VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

“Jnana Sangama”, Belagavi- 590 018

INTERNSHIP REPORT
ON

“Design and Working of Radar Level Transmitter”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Under the Guidance of

Internal Guide External Guide

Mrs. Bhavya.A Mr. Nagraj K
Assistant Professor, Dept of E&CE Product Manager E&I
A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru Shridhan Automation Pvt Ltd

Submitted by
Sree Gowri H.K.
4AI16EC104

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to V.T.U., Accredited by NBA)
CHIKMAGALUR-577102, KARNATAKA
2019- 2020
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
“Jnana Sangama”, Belagavi- 590 018

INTERNSHIP REPORT
ON

“Design and Working of Radar Level Transmitter”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Under the Guidance of

Internal Guide External Guide

Mrs. Bhavya.A Mr. Nagraj K
Assistant Professor, Dept of E&CE Product Manager E&I
A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru Shridhan Automation Pvt Ltd

Submitted by
Sree Gowri H.K
4AI16EC104

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to V.T.U., Accredited by NBA)
CHIKMAGALUR-577102, KARNATAKA
2019- 2020
Internship Report

ABSTRACT
A water level indicator is a system that relays information back to a control panel to indicate whether a body
of water has a high or low water level. Some water level indicators use a combination of probe sensors or float
switches to sense water levels. The water level indicator employs a simple mechanism to detect and indicate
the water level in an overhead tank or any other water container. The purpose of the water level indicator is to
gauge and manage water levels in a water body. The control panel can also be programmed to automatically
turn on a water pump once levels get too low and refill the water back to adequate level.

A water level sensor, also known as a probe sensor, is what tells the control panel that corrective action is
needed. A combination of high and low sensors is used to tell the control panel when water levels are too high
or too low. The control panel will then automatically turn the pump on or off depending on the corrective
action needed.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: COMPANY DESCRIPTION
2.1 COMPANY DESCRIPTION
CHAPTER 3: TASKS PERFORMED
3.1 ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
3.1.1 COMMON INVENTORY CHALLENGES THAT AN ERP
INVENTORY SYSTEM HELP SOLVE
3.1.2 STEPS INVOLVED
3.1.3 BENEFITS OF ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
3.2 DESIGN AND WORKING OF RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTER
3.2.1 CONTACT (GUIDED) RADAR LEVEL SENSORS
3.2.2 NON-CONTACT RADAR LEVEL SENSORS
CHAPTER 4: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
4.1 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
4.1.1 CAVITY MAGNETRON
4.1.2 DUPLEXER SWITCH
4.1.3 PLANAR/PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA
CHAPTER 5: FREQUENCY SELECTION
5.1 FREQUENCY SELECTION
CHAPTER 6: DIFFERENT OUTPUT OPTIONS
6.1 ANALOG OUTOUT SIGNAL
6.1.1 TWO-WIRE LOOP POWERED TRANSMITTER
6.1.2 FULLY ISOLATED (4-WIRE)
6.2 RS485
6.3 HART TECHNOLOGY
6.4 GPRS/GSM
CHAPTER 7: RADAR VS ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTERS
7.1 RADAR VS ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTERS
7.2 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF RADAR LEVEL SENSORS
CONCLUSION
LIST OF FIGURES:

FIG. 1: INVENTORY PRODUCT WINDOW

FIG. 2: QUANTITY ON-HAND WINDOW

FIG. 3: UPDATED ON-HAND TAB

FIG. 4: INVENTORY VALIDATION WINDOW

FIG. 5: FINAL INVENTORY WINDOW

FIG. 6: GUIDED RADAR LEVEL SENOSRS

FIG. 7: NON-CONTACT RADAR LEVEL SENSORS

FIG. 8: COMPONENTS OF RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTER

FIG. 9: PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION OF A MAGNETRON

FIG.10: SIMPLIFIED FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR USING A

DUPLEXER

FIG. 11: LINEAR ARRAY OF PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA

FIG. 12: ENVELOPE CURVE COMPARISON BETWEEN 6 GHZ AND 26 GHZ RADAR

TRANSMITTER

FIG. 13: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TWO WIRE LOOP TRANSMITTER

FIG. 14: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF FOUR WIRE LOOP TRANSMITTER

FIG. 15: GENERAL RS485 CONNECTION

FIG. 16: DIGITAL OVER ANALOG

FIG. 17: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WIRELESS MONITORING USING GPRS MODU

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INRODUCTION
A water level indicator may be defined as a system by which we can get the information of any water
reservoir. Water level indicator system is quite useful to reduce the wastage of water from any reservoir, while
filling such reservoir.

Water is the most essential thing on earth. Safe drinking water is essential to human and other forms of life
even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. The total water available on Earth has been estimated
at
1.4billion cubic mms, enough to cover the planet with a layer of about 3 km. About 95% of the Earth’s water
is
in the oceans, which is unfit for human consumption. About 4% is locked in the polar ice caps, and the rest
1%all the fresh water found in rivers, streams and lakes which is suitable for our consumption. A study
estimated that a person in India consumes an average of 135 liters per day. This consumption would rise by
40% by the year 2025. This signifies the need to preserve our fresh water resources.

However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will face water
based vulnerability. The presence of water level indicator in the reservoir can help control wastage
and inadequacy in such reservoir. Water level indicator is used to show level of water in an overhead tank, this
keeps the user informed about the water level at all the time and avoids the situation of water running out when
it is needed the most. Indicator circuits also have alarm features. It not only indicates the amount of water
present in the overhead tank but also gives an alarm when the tank is full or about to be empty.

After assembling the system, what remains is to observe its operation and efficiency. This can be done by
breaking down the activity of controller from the detection of water to the working of the pump. We go over
the responses recorded when the water is detected by the sensors and the logic employed behind it.

1
CHAPTER 2: COMPANY DESCRIPTION
2.1 COMPANY DESCRIPTION
In 1987, a humble activity got initiated with a mission to produce a Product range that could help in level
monitoring and control of liquid in a tank. A state of art product range termed “Magnetic level switches” has
many variants. These variants share the same common purpose of sensing levels of liquid. Thus, this product
was manufactured in countries like Germany, USA. India was yet to catch up.

Finesse in design and reliability are critical success factors for Level switches. A high need of quality
engineers were required. SHRIDHAN entered the market with one version of magnetic level switch.
From then on SHRIDHAN has been consistently performing in the market with an excellent product range
and service backup. High level customer satisfaction has led to continuous growth.

Shridhan manufactures Field Instrumentation for highly critical applications along with the necessary Product
and System Approvals to support most global applications in Oil & Gas, Onshore, Power, Steel,
Pharmaceutical, Chemical, Food & Beverages, Marine & Mining industries.

Their global sales and marketing covers Middle East, USA, Northern Europe & Far East with diverse sales and
representative offices.

Having a team of qualified engineers, technicians and highly experienced employees- they form a superior
solution provider to your application needs.

Shridhan firmly believes that continuous pursuit of customer satisfaction starts with the close analysis of their
customer requirement and continuous innovation that is consistently performing in the market with an
excellent product range and support.

Initially operation was started under the banner SHRIDHAN INTERNATIONAL focusing assembly type of
operation by outsourcing most of the components. As demand increased for SHRIDHAN’s products, it was
decided to have an inhouse funky integrated manufacturing facility. SHRIDHAN AUTOMATION PVT.LTD
was incorporated in the year 1998. Since then SHRIDHAN AUTOMATION has become one stop shop for
magnetic level switches. Consistent with high quality management philosophy, SHRIDHAN managed to get
its ISO 9001-2000 certification in the year 2007.

An essential part of their activities in the last decade has been expanding their global reach with their
subsidiary in the Middle East and gradual implementation of expanding their product manufacturing facilities
globally which lead to enlarging their customer base around the world.

In the striving years, they strive to be one of the most reputed brands in Field instrumentation worldwide.

2
CHAPTER 3: TASKS PERFORMED
Shridhan automation gave me an opportunity to learn about ERP inventory management and also to study and
understand the design and working of radar level transmitter.

3.1 ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT

The process of inventory management involves the ordering, storing and shipping of a company’s physical
products. The primary goal of ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) inventory management software is
to minimize holding costs by providing insight and alerts into when it’s time to reorder, restock, or
remanufacture products. Inventory mismanagement can have disastrous consequences. Business either lose
money on sales that can not be fulfilled or waste money from having too much (or even bad) inventory in
stock. An effective ERP inventory management system minimizes overhead and increases efficiency by
tackling a number of common inventory challenges.

3.1.1 COMMON INVENTORY CHALLENGES THAT AN ERP INVENTORY SYSTEM HELP

SOLVE

A lack of inventory management can wreak havoc on a business. Thankfully, the most common
inventory challenges can be solved by upgrading to an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system that
automates and consolidates supply chain processes. An ERP inventory system can help you avoid:

a) Excess Inventory
b) Inventory Shortages
c) Dead Stock
d) Inventory Turnover

a) Excess Inventory: Too much inventory reduces liquidity and increases overhead, but forecasting
too conservatively can lead to inventory shortages. An ERP inventory system can analyze historical sales data
and past seasonal trends to set realistic safety margin

b) Inventory Shortages (Out-of-Stock): Inventory shortages can be just as costly as excess inventory. If
the profit margin of your product is high and your space is competitive, nit having enough stock during peak
selling periods can be detrimental. ERP inventory software allows for “par levels” (minimum
inventory thresholds) to be set for each product and changed throughout the year, if needed. If a product’s
inventory falls below the set par level, an alert immediately gets sent out to order more. If combined with the
right automation software, an ERP inventory management system can even generate and send out the
purchase request automatically.

c) Dead Stock: Dead stock is on-hand stock that’s expires, unused, unsold, or forgotten about. Having
a dead stock is particularly harmful because it wastes money on two separate fronts; the original cost-of-goods
sold can’t be recovered, and warehousing (storage) costs increase each day the product sits. An ERP inventory
system keeps track of all data on when products are purchased or manufactured, when they expiree, and when
they become unprofitable. Again, alerts can be set up to notify when stock becomes “dead”.

3
d) Inventory Turnover: Understanding inventory turnover is crucial to knowing when to reorder or
remanufacture products. Manually calculating your inventory needs time- count cycle + order cycle + delivery
cycle – is not only time consuming, but there’s plenty of room for human error. Automating this process
makes sure your business can stay operational in between ordering. ERP consulting can guide this process
easily.

The application used at Shridhan for ERP inventory management is odoo 12.0.

3.1.2 STEPS INVOLVED:

1. Open the odoo application

2. Click on inventory module and open the Inventory Control ►Products, then click on create to create new
product. Configure the product type so that it is stockable not a consumable.

FIG. 1: INVENTORY PRODUCT WINDOW

3. To update the product quantity for one product, click on Update qty on Hand button.

4. A new window opens. In the New Quantity on Hand field, type the quantity of product you currently hold in
stock, then click Apply.

FIG. 2: QUANTITY ON-HAND WINDOW

4
5.You can now see from the On-Hand tab that the quantity has been updated.

FIG. 3: UPDATED ON-HAND TAB

6. Click on Validate Inventory button to confirm the inventory and post it.

FIG. 4: INVENTORY VALIDATION WINDOW

7. To check the current stock, go to Inventory Control►Products, and click on the left button.

FIG. 5: FINAL INVENTORY WINDOW

3.1.3 BENEFITS OF ERP INVENTORY MANAGEMENT:

The potential advantages of ERP inventory management are far reaching:

1.Increased efficiency: There are huge time-saving implications of using an ERP inventory management
system. Managing operations using a centralized system not only cuts down on double-handling but also
allows for automation of daily tasks. This translates to increase production and more accurate output in less
time.

5
2.Cost savings: Every business owner knows that efficiency equals cost savings. Rather than paying
for segmented resources or systems to handle different parts of business, ERP inventory management
systems handle many working parts simultaneously, reducing overall workload and minimizing expenses.

3.Accurate data collection and reporting: With key updates on stock, and customers in a single location, ERP
inventory management enables quality data collection. Most systems will allow you to create and save custom
inventory and sales reports to track business performance and plan for growth.

3.2 DESIGN AND WORKING OF RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTERS :

Level sensors can use either

• Contact (guided) measuring principles or

• Non-contact measuring principles.

3.2.1 CONTACT(GUIDED) RADAR LEVEL SENSORS

FIG. 6 GUIDED RADAR LEVEL SENOSRS

Contact sensors include float switches, conductive level switches, vibrating forks, and other measuring devices
that are in contact with the measured product. They are usually cost effective and straightforward to use, but
have fewer features than non-contact level sensors and require certain conditions to work well. A float switch,
for example, as the name suggests, floats, which is only possible in certain types of liquids.

In level measurement with guided wave radar, microwave pulses are conducted along a cable or rod probe and
reflected by the product surface. The measuring probe of the TDR sensor ensures that the signal reaches the
medium undisturbed. Liquids, bulk solids and separation layers (interfaces) in liquids are commonly measured
with this measuring technique.

GUIDED WAVE RADAR LEVEL SENSORS WORKING PRINCIPLE

Guided wave radar is based on microwave technology. Microwaves are only affected by materials that
reflect energy which means that the temperature variations, dust, pressure, and viscosity do not affect
accuracy. The device sends a low energy microwave pulse down a probe. When the pulse hits the media, a

6
significant proportion of the energy is reflected back up the probe to the device. The level is directly
proportional

7
to the time-domain reflectometry. Because a proportion of the emitted pulse will continue down the probe, an
interface can also be detected.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Some of the advantages of guided wave radar level sensors are:

• Can measure levels even in long range.

• The degradation of the signal in use is very less since the wave guide offers extremely efficient course
for signal travel. Hence, level measurement in case of materials having very low dielectric constant can
be done effectively.
• Pulses are directed via a guide; hence factors like surface turbulence, foams, vapors or tank
obstructions do not influence the measurement.
• Takes continuous readings of up to 70 readings per second.
• Can be used to measure both level and interface.

The disadvantages of the GWR level transmitters are:

• The probe may be subjected to the buildup of scaling and corrosion.

• Movement of the product inside the tank can subject the waveguide to pulling and bending forces upon
it.

3.2.2 NON-CONTACT RADAR LEVEL SENSORS

FIG. 7: NON-CONTACT RADAR LEVEL SENSORS

Radar level measurement is based on the principle of measuring the time required for the microwave pulse and
its reflected echo to make a complete return trip between the non-contacting transducer and the sensed material
level. Then, the transceiver converts this signal electrically into distance/level and presents it as an analogue
8
and/or digital signal. The transducer’s output can be selected by the user to be directly or inversely proportional
to the span.

Pulse radar has been widely used for distance measurement since the very beginnings of radar technology. The
basic form of pulse radar is a pure time of flight measurement. Short pulses, typically of a
millisecond or nanosecond duration, are transmitted and the transit time to and from the target is measured.

Everything inside the tank that conducts energy, such as level switches or heater systems, can reflect the
signal. If the product has a low dielectric level, then the radar may find a false level. We may also wind up
with bad readings from vapor, foam, or other product conditions.

We can find many solutions to avoid this issue - high-frequency radar level transmitters, echo analysis, stilling
wells, and more. This type of radar level measurement can be very accurate.

CHAPTER 4: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

4.1 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

FIG. 8: COMPONENTS OF RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTER

The components used in the radar level transmitter are as follows:

1.Cavity magnetron

2.Duplexer switch

3.Antenna

4.Medium

5.Antenna

6.Duplexer switch

7.Processor

8.Display
9
4.1.1 CAVITY MAGNETRON

The magnetron is a high-powered vaccum tube that works as a self-excited microwave oscillator.
Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the magnetron to produce the high-power output required in
radar equipment. These multi-cavity devices may be used in radar transmitters as either pulsed or CW
oscillators at frequencies ranging from approximately 600 to 95,000 megahertz. The relatively simple
construction has the disadvantage that the magnetron usually can work only on a constructively fixed
frequency.

The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid. The anode of a magnetron is fabricated into a
cylindrical solid copper block. The cathode and filament are at the center of the tube and are supported by the
filament leads. The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep the cathode and filament structure fixed
in position. The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of a high-emission material. The 8 up to 20
cylindrical holes around its circumference are resonant cavities. A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the
central portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as many segments as there are cavities. Each cavity
works as a parallel resonant circuit.

FIG. 9: PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION OF A MAGNETRON

The low-frequency analog, the rear wall of the structure of the anode block may be considered to as the
inductive portion (a coil with a single turn). The vane tip region may be considered as the capacitor portion of
the equivalent parallel resonant circuit. The resonant frequency of a microwave cavity is thereby determined
by the physical dimension of the resonator. If a single resonant cavity oscillates, then it excites the next one to
oscillate too. This one oscillates at a phase delay of 180 degrees and excites the next resonant cavity, and so
on. From a resonant cavity to the next always occurs this delay of 180 degrees. The chain of resonators thus
forms a slow-wave structure that is self-contained. Because of this slow-wave structure, this design is also-
called “Multi-cavity Traveling Wave Magnetron” in some publications.

10
4.1.2 DUPLEXER SWITCH:

FIG. 10: SIMPLIFIED FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR USING A DUPLEXER

Whenever a single antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, as in radar system, an electronic switch
must be used. Switching systems of this type are called duplexers. Switching the antenna between the transmit
and receive modes presents one problem; ensuring that maximum use is made of the available energy is
another. The simplest solution is to use a switch to transfer the antenna connection from the receiver to the
transmitter during the transmitted pulse and back to the receiver during the echo pulse. No practical
mechanical switches are available that can open and close in a few microseconds. Therefore, electronic
switches must be used. Duplexers are constructed in many forms, such as

• Ferrite Circulators (hybrid-ring duplexer) or

• resonant cavity coaxial or waveguide systems,

• with TR- and ATR- tubes,

• or with pin diodes

Since waveguide and hybrid-ring duplexers are most common in radar systems. The simplest solution would
be here to use a ferrite circulator. However, it is complicated to make circulators for top performances up to
many
100 kW in the practice. In addition, circulators have a decoupling of hardly more as 30 to 40 dB and cannot
protect the highly sensitive receiver from the high transmit powers sufficiently. On the other hand, a circulator
can provide the receiver with an echo signal during the transmission time. It has not the limitations of a so-

11
called blind range like other duplexer systems. Circulators as duplexer are predetermined for radar sets with a
very low transmitter's peak power, like the DPR886.

12
Therefore TR- and ATR-tubes are used. Unfortunately, duplexers need a reaction time situated in the
nanosecond area. The full transmit power reaches the receiver in this time! You may increase the speed with
which the gap breaks down after the transmitter fires by placing a voltage of about 800 to 1200 V across the
gap electrodes. This voltage is known as keepalive voltage. This action provides for rapid ionization when the
transmitter pulse arrives. Efficient pin diodes don't have this disadvantage.

4.1.3 PLANAR/PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA:

FIG. 11: LINEAR ARRAY OF PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA

A phased array antenna is an array antenna whose single radiator can be fed with different phase shifts. As a
result, the common antenna pattern can be steered electronically. The electronic steering is much more flexible
and requires less maintenance than the mechanical steering of the antenna.

Functional principle: The principle of this antenna is based on the effect of interference., a phase-dependent
superposition of two or (usually) several radiation sources. It can be observed that in-phase signals amplify
each other and counter-phase signals cancel each other out. So, if two radiators emit a signal in the same phase
shift, a superposition is achieved – the signal is amplified in the main direction and attenuated in the
secondary directions. Here in the left radiator group, both radiators are fed with the same phase. The signal is
amplified in the main direction. Therefore, the signal from the upper radiator is transmitted phase-shifted by
22° (i.e., slightly delayed) than from the lower radiator. Therefore, the main direction of the signal emitted in
common is slightly steered upwards. The radiators don’t have reflectors. Therefore, the back lobe of the
antenna pattern is as big as the main lobe. However, the back lobe has also steered upwards.

If the signal to be transmitted is now routed through a phase-regulating module, the direction of radiation can
be controlled electronically. However, this is not possible indefinitely, because the effectiveness of this

13
antenna arrangement is greatest in the main direction perpendicular to the antenna field, while extreme tilting
of the

14
main direction increases the number and size of the unwanted side lobes, while at the same time reducing the
effective antenna area. The sine theorem can be used to calculate the necessary phase shift. Any type of
antenna can be used as a radiator in the phased array antenna. Significantly, the single radiators must be
controlled with a variable phase shift and thus the main direction of the radiation can be changed continuously.
To achieve high directivity, many radiators are used in the antenna field. The antenna of RRP-117 for
example, consists of 1584 radiators whose received signal is still combined in an analog way to the antenna
pattern. More modern multi- function radar sets, on the other hand, use the digital beamforming during the
reception.

Advantages

1.High antenna gain with large side-lobe attenuation

2.Very fast change of beam direction (in range of microseconds)

3.High beam agility

4.Failure of some components does not result in a complete system failure.

Disadvantages:

1.Limited scanning range

2.Deformation of the antenna pattern during beam steering

3.Low frequency agility

4.Very complex structure

5.High cost.

CHAPTER 5: FREQUENCY SELECTION

5.1 FREQUENCY SELECTION
There area number of factors that impact a measuring signal’s accuracy and availability, including frequency,
antenna type, installation conditions, and the dielectric constant of the material being measured.

Transmitter frequency affects accuracy, beam angle, and antenna size. Low frequency transmitters are
generally less accurate compared to higher frequency transmitters due to the poorer resolution of the signal
generated by the lower frequency transmitters.

Figure shows an envelope curve comparison between 6 GHz and 26 GHz radar transmitters. The 26 GHz
radar (red line) generates pulses that are approximately one half of the length of the 6 GHz pulse (blue line).
This provides a sharper return and higher accuracy. The 6 GHz pulse is much wider than the 26 GHz pulse.
The transmitter interprets this pulse and determines where the level is located. The blue arrows indicate that
the interpretation can be several points. The transmitter can interpret the leading edge, the center, or the

15
following edge as level, which affects the accuracy. Since the 26 GHz transmitter pulse is much
sharper, this limits interpretation to a single point, shown by the red arrow.

16
The result is that accuracy for the 6 GHz transmitter is typically 6 to 10 mm while the 26 GHz transmitter
provides 2 to 3 mm accuracy in process applications. Advanced algorithms can be applied to come to less than
1mm accuracy for tank gauging applications.

FIG. 12: ENVELOPE CURVE COMPARISON BETWEEN 6 GHZ AND 26 GHZ RADAR TRANSMITTERS

Reflection peaks from 80 GHz radars also are quite sharp, which makes evaluation of the exact level quite
easy. Process radars using 80 GHz can have an accuracy of 1 mm in process applications, while tank gauging
and custody transfer radars using 80 GHz can have accuracies of less than 0.5 mm. Frequency also affects the
beam angle of the signal propagated by the transmitter. Lower frequencies generate wider beam angles than
higher frequency transmitters. A wide beam angle may be more suitable than a narrow beam angle in some
applications.

Frequency also has an impact on the radar device antenna’s beam width and beam angle. High frequency
signals can enable small beam angles using small antennas. A small beam angle is beneficial because it helps
avoid obstructions in tanks and vessels. Low-frequency radars can also achieve small beam angles but they
need larger antennas, so a user needs to consider what fitting sizes are available on the relevant vessels. At the
same time, a narrow beam has its own drawbacks an obstruction in the tank could completely block a narrow
beam, while a wider beam might be only partially blocked and could still produce a reliable measurement.

17
CHAPTER 6: DIFFERENT OUTPUT OPTIONS
OUTPUT OPTIONS

ANALOG SINGNAL RS-485 HART TECHNOLOGY GPRS

2-WIRED 4-WIRED WIFI BLUETOOTH WIFI BLUETOOTH

WIFI BLUETOOTH WIFI

6.1 ANALOG OUTPUT SIGNAL

4-20mA signal standard is used in the device. 4-20mA current loop output is a type of electrical signal that is
used in a series circuit to provide a robust measurement signal.

The sensor or instrument generating the signal acts like a current source providing a constant current output
signal for a given measurement independent of supply voltage or circuit impedance.

Unlike voltage outputs, the current output is the same at any particular pint in the circuit and is relatively high
power analog output which can be used in measurement circuits over long distances.

Transmitters are available with a wide variety of signal outputs. The 4-20mA analog signal is by far the most
commonly used in industrial applications. Several physical 4-20mA wiring options exist. This guidance note
aims to outline these options.

Industrial transmitters are available for monitoring many parameters these including pressure, temperature and
flow etc. Gas detectors/ transmitters offer 4-20mA outputs, where 4mA equates to zero reading and 20mA
equates to a full scale reading of the calibrated range.

18
This signal is sent to a remotely located control panel. The control panel uses this signal and activates
executive actions via relay contacts, e.g. audible and visual alarms or initiate some trips or even plant
shut down procedures.

Transmitters typically require a 24Vdc supply. This supply can be derived local to the transmitter or supplied
direct from the associated control panel.

Several transmitter wiring options exist. The design of the associated control panel dictates which option
should be used.

• Two wire loop powered transmitters

• Fully isolated (4-wire)

6.1.1 TWO WIRE LOOP POWERED TRANSMITTERS

This configuration supplies power and 4-20mA signal over a two-wire loop connection between the transmitter
and the control panel.

Not all transmitters can be wired in this format and must be specifically designed to accommodate
this configuration.

FIG. 13: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TWO WIRE LOOP TRANSMITTER

Advantages:

• Has low power consumption

19
• Only two cable cores are required to the transmitter.

20
Disadvantages:

• Transmitter discrete fault signaling can not be set at 0mA as this configuration continues to draw some
current in a fault condition. This configuration is not suitable for control panels that require a 0mA
signal for a fault indication.

6.1.2 FULLY ISOLATED (4-WIRE)

The transmitter and control panel use separate power supplies. The 4-20Ma signal flows through two separate
cable cores between the transmitter and control panel. It is assumed that the power to drive the 4-20mA loop is
derived from the control panel.

FIG. 14: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF FOUR WIRE LOOP TRANSMITTER

Advantages:

• Electrical interference on the voltage supply lines will not be transferred to the 4-20mA signal line,
reducing the risk of spurious signals being received at the controller.

Disadvantages:

• An additional cable core is required for each transmitter compared to current sink and source options.

• A separate power supply is required for both the transmitter and control panel.
21
6.2 RS485
RS485 is the most versatile communication standard in the standard series defined by the EIA, as it performs
well on all four points. That is why RS485 is currently a widely used communication interface in data
acquisition and control applications where multiple nodes communicate with each other.

FIG. 15: GENERAL RS485 CONNECTION

One of the main problems with RS232 is the lack of immunity for the noise on the signal lines. The transmitter
and receiver compare the voltages of the data- and handshake lines with one common zero line. Shifts in the
ground level can have disastrous effects. Therefore, the trigger level of the RS232 interface is set relatively
high at ±3 Volt. Noise is easily picked up and limits both the maximum distance and communication speed.
With RS485 on the contrary there is no such thing as common zero as a signal reference. Several volts
difference in the ground level of the RS485 transmitter and receiver does not cause any problems. The RS485
signals are floating and each signal is transmitted over a Sig+ line and Sig- line. The RS485 receiver compares
the voltage difference between both lines, instead of the absolute voltage level on a signal line. This works
well and prevents the existence of ground loops, a common source of communication problems. The best
results are achieved if the Sig+ and Sig- lines are twisted.

Advantages:

• Due to use of differential signaling, maxim data transmission speed (100Kbps) and distance unto 1200
meters (i.e. 4000 ft.) are supported.

• Due to differential signaling RS485 is immune to noise.

• It supports single master and multiple slaves (i.e. MultiTaction’s) due to balanced transmission line.

• It is considered to be lower signal level interface.

• The communication is faster compared to I2C protocol.

• Response time between reader and software is short when less than 32 controllers (or readers)
are communicating on the same data line.
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Disadvantages:

• RS 485 mode, only single node can transmit data at a time.

• The RS485 interface requires special type of cables and ordinary cables cannot be used. Moreover, it is
expensive compared to CAT5 cables.

• It requires 4 wires to communicate in multidrop mode unlike RS232 which requires only 2 wires to
communicate between master and slave in point to point mode.

• RS485 is not suitable to transfer large amount of data at 115.2 Kbps speed. This is due to occurrence of
data loss at such high speed. Data transfer at 56.2 Kbps is stable but takes longer time.

• In RS485, backing up of system is difficult. this is because special switches and configurations
are needed to build redundant host PC.

6.3 HART TECHNOLOGY

“HART” is an acronym for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. The HART Protocol makes use
of Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top
of the 4-20Ma. This enables two-way field communication to take place and makes it possible for
additional information beyond just the normal process variable to be communicated to/from a smart field
instrument.

FIG. 16: DIGITAL OVER ANALOG

The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4-20mA signal and allows a
host application (master) to get toe or more digital updates per second from a smart field device. As the digital
FSK signal is phase continuous, there is no interference with the 4-20mA signal. The HART Protocol provides
two simultaneous communication channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and the digital signal. The 4-20Ma
signal communicates the primary measured value using the 4-20mA current loop- the fastest and the most
reliable industry standard. Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is
superimposed on the analog signal.

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The digital signal contains information from the device including device status, diagnostics, additional
measured or calculated valises. together, the two communication channels provide a low-cost and very robust
complete field communication solution that is easy to use and configure.

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6.4 GPRS/GSM
By introducing GSM/GPRS communication mode, the remote monitoring system for prefabricated substation
can realize wireless data transmission not only via GSM network but also via internet GPRS network. The
main function of the system is to remotely monitor the operational status of the substations by mobile monitors
and control center. GSM/GPRS technology allow us to automatically collect metering data and transfers the
data to a server/cloud for record, analysis, history and record purposes. Detailed consumption data can be
collected
continuously at predefined intervals and can be read remotely via an automated process.

TRANSMI GPRS GSM INTERNE MONITOR-

TANK
-TTER MODULE NETWORK T/CLOUD ING SYSTEM

FIG.17: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WIRELESS MONITORING USING GPRS MODULE

CHAPTER 7: RADAR VS ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTERS

7.1 RADAR VS ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTERS

RADAR ULTRASONIC

Uses high frequency radar impulses. Uses sound waves.

Extreme pressure and temperature does not affect the
device performance.
Less affected by foam, vapors, powders, dust
and uneven surfaces.
Limited pressure and temperature limits.
Affected by foam, vapours, powders, dust and
uneven surfaces as these substances can interfere
with the signals on the ultrasonic sensors leading to
erroneous readings.

7.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTERS

Advantages:

• Measurement is not affected by temperature, pressure or dust.

• User friendly adjustment saves time

• Non-contact, continuous level measurement over larger ranges

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 • Unaffected by sludge and biomass, dust, foam, oil, grease and other coatings, uneven surfaces,
turbulence, pressure, and vaccum.

• Single frequency radar level sensors for liquid sensing, dual frequency radar level sensor for
level measurement of aggregates, gravel, sand, coal, asphalt, and other solids.

• Simple mounting and push-button calibration.

Disadvantages:

• Very sensitive to build-up on sensor surface.

• They are very expensive. Price increases with accuracy.

• Pulse radar has difficulty making accurate measurement when the media is in close proximity to the
antenna because the time difference between send and return signals is too fast to measure accurately.

CONCLUSION
As water is one of the most important part of our lives, it is important to conserve as much as we can. We have
to choose the kind of level sensor required depending on the kind of water body. Radar level measurement is a
safe solution even under process conditions (pressure, temperature) and vapors. Radar level transmitters can
also be used in hygienic applications for non-contact level measurement.

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