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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
The availability of energy resource plays a critical role in the progress of a nation.
Almost all the human energy needs are currently met from the fast depleting fossil fuels
associated with serious environmental consequences. Over the last century, there has
been more than 20 fold increase in the consumption of energy worldwide and all major
sources excepting hydropower and nuclear electricity are the finite sources and
therefore are likely to be exhausted in near future .The rapid increase in the consumption
of fossil fuels is resulting into climate change which is considered as the most important
environmental problem of the present century and the recent studies hence indicates that
the emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere have contributed to the increase in
the global mean temperature by approximately 0.8°C during the past century. The
impact of climate change on the ecosystem and human societies has prompted to
develop eco-friendly and infinite renewable sources like solar, wind, small hydro,
biomass, etc .
major thrust is given for the utilisation of non-edible seed plant. The oil from these
plants can be transesterified by suitable method depending on its FFA content for the
production of biodiesel that can be used to operate an CI engine.
The rapidly increasing demand of crude oil coupled with increase in fuel demand
has forced the countries to look for alternative to conventional fuels As stated above,
3
the biodiesel production from non-edible seed plant like jatropha, pongamia, mahua etc
are being considered as indigenous source of oil for biodiesel production. Once the oil
resources starts to available in the country, the availability of biodiesel as substitute of
diesel fuel will increase and dependency on oil import would reduce there by making
the country self-sufficient in fuel supplies.
1.4. Biodiesel
1.4.1. Introduction
Energy is one of the most important resources for mankind and its sustainable
development. Today, the energy crisis becomes one of the global issues confronting us.
Fuels are of great importance because they can be burned to produce significant
amounts of energy. Many aspects of everyday life rely on fuels, in particular the
transport of goods and people. Main energy resources come from fossil fuels such as
petrol oil, coal and natural gas. Vegetable oils cannot be directly used in the diesel
4
engine for its high viscosity, high density, high flash point and lower calorific value. So
it needs to be converted into biodiesel to make it consistent with fuel properties of
diesel.
Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made from vegetable oil and animal fats. It
can act both as substitute and an additive to diesel fuel. Importance of biodiesel
increases due to
(i) Increasing petroleum prices,
The problems appear only after long period. Some of common problems are:
(i) Coking and trumpet formation on the injectors to such an extent that fuel
atomization becomes difficult,
(ii) Carbon deposits,
(iii) Oil ring sticking, and
(iv) Thickening and gelling.
1.4.3. Micro-emulsions
Micro emulsion is defined as colloidal dispersion of fluid microstructures (1-150
nm) in solvent forming two immiscible phases. The common solvents used are
methanol and ethanol. Micro-emulsions is the probable solution to high viscosity of
vegetable oil. Their atomization is relatively easy because of lower viscosity.
1.4.4. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis means conversion of one substance to another by application of heat.
Catalysts are used to speed up the process. Different products can be obtained from the
same material depending on different path of reaction and this makes pyrolytic
chemistry difficult. Pyrolysis of vegetable oil gives different lower hydrocarbons that
can be used as fuel.
1.4.5. Transesterification
Transesterfication is a kind of organic reaction where alcohol group in ester is
substituted. It can also be reaction of vegetable oil/fat with alcohol to give ester and
glycerol. The applicability of transesterification is not restricted to laboratory. Several
relevant industrial processes use this reaction to produce different types of compounds.
An example is the production of PET (polyethyleneterephthalate), which involves a step
where dimethylterephthalate is transesterified with ethylene glycol in the presence of
zinc acetate as catalyst. Furthermore, a large number of acrylic acid derivatives are
produced by transesterification of methyl acrylate with different alcohols, in the
presence of acid catalysts.
6
7. Low toxicity.
8. Less pollution.
The combustion process in the cylinder should take as little time as possible with
the release of maximum heat energy during the period of operation. Longer operation
results in the formation of deposits which in combination with other combustion
products may cause excessive wear and corrosion of cylinder, piston and piston rings.
The combustion product should not be toxic when exhausted to the atmosphere. These
requirements can be satisfied using a number of liquid and gaseous fuels. The biodiesel
from non-edible sources like Jatropha, Pongamia, Mahua, Neem etc meets the above
engine performance requirement and therefore can offer perfect viable alternative to
diesel oil in India.
7
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review was done to determine the necessity of biodiesel and source
of biodiesel from various oil resources. Few papers which implement different biodiesel
production process with various conditions, methodologies and Engine Performance
and Emission Characteristics are discussed in this chapter.
Biodiesel Development from High Free Fatty Acid Punnakka Oil [7]
Ramaraju A. et al., investigated the punnakka oil Biodiesel production and said
that the acid esterification reduced the FFA content from 19.8% to 2%. The optimum
conditions for the reaction are, methanol to oil ratio of 0.65 v/v, catalyst concentration
o
of 0.75% v/v of oil, reaction temperature of 60 C, reaction time of 60 min and settling
time of 90 min. Then the product from this stage is transesterified using alkaline catalyst
to produce biodiesel. The optimum conditions of this stage are methanol to oil ratio of
o
o.2 v/v, catalyst concentration of 1.0% w/v of oil, reaction temperature of 60 C, reaction
time of 30 min and settling time of 60 min. Conversion efficiency of 92.5% is achieved
with these optimum conditions of reaction.
Callophyllum Inophyllum Lin (honne) Oil, A source for Biodiesel Production [10]
Chavan S.B. et al., is focused on the collection of seeds and oil extraction then
proceed for biodiesel production with molar ratio 8:1, KOH were 1.2wt%, tempreture
65oc, reaction time 90minutes were used and testing of parameters as per ASTM 6751
standards. The physical properties like acid value, density, Calorific value, Flash point,
Fire point and Moisture, Viscosity shows of calophyllum methyl esters
were0.702,892gm/cc, 37.18MJ/Kg, 1760c, 1820c and 0.01% . The physico-chemical
parameters showed that Calophyllum may works as a sustainable feedstock for
biodiesel production that is equivalent to fissile fuel as per ASTM 6751.
production and concluded that numerous aspects linked to non-edible oil feedstocks
such as non-edible oil resources, advantages of nonedible oils, problems in exploitation
of non-edible oils, fatty acid composition profiles (FAC) of various non-edible oils, oil
extraction techniques, technologies of biodiesel production, properties and
characteristic of non-edible biodiesel and engine performance and emission
characteristics have been studied. The determined properties beside the engine
performance and emission characteristics of non-edible biodiesel covered in this review
indicated that there is a huge chance to produce biodiesel from non-edible sources in
the future.
S.
Source Title of the Paper Process Result
No
Effects of
Acid Catalyst :HCl
different
Research Biodiesel Alkalin Catalyst:NaOH parameters
Journal of production from such as
4 Molar Ratio :6:1
Chemical Jatropa oil and its temperature,
Sciences Characterization Temperature :60°C Reacant Ratio,
Catalyst varies
Time :3hr the Properties
12
CHAPTER III
CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM
3.1. Introduction:
The Calophyllum Inophyllum plants are widely dispersed throughout the tropics,
including the Indian Peninsula, Hawaiian and other pacific islands. They typically grow
into eight to twenty meters at maturity.[The common habitats include strand or low-
elevation riverine, 0–200 m (660 ft)in tropics, up to 800 m (2000 ft) at the equator; mean
annual temperatures 18–33°C (64–91°F); annual rainfall 1000– 5000 mm(40–200 in).
They are also commonly found on beaches and in coastal forests. They grow best in
sandy, well drained soils. They may initially grow up to 1 m (3.3 ft) in height per year
on good sites, although usually much more slowly. The agro forestry uses include
mixed-species woodlot, windbreak, and homegarden; with their main products of
timber and seed oil. Studies reveal that the annual yield of 100 kg (220 lb) nuts/tree/yr
yields 5kg (11 lb) of oil on an average. These trees have low potential for being invasive.
The species have been planted widely throughout the tropics and it is uncertain
from where it originates. It is believed to be indigenous to India, Malaysia, Indonesia
and the Philippines. It grows in areas with 1000–5000 mm rain per year at altitudes
from 0–200 m. It essentially falls to a group of coastal species that grows on sandy
beaches and, to a lesser extent, along river margins further inland. It is highly tolerant
to strong winds, salt spray and brackish water tables. The trees are sensitive to frost and
fire. The wind and salt tolerance makes it suitable for sand dune stabilization.
15
The fruits are used for human consumption although they are reported to be
slightly toxic. It is a medium- sized tree, normally up to 25 m tall, occasionally reaching
up to 35 m high and with diameter up to 1.50 m. The bowl is without buttresses; it is
usually twisted or leaning especially on wind exposed sites. It has sticky latex that is
either clear or white to yellowish. The fruit is a round drupe, 2–4 cm in diameter. The
single, large seed is surrounded by a shell (endocarp) and a thin, 3–5 mm layer of pulp.
The fruit is at first pinkish-green later turning into bright green and when ripe, it
turns dark grey-brown and wrinkled. There are about 100–200 seeds/kg. The tree can
flower and bear fruit all year round in Indian conditions and in Tamil Nadu and Mysore
(India) flowers usually appear in the cold season and fruits ripen in March. In Kerala
(India), flowers appear in March–April and fruits ripen in May–June, although both
flowers and fruits can be found at other times of the year. In Orissa (India), there are
two seasons, with flowering during May–June and October–November. In the Andaman
Islands (India), the tree will flower profusely during the rainy season and, to a lesser
extent, at other times of the year, with fruiting from June to august. The flowers are
pollinated by bees and other insects, and fruits are dispersed by sea currents and fruit
bats.
Biodiesel Productivity
8 Calophyllum
Inophyllum
7
Biodiesel Feedstoke
Jatropha
6 Cottonsee
d
5 Peanut
4 Sunflowe
r
3 Rapseed
2 Soyabean
1 Coconut
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Productivity (litres/hectare)
The unrefined but filtered Honne oil is dark green in colour and is used as
feedstock for the biodiesel production in this study. The fatty acid composition and the
important properties of Honne oil in comparison with other non-edible oils is given in
Table I. The type and percentage of fatty acids contained in vegetable oils depend on
the plant species and on the growth conditions of the tree. Honne oil contains 24.96%
17
saturated acids (palmitic and stearic) and 72.65% unsaturated acids (oleic, linoleic and
linolenic). Saturation fatty acid alkyl esters increase the cloud point, cetane number and
stability. The free fatty acid content of unrefined filtered honne oil was found to be 22%
and Acid value greater than 44 mg KOH/g. Its free fatty acid content was determined
by standard titrimetric method. The yield of esterification process and quality of
biodiesel decreases considerably if acid value is greater than 4 mg KOH/g, i.e. Free
fatty acid content is 2%. Therefore, development of method to produce biodiesel from
high acid value oils is significant. Efforts have been made to esterify a typical high free
fatty acid type of oil, Honne oil in this study.
2. The fatty acid methyl esters derived from C. inophyllum seed oil meets the major
biodiesel requirements in the United States (ASTM D 6751), and European
Union (EN 14214). The average oil yield is 11.7 kg-oil/tree or 4680 kg-
oil/hectare.
3. In the northwest coastal areas of Luzon island in Philippines, the oil was used
for night lamps.
4. This widespread use started to decline when kerosene became available, and later
on electricity.
5. It was also used as fuel to generate electricity to provide power for radios during
World War II.
6. In Southern India, the oil of the seeds of the plant is used specifically for treating
skin diseases.
7. It is also applied topically in cases of rheumatism. The oil may have been useful
in waterproofing cloth and is used as a varnish.
8. An extract from the fruit was once used to make a brown dye to colour cloth.
The oil can also be used to make soap.
9. In the most of the South Sea islands, tamanu or sultan champa oil is used as an
analgesic medicine(natives use it in frictions for sciatica and rhematism) and to
cure ulcers and bad wounds.
10. A farmer in Nagappattinam district of Tamil Nadu has successfully used the oil
as biodiesel to run his 5-hp pump set.
CHAPTER IV
The production of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil was carried out in the following
order.
Drying
Shelling
Milling
Determination of
Moisture Content
Heating
Pressing
Filteration
1. Drying
The seeds collected were made to dry under hot sun, causing the inner seeds to
detach from the outer shell.
2. Shelling
The shelling process is to remove the seed coat of the calophyllum inophyllum
seeds. It was carried out manually. This process was tiresome and needs automation.
3. Milling
The unshelled seeds were milled into dough by using the corn milling machine.
Not much difficulties were faced during this process.
4. Determining Moisture Content
The moisture content was determined and was found to be more than 12
percentage by Karl Fischer titration method. The water was to be removed to achieve
12% moisture content.
5. Heating
Heating of the seeds was done in an oven. The temperature was raised to 80-
85oC, so as to remove the moisture content completely. The heated dough is thus free
from moisture.
6. Pressing
Pressing was done by using an Oil press and the Honne oil was extracted from
the dough and taken for filteration.
7. Filteration
The oil was collected and filtered using coarse and fine filters. Thus removing
the finest dust and slag particles left over the pressing process.
22
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 4.2. Biodiesel Extraction
(a) Fresh Fruit, (b) Dried Seeds, (c) Extracted oil
23
CHAPTER V
5. Biodiesel Production
According to production of biodiesel from crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil was
suggested to be as follows:
1) Pre-treatment process (acid catalyzed esterification)
3) Post-treatment process.
The overall process is a sequence of three consecutive reactions, in which die- and
monoglycerides are formed as intermediates. Transesterification is a reversible reaction
thus; excess alcohol is used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and to allow its
phase separation from the glycerol formed.
CHAPTER VI
6.1.Experimental Setup
Reaction or transesterfication was carried out in a system, as shown in Figure
6.1. Reactor consisted of spherical flask, which was put inside the heat jacket. Oil was
used as medium of heat transfer from heat jacket to the reactor. Thermostat was a part
of heat jacket, which maintained the temperature of oil and in turn the temperature of
the reactants at a desired value. The reaction was carried out at around 65- 70°C.
Spherical flask consisted of four openings. The center one was used for putting stirrer
in the reactor. The motor propelled the stirrer. Thermometer was put inside the second
opening to continuously monitor the temperature of the reaction. Alcohol being volatile
vaporized during the reaction so the condenser was put in the third opening to reflux
the vapours back to the reactor to prevent any reactant loss. Fourth opening was used
for filling reactants to the reactor.
alcohol gets vaporized. To prevent any reactant loss condenser was used to condense
the alcohol vapour and reflux it back into the reactor. Condenser was also helpful in
maintaining atmospheric pressure inside the reactor (Figure 6.1). Once reaction was
over the products were taken out through the outlet in the lower side of the reactor and
put in the separating funnel. Two phases (having different density) are formed as a result
of transesterification. Separation was done using a separating funnel (separation took
around two hours). Upper layer consisted of biodiesel, alcohol, and some soap (formed
as a result of side reaction saponification – free fatty acids get converted to soap). Lower
layer consisted of glycerin, excess alcohol, catalyst, impurities, and traces of unreacted.
Purification of upper layer (to obtain biodiesel) was done in two steps.
6.3. Separation
After the transesterification process, the biodiesel layer is separated from the
glycerin layer, both undergo purification. The upper layer consists of biodiesel, alcohol
and some soap. The evaporation of water and alcohol gives 80-88 %pure glycerin,
which can be sold as crude glycerin is distilled by simple distillation. After completion
of transesterification process, the mixture is allowed to settle under gravity for overnight
separation in a separating funnel. The products developed during transesterification
process were Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester and Glycerin. The bottom layer
consists of Glycerin, excess catalyst, alcohol, impurities and traces of unreacted oil.
Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester (biodiesel) is mixed and washed with hot
distilled water to eliminate the unreacted alcohol; oil and catalyst and permitted to settle
under gravity for 24 hours. The separated biodiesel is taken for characterization.
31
4. Then the mixture was stirred on magnetic hot plate for 1 h at 50°C
6. The pre-treated oil was separated from the methanol - water phase at the
top.
32
7. The resulting mixture was poured into a separating funnel and allowed to
settle under gravity for 24 hr for separation of biodiesel.
8. The lower glycerol layer was tapped off.
33
CHAPTER VII
7.1.Introduction
Considerable efforts have been made to develop non-edible oil derivatives that
approximate the properties and performance of biodiesel fuels . Criteria for determining
properties of nonedible biodiesel are now becoming a relevant subject due to the
increase in alternative fuels worldwide.
7.3. Density
Density is the relationship between the mass and volume of a liquid or a solid
and can be expressed in units of grams per liter (g/L). The density of diesel oil is
35
important because it gives an indication of the delay between the injection and
combustion of the fuel in a diesel engine (ignition quality) and the energy per unit mass
(specific energy). This can influences the efficiency of the fuel atomization for airless
combustion systems.
Flash point is another important property for biodiesel fuel. Flash point of a fuel
is the temperature at which it will ignite when exposed to a flame or a spark. Flash point
varies inversely with the fuel’s volatility. The flash point is the lowest temperature at
which fuel emits enough vapors to ignite. Biodiesel has a high flash point which is
usually more than 150OC, while generally conventional diesel fuel has a flash point of
55–66OC
CHAPTER VIII
Biodiesel is mono-alkyl ester made from natural and renewable vegetable oil and
animal fats based feedstock. The data indicates that the biodiesel is compatible with
petroleum diesel and can be blended in any proportion with diesel to create suitable
biodiesel blend. The blending of biodiesel with diesel is expressed as Bxx where xx
indicates the percentage of biodiesel in the blend For example B20 blend is made by
mixing 20% biodiesel with 80% diesel which can be used in CI engine with no
modification with comparable power output.
After Blend:
2. Kinematic viscosity and density also decreased with the increasing percentage of
diesel.
40
Figure 8.2. B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel
41
Figure 8.3. B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel
42
Figure 8.4. B60-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel
43
Figure 8.5. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel
44
8.3.5 B100- 100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Viscosity and Calorific Value
Figure 8.6. B100-100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Viscosity and
Calorific value
45
Figure 8.7. B100- 100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Properties
46
Kinematic Viscosity @40 OC cSt 2.85 3.03 3.3 3.54 3.7 3.12
O
Flash Point* C 30 28 26 26 24 25
O
Fire Point* C 40 38 36 36 34 36
Cetane Number 56 55 54 53 52 48
*by Pensky Martens Closed Cup(PMCC) Method
47
CHAPTER IX
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERTICS
The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these
performance parameters.
For the evaluation of an engine performance few more parameters are chosen
and the effect of various operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on
these parameters are studied. The basic performance parameters are the following :
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the
brake power (bp) and is given by,
49
where,
T is torque in N-m and
N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is,
however, more than the bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed
by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between
moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and removing the products of
combustion from the engine combustion chamber.
Indicated Power
It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of
combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.
where,
pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.
Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean
effective pressure.
50
The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power lost in the
mechanical components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of
mechanical efficiency; which is defined as follows :
where,
Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
Ip = Indicated power, Watt,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine),and
k = Number of cylinders.
If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called the brake mean effective
pressure (bmep Pmb replace ip by bp in Eq. 5.5), and if based on ihp it is called indicated
mean effective pressure (imep). Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (fmep)
can be defined as,
fmap = imep – bmep
51
Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size.
A large engine produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this
reason, torque is not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement
for producing power from fuel. It is the mean effective pressure which gives an
indication of engine displacement utilization for this conversion. Higher the mean
effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the engine for a given
displacement. Again we see that the power of an engine is dependent on its size and
speed. Therefore, it is not possible to compare engines on the basis of either power or
torque. Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of
different engines.
• The specific output consists of two elements – the bmep (force) available to work and
the speed with which it is working.
• Therefore, for the same piston displacement and bmep an engine operating at higher
speed will give more output.
• It is clear that the output of an engine can be increased by increasing either speed or
bmep. Increasing speed involves increase in the mechanical stress of various engine
parts whereas increasing bmep requires better heat release and more load on engine
cylinder.
The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric
efficiency of an engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be
efficiently burned and the power output. For supercharged engine the volumetric
efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.
fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied.
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is one in which case fuel is
completely burned due to minimum quantity of air supplied.
where,
Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
54
Table 9.1. B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Mechanical Specific Fuel
Load Thermal Thermal
Power Power Efficiency Consumption
Efficiency Efficiency
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
Table 9.2. B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
0 0.06 2.66 1.22 57.27 2.14 3.84
1.6 0.47 2.96 9.05 56.68 15.96 0.95
3.04 0.9 3.63 15.49 62.48 24.79 0.55
4.5 1.32 4.54 20.69 71.07 29.12 0.41
6.12 1.79 5.6 23.71 74.2 31.96 0.36
7.49 2.19 6.87 25.16 78.84 31.92 0.34
8.87 2.49 7.1 26.79 76.36 35.08 0.32
55
Table 9.3. B20-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
Table 9.1. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
Performance Characteristics:
1. Break Power vs Break Thermal Efficiency
2. Break Power vs Specific Fuel Consumption
3. Break Power vs Volumetric Efficiency
4. Break Power vs Exhaust gas temperature
30
25 Diesel
20 B100
15 B80
10 B60
B40
5
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
10
8 Diesel
B100
6
B80
4 B60
B40
2 B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
81
Diesel
80 B100
79 B80
B60
78
B40
77 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Load(kg)
150 DIESEL
B100
100
B80
B60
50
B40
0 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
CHAPTER X
EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
Exhaust Emissions:
-Unburnt Hydrocarbons(HC)
-Oxides of Carbon(CO,CO2)
-Oxides of Nitrogen(NO,NO2)
-Oxides of Sulphur(SO2,SO3)
-Particulates, Soot and Smoke
61
10.2.1. HC emissions
Unburned HCs mainly result from the incomplete combustion of fuel and flame
quenching in crevice regions of the engine and at cylinder walls.
10.2.2. CO emissions
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas formed from the incomplete combustion
of any fuel that does not contain oxygen. Generally, several factors such as engine
speed, air/fuel ratio, injection pressure, injection timing, and type of fuel have an effect
on CO emissions.
10.2.3. NO Emission
Nox Emission Created mostly from nitrogen in the air. Nitrogen can also be found
in the fuel blends.
1. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel that contains 11–12% more oxygen in its
molecular structure. This causes higher adiabatic flame temperatures and helps
to achieve more complete combustion and therefore higher NO emissions for
biodiesel blends.
2. Biodiesel naturally contains more double-bonded molecules than diesel. These
double-bonded molecules have slightly higher adiabatic flame temperatures,
which cause the increase in NO emissions for biodiesel blends.
3. Radiation from soot formation in the flame zone is a major source of heat transfer
away from the flame, and therefore it can lower bulk flame temperatures by 25–
125 K, depending on the amount of soot produced at the engine operating
conditions.
0.05
0.04 Diesel
B100
0.03
B80
0.02 B60
0.01 B40
0 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
30
Diesel
25
B100
20
B80
15
B60
10
B40
5
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
NOX Emission(ppm)
Bp Diesel B100 B80 B60 B40 B20
0 65 52 57 63 62 69
0.45 73 78 80 88 79 73
250
NOX Emissio(ppm)
200 Diesel
B100
150
B80
100 B60
50 B40
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
1.4
1.2 Diesel
1 B100
0.8 B80
0.6 B60
0.4
B40
0.2
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)
CHAPTER XI
11.1. Conclusion
In the present investigation, it has confirmed that Calophyllum Inophyllum oil
used as resource to obtain biodiesel. That seeds having more oil content. The extracted
oil has more Free Fatty Acids (FFA) about 19%. The calophyllum inophyllum oil
having more viscosity, so it needed two step of esterification. The best combination of
the parameters was found as 6:1 molar ratio of Methanol to oil, 9 gram of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) catalyst, 60⁰C reaction temperature. The viscosity of Calophyllum
Inophyllum oil reduced considerably after transesterification and is comparable to
diesel. The experimental result shows that base catalyzed transesterification is a
promising area of research for the production of biodiesel in large scale.
Biodiesel characteristics like kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, fire point,
calorific value and cetane number are comparable to diesel. The pure biodiesel (B100)
had almost nearer Kinematic viscosity and Calorifc value to diesel. The Calophyllum
Inophyllum Methyl Ester (CIME) biodiesel it is observed that it may be used as the
alternative fuel in Internal Combustion (IC) engine without any changes. The
performance results shows that the B20 blend also gives good performance. So we can
use B20 blend in our commercial life, but the biodiesel gives more NOX emission.
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