years.
28.2% have
pub efit s, and 45% ind icat
nge in per ks and ben
to see a cha
ir supervisors. • 24% of the respons
agement style of the wh
es to the survey cam
e from female technic
nic ian s hav e at leas t aile
hig76%
h of ther responses wer
e generated by males.
ians,
d tha t 89% of the tech
The survey also reveale ning, 21% hav e som e col lege and
e post-secondary trai • In reg reeard
. s to age of respondents, the
school degree, 26% hav degree while 2.3% hol
d a master’s deg 39% are between the majority fall within two
leas t an asso ciat e’s ages of 26-35, while groups.
23% have at years of age. 35% range between 36-
45.
- more - • 49% decided to ent
er the field at age 18
vided to enter the fiel or younger, while 30%
d between the ages of
19-25.
• Reasons for seekin
g employment in the
involved: believe it is auto repair industry
the best use of their
perform the required talent (66.4%), like to
activities (59.2%), ear
training (55.5%), and n a good income (58
believe they are makin %), can use
(26.6%). g an important contrib
ution
The National Institute

for Automotive Service
in 1972, is dedicated Excellence (ASE), fou
to improving the qua nded
through the voluntary lity of automotive serv
testing and certificatio ice and repair
Automobile, truck, and n of automotive technic
collision repair technic ians.
parts specialists partici ians, engine machinis
pate in ASE’s program ts, and
More than 360,000 pro from all segments of
fessionals are currently the industry.
ASE certified.
###

The first paragraph of this media alert from a hospital gives all the
facts a mother would need to participate in “Take Your Daughter to
Work Day”:
The third annual TAKE YOUR DAUGHTER TO WORK DAY is sched-
uled for April 27. Because of the educational and occupational
value associated with this event, Mary Lanning Hospital is encour-
aging women employees to bring their fifth through eighth grade
daughters to work. A luncheon and a series of planned activities
will take place between 12:15 p.m. and 3:45 p.m.
The hospital would follow “Take Your Daughter to Work Day” with
a news release that told how many mothers and daughters partici-
pated and contained quotations from some of the girls about their
experiences.
Formatting the News Release or Fact Sheet

The following basic information should be placed at the top of news
releases and fact sheets to help editors and reporters use them easily:
• a letterhead or a heading with the source’s name, address
and phone number
• instructions for release: “FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE”
tells the media that the information may be used now;
“FOR RELEASE AT (TIME, DATE)” means the information
cannot be published or aired until after the specified
FIGURE 21.2 time
EXAMPLE OF A PUBLIC SERVICE • the date the information was prepared, either at the top
ANNOUNCEMENT of the page or in the dateline
• a dateline that tells where the story originated (optional)
• the name and phone number of one, and preferably
two, contact persons
Like the format of a news story, the format for the body of a news
release or fact sheet follows these basic guidelines:
• It is typed and double-spaced.
• It has 1- to 1 1/2-inch margins.
• Copy begins one-third of the way down on the first page.
• Copy is on one side of the page only.
• A slug appears at the top of each subsequent page with
the story name and page number.
• Lists are indented and highlighted with bullets.
• Subheads divide and mark content changes.
• It uses journalistic editing marks, such as “more,” “-30-”
or “###” at the bottom of the page.
• A summary title or headline is optional but often
included to tell the reader the topic.
496 MIXED MEDIA

Your Beat
1. Ask a local editor or station manager to save some 3. Read a news release that was written after an event.
of the most and least usable news releases he or What information is in the lead? How is the story
she received this week and give them to your class. organized? If there are quotations, who are the
Examine the format of each news release. Decide sources? Would you include more or fewer quota-
which heading format you like best, or combine sev- tions? What other sources would you quote?
eral to create one of your own from the examples. 4. Write a news release about an event that happened
Using the heading you create, do Items 2 and 4 recently at your school.
below. 5. Make a list of the media that should receive the
2. Read sample media alerts. What kind of leads do school news release you wrote in Item 4. Compare
they have? What organizational patterns do they your list with your classmates’ lists, and compile a
use? If they use quotations, who are the sources, master list. Would the list be different for different
and where are the quotations placed in the story? stories? Why or why not?
Using the model you think is best, write a media alert
about an upcoming event at your school.
PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS

Public service announcements (PSAs) are messages sponsored public service
by nonprofit organizations and run at no cost to the sponsors. The announcement (PSA)
brief messages in PSAs (see Figure 21.2) are catchy and persuasive. They an announcement promoting
are often created by public relations professionals. a public or nonprofit activity;
PSAs focus on social, health, and safety issues. Smoky Bear, with his run by media at no cost to the
message about fire prevention, and the Crash Dummies, who promote sponsor
the use of safety belts, are famous PSA characters.
PSAs provide free publicity, because the media run them as a com-
munity service. Because of limited space or airtime, however, not all
the PSAs distributed to the media will reach the public. Those that do
will be used as the station or publication has time or space available.
Local cable television stations that need to fill time between shows and
on the community calendar are also a market for PSAs.
Print PSAs are sized like standard ads to fit newspaper and magazine
pages. Usually several versions in different shapes and sizes are sent in
one package so that the publication can choose the most convenient
size. They’re often accompanied by a news release or letter from the
sponsor.
PSAs for radio and television run 10 to 60 seconds. Thirty seconds is
the most common length. PSAs are distributed on tape ready for the sta-
tion to air or as written scripts ready to read by the local announcer.

PSAs are prepared as campaigns appropriate for all media. The mes-
sage is reinforced in people’s minds if they see the message on tele-
vision, hear it on radio and read it in the paper within a short time
FIGURE 21.3 period. A public relations professional needs to know how to prepare
SAMPLE PSA CAMPAIGN messages that all the media can use, as well as how to distribute them
FOR PRINT, RADIO AND to the media to get the best exposure. Figure 21.3 shows an example of
TELEVISION a PSA campaign for print, radio and television.
498 MIXED MEDIA

FIGURE 21.3, CONTINUED
Your Beat
1. Prepare a fact sheet for your school. Make a list of to the students if you are using it in school broad-
the information the media might want to use in writ- casts. Target it to the general public if you don’t have
ing a story about your school. Start with the basics, broadcast media in your school.
such as enrollment, number of faculty members, and 3. Brainstorm to come up with an idea for a PSA cam-
the age and size of the building. Then list the things paign for your school. It may be one used in student
that make your school unique. Interview authoritative media or one designed for use by local media.
sources to get the information. Prepare a news release or fact sheet, a print promo-
2. Write the script for a 30-second PSA to encourage tion, a radio script and a television storyboard for the
recycling or a cleaner environment. Target your PSA campaign.

Chapter Review
Show that you know the meanings of the following key terms by
correctly using them in complete sentences. Write your answers
on a separate sheet of paper.
public relations photo media alert
public opportunity public service
media blitz news release announcement
teleconference fact sheet (PSA)
video news video news
conference release (VNR)
B-roll
Open Forum
1. The principal has asked your class to produce a three-minute VNR
about your school to send to local television stations before school
starts next fall. She knows that the opening of school is always
news, and she thinks a VNR would be a good way to help out the
local stations. From a public relations perspective, do you think it’s
a good idea? Why or why not? What are other options for getting
information about your school to the media? If you decided to do
the VNR, what would you include in it? What would you not show?
Why? What would you recommend to the principal?
2. A parent has challenged a book taught in a junior English class. The
school has no policy for handling challenges to the curriculum. The
principal has promised to “look into” the situation, but the angry par-
ent has written a letter to the editor of the local newspaper express-
ing her concern about the content of the book as reading material
for 16- and 17-year-olds. The school board wants to resolve the
situation quickly and has asked the teacher to remove the book from
his class immediately. The teacher has refused. You are the public
relations director for your school. What options do you have? What
would you recommend as a course of action for the school? Why?
3. Your newspaper recently published a front-page story about a stu-
dent who is living with a foster family. Although removed from her
home by the court at her own request, the student is undergoing
counseling with her natural family and hopes to go back home soon.
She was in favor of the story and gave a good interview for it. She
even provided photographs of herself with both her families last
Christmas (which ran on the front page). Your reporter interviewed
the judge and a lawyer to make sure the story explained the legal

500 MIXEDMEDIA
OPEN FORUM, continued
procedures accurately. The day after the story appeared, the super-
intendent called the newspaper’s editor and adviser to his office
and told them that the student’s mother was threatening to sue the
school for “washing my family’s dirty laundry on the front page of
your *!#*#! newspaper!” The superintendent asked the editor and
adviser what they suggested should be done to avoid a lawsuit. “We
don’t need any more bad PR, so do something,” he commanded.
What do you think the newspaper should do? What should the
superintendent do? What should the editor or adviser do?
4. Students elected the first minority homecoming queen in your
school’s history this year. The staff only got one good color photo-
graph of the queen. The homecoming page in the yearbook is in
black and white, but the opening pages are in color. Up against a
deadline, the staff moves the color picture of the queen to the open-
ing section and substitutes a picture of the first runner-up on the
homecoming page. When the book comes out, the queen and her
family are angry. They say it appears that the runner-up is the queen,
because she is featured in the dominant photo on the homecoming
page. You explain the circumstances, but they are not satisfied. A
local committee for the protection of minority interests comes to the
school board and demands that the book be reprinted. The commit-
tee threatens to take the issue to the media. It also threatens to take
the school, the yearbook staff and the adviser to court. Most of the
staff members who worked on that yearbook have graduated by now.
It falls to you, the present staff, to find a solution. Could you or the
school be sued for what the previous staff did? What do you recom-
mend the school do? What do you suggest the yearbook staff do?
5. In 1993, Disney released a movie called The Program, which was
the twelfth most popular box office draw when it opened. The
Program contained a scene in which drunken college football players
lie prone in the middle of a busy highway to prove they are tough.
They escape unharmed, of course, but a Pennsylvania teenager
who tried the stunt after watching the movie wasn’t so lucky. He was
killed when a pickup truck ran over him. Within days of the movie’s
premiere, three more teens were critically injured while lying on high-
ways. All had just seen The Program.
Disney quickly decided to delete the scene from the movie. At the
time of the decision, the movie was playing in more than 1,000 the-
aters. The Program was rereleased without the offending scene, but
it failed to resume its strong showing at the box office.
The name Disney equals family entertainment. Disneyland.
Disneyworld. The Disney Channel. Disney movies. Parents trust
Disney, and Disney has always guarded that trust carefully.
What would you have advised Disney to do in this situation? How
do you think this incident affected Disney’s public relations? Did
Disney misjudge its product? Its effect on viewers? The public’s
response?

Finding the Flaw
Your publication’s image is affected by every contact with your publica-
tion. Your image depends largely upon how accurately you edit. If you
make errors like the ones in these examples, your reading public will
begin to wonder if you check your facts as carelessly as you check your
spelling, grammar and language.
Find the errors and correct them:
1. From the cover and division pages of one yearbook:

m•e•m•b•e•r•s•h•i•p has it’s Privleges
Membership has its Priviledges
Privileges of being a Vike
2. From newspaper and yearbook copy:
• Early May is the time to show our • It seems like all of Senior High’s
mothers all the reasons that we losses are tough one’s, as of April
appreciate her. 25, their only legitimate loss
• The team has greatly improved it’s was a, 8–1, defeat courtesy of
hitting performance throughout Lincoln.
the season. • “We’ve just had a season long streak
• Gliding towards the endzone for of bad luch, 2–6, is not where we
the winning touchdown, the team planed to be,” senior designated
wins by a single point. Overjoyed hitter Scott Athy said.
with excitement, the player jumps • “Were just not getting the two out
up and down to show the sat- base hits to score the runs that we
isfaction with themselves and need to win, were not executing”,
then removes the helmet form said coach Barney Cotton.
the sweaty head under it. The • After the freshmen English class
crowd is simply astonished to see received a letter from a freshman
the long golden locks hanging in Manitou Springs, Colo., and
from the player’s head. Yes, it is a cover letter from his teacher
a girl, you guessed right. Is that explaining the “Great Mail Race,”
unusual? the race was on.
• Charles Evans said that he and The “Great Mail Race” class
his wife have avoided a lot of members wrote to the student they
arguments over the years by buy- received a letter from and they also
ing seperate toothpaste tubes. He chose two towns in different states
likes to squeeze the tube from the to write to. Each student had to
bottom and role the tube up while write three letters and could send
she like to squeeze from the top, one to each town if he wanted.
middle or any other part of it. The students sent the letters to the
• “Masculinity is an impossible social school in each town telling about
role, no-one can do it adequately,” his school, community and himself.
Jenkins said. “No man feels they Their teacher also included a cover
can fill the impossible role.” letter telling about “The Race.”
502 MIXED MEDIA

FINDING THE FLAW, continued
• “At the next meeting we want to • If a person chooses to park ille-

take a look at each organizations gally, they make sure they park
budget and demise a plan that will on the city roads because the
enable groups to work together city’s fines are lower than campus
on activities to save money for fines.
everyone,” Student ation presi-
dent Gena Bagley said.
3. From yearbook copy written for a public who will know that
the Gray Center hall windows face west:
The morning sun slips through the Rex, the janitor, echo through the
hall windows and beats across the otherwise vacant building. It’s 6:30
red tiled hallway. Sole footfalls of a.m., and the Gray Center is quiet.
Media Watch
1. Look through Public Relations Journal, Advertising Age, Direct,
Student Press Law Center Newsletter or similar publications for
examples of public relations problems that have been resolved.
Bring an example to class.
2. Identify someone in your community whose job includes public rela-
tions. Interview that person about his or her job. Find out what kinds
of things the person does that could be described as public relations
and what public relations problems he or she has encountered. Ask
what skills that person finds most valuable and what personality
traits help in the performance of the job. Compare your information
with the information your classmates have gathered. What similari-
ties and differences did you find among different public relations pro-
fessionals and their jobs?
Portfolio
You may use any newspapers for this activity, including school news-
papers. Clip the page header with the name and date of the newspaper
for each article; keep it with the example.
1. Collect 10 examples of public service announcements from maga-
zines or newspapers. Choose the three you think are best to put in
your portfolio. Note whether you see the same PSA message on
radio or television.
2. Write a media alert about an upcoming event at your school. Ask
the public relations person in your school for a copy of the infor-
mation that was sent to the media about the event. Compare your
media alert with the information sent by the school.

Typography, Headlines and Infographics

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Typography, Headlines and Infographics

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Chapter 16

—Edward R. Tufte, professor of graphic design

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 355

356 PRODUCING THE NEWS

11-point type is also a reasonable choice. Headlines require larger sizes,

Neck massage may zap

Neck massage may zap

Neck massage may zap

Changing Type Horizontally You can also adjust the

358 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Alignment flush left

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 359

Alignment adjustments can help avoid two major design problems:

Typographic Special Effects

360 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Spartans beat Cougars to become state champs

Spartans beat Cougars to become state champs

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 361

362 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Storm flattens fields, rips roof

Many possible ways to heal heel pain

tripod Pet rooster pulls

sidesaddle head Headline Sizes

364 PRODUCING THE NEWS

BANNERBANNERBANNERBA Kicker Kicker Kicker

Raw wrap raw wrap

HAMMER HAMMER Main headline

3-24-1 headline would be a three-column, 24-point headline that runs

Six ways to tell if he’s really Mr. Right

Six ways to tell

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 365

Wild West town found on Venus

Scientists find Western town on Venus

366 PRODUCING THE NEWS

CREATING VISUAL NEWS:

Brainstorm, Research and Focus

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 367

expert in representing complex events as easy-to-see graphics. That’s

368 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Most feared Cost of the

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 369

Developing an Infographic for

Developing the Concept A quick glance at exchange

Devising the Question In a brainstorming session with

Gathering Information You can gather information

Choosing the Best Format Once you or your team has

Creating the Infographic No matter what the topic,

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 371

372 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Chapter Review For additional resources, practice, and assessment,

374 PRODUCING THE NEWS

TYPOGRAPHY, HEADLINES AND INFOGRAPHICS 375

—Marshall McLuhan, communications

The Power of the Message

The Meaning of the Message

378 PRODUCING THE NEWS

P ublic service ads are similar to other ads or

misinterprets your intention, it can create an extremely uncomfortable

380 PRODUCING THE NEWS

Television, Radio and Internet Advertising

CALVIN AND HOBBES reprinted by permission of Universal Press Syndicate.

Not only are newspapers a

Balancing the Elements

384 PRODUCING THE NEWS

an array of small art and

PLEASE UPDATE IMAGE OF CD PLAYER.*** PADVERTISING 387