~~

=ARCH AND ANALYSIS

Emissions of Total Volatile

Organic Compounds from
Anthropogenic Sources
in India
Chandra K. Varshney and Pratap Kumar Padhy
School of Enviramental Sciences
JawahmlalNehru University
New Defhi, India

-
Key words
I

air pollution
Summary
anthropogenic volatile organic Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have a direct bearing
compounds (VOCs) emissions
on the levels of ozone and other reactive chemicals in the
hydrocarbons
atmosphere and play an important role in determining air
ozone
total volatile organic compounds quality Anthropogenic emission of VOCs has greatly in-
CrVOCs) creased due t o growing consumption of fossil fuels and
VOC emissions inventory related activities.This article presents an emissions inven-
tory forVOCs emitted from anthropogenic soutres in In-
dia. VOC emissions factors for important source
categories and activities are assembled from the literature
and an effort is made to use Indian emission factors as far
as possible. Important sources ofVOCs include livestock,
combustion of firewood and fossil fuels, rice paddy fields,
manufacturing. petroleum (production and refining), natu-
ral gas (production and distribution), vehicular exhaust, and
coal mining.The annual anthropogenicVOCemissions for
India have been estimated to be 21 million metric tons
Address wrrespondence to:
Chandra K. Varshney (mt). A comparison of VOC emissions inventories for a
School of Environmental Sciences group of countries varying in their industrial and economic
JawaharlalNehru University
New Delhi-110 067, lNDlA
development, in terms of income (gross domestic product,
varshney@jnuniv.ernet.in or GDP), population, and land area, reflects the differences
among the countries.ThisVOC emissions inventory pro-
vides baseline information for comparisons over time and
across countries. In addition, it may serve as an important
tool for formulating nationalVOC control policies.
0 Copyright 1999 by the Massachusetts I
lnstitute of Technology and Yale Univetsity

Volume 2, Number 4

journal of lndustrial Ecology 93

 Introduction
The importance of volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) in relation to air quality is re-
ceiving increasing attention. VOCs are among
the primary air pollutants, that is, those present prepare national VOC inventories. The Eco-
in the atmosphere mainly as a result of direct
emission from identifiable sources. VOCs con-
sist of hydrocarbons containing carbon (C) and
hydrogen (H) as well as species composed partly
of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, halogens, and other
substituted hydrocarbons with individual vapor
pressure greater than or equal to 0.02 pound per
square inch (psi).’ In the atmosphere, VOCs are
trace gases, emitted from both anthropogenic
and natural sources. The prominent anthropo-
genic sources include fossil fuel combustion,
manufacturing, vehicular exhaust, storage and
transportation of petroleum products, biomass
burning, livestock, rice paddies, sewage water
treatment, and landfills. The natural sources of
VOCs include forests, grasslands, oceans, rivers,
wetlands, and peat-lands. During the past de-
cades, anthropogenic emissions have rapidly in-
creased because of the growing use of fossil fuels
and expansion of industrial development and
transportation.
VOCs have great influence on the levels of
oxidants (ozone and other reactive chemicals) in
the atmosphere. Ground-level ozone is a second-
ary pollutant (i.e., a pollutant not emitted di-
rectly from any source but formed in the
environment by the combination or reaction of
other pollutants) with adverse effects on human
health, plant growth, buildings, and materials. It
is formed through a complex series of photo-
chemical reactions involving VOCs and oxides
of nitrogen (NOx).Long-range transport of VOC
is responsible for high ambient ozone levels in
remote areas far away from urban and industrial
centers. VOCs, apart from being a precursor to
tropospheric ozone (0,)(Aikin et al. 1982) and
peroxy acetylnitrate (PAN) (Crutzen 1979),also
have direct health effects, because some of them
are highly toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic
(Sweet and Vermette 1992; Kostiainen 1995;
Mukund et al. 1996). Some of them are
radiatively active and directly contribute to cli-
mate change. The problems caused by VOCs en-
compass local, regional, and global issues.
94 Journol of lndustriol Ecology
With the widespread increase in VOC emis-
sions, buildup of ground-level ozone is likely to
increase. In view of a close linkage between
VOCs and ground-level ozone, countries in Eu-
rope and North America are actively working to
nomic Commission for Europe (ECE 1990)’ Eu-
ropean Environment Agency (EEA 1995), and
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC 1996) have accorded high prior-
ity to the preparation of national emissions in-
ventories of trace gases.
The problems of air pollution, including
VOC emissions, are going to escalate rapidly be-
cause of increasing industrialization and growing
fossil fuel consumption. In developing countries,
especially the South Asian countries, informa-
tion on VOCs is lacking. This article represents
part of an attempt to prepare a VOC emissions
inventory for India (Varshney and Padhy 1998).
Methodology
The following steps represent the methodol-
ogy used to compute total VOC (TVOC) emis-
sions for India.
A detailed inventory of various activities
that give rise to VOC emissions was pre-
pared and grouped into the following eight
broad categories: (a) fuel combustion for
power generation and domestic use, (b)
petroleum production and refining, (c)
natural gas production and distribution,
(d) transportation, (e) manufacturing, (f)
coal mining, (g) rice paddy fields, and (h)
other sources:
An intensive literature search was made
to collect quantitative data for each indi-
vidual source and/or activity showing the
VOCs released per unit of activity (i.e.,
the “emission factors”). As far as possible
emission factors specific to India have
been used, but where Indian data are lack-
ing, information has been taken from the
research literature. There is a dearth of
information on emission factors for differ-
ent fuel types, energy use efficiency of
combustion devices, and fuel-consuming
activities in the Indian context.
 RESEARCH A N D A N A L Y S I S I

In most cases, there was unanimity among constitutes 3.2 million metric tons of VOC emis-
different researchers regarding the emis- sions, followed by emissions from agricultural
sion factors for a given activity. However, straw burning (1.4 mt, table 1). Therefore, it is
for wood combustion, the emission factor not surprising to find that fuel wood combustion
was found to vary between 136 and 2,300 represents the major source of VOCs in develop-
kilogram/terajoule (kg/TJ).2 Operating ing countries such as India. Low efficiency of the
conditions such as type of burner, type of kerosene burners and stoves used for domestic
fuel, water content of the woods, burning cooking in rural and peri-urban4households emit
conditions, and maintenance of the large amounts of VOCs.
equipment greatly influence the magni-
tude of VOC emissions. Usually emission Emissions from Power Generation
factors by successive researchers have Coal and lignite constitute 98% of the energy
been used for years without any actual sources used for thermal power generation in In-
measurements or verification. In the dia. The VOC emissions from the use of coal
present study the emission factor of 800 and lignite amounts to 99.7% of the total emis-
kg/TJ has been used, which seems to be sions from thermal power generation (table 1).
preferred by the majority of researchers
(CORINE 1986, Bocola and Cirillo 1987,
Emissions from Petroleum: Production
CITEPA 1988, UBA 1989). The emission
and Refining
factors for baking, fish processing, and the
paper/pulp and cellulose industry also vary VOC emissions from petroleum production
between 3.3 and 6 kglton? 0.15 and 1.75 and processing occur at various stages of the
kg/ton, and 1and 1.5 kg/ton, respectively, product cycle, including resource extraction,
and average values of 4.7,0.95, and 1.25 storage, transportation, refining, distribution,
kglton have been used. and consumption at the consumer end. Data on
VOC emissions were computed by multi- production and refining of petroleum are given
plying the magnitude of different activi- in table 2. About 27 mt (47%) of the petroleum
ties with the respective emission factor. is produced indigenously, and the remaining
VOC emissions values for different activi- 32.5 mt (53%) is imported. Release of VOCs
ties have been added to determine total during petroleum production is not significant,
anthropogenic emission of VOCs, both whereas refining represents a major source of
nonmethane VOCs (NMVOCs) and emissions (about 85% of this sector). Process-re-
methane (CH4), for India. lated fugitive VOC emissions are not uncom-
mon, and the quantity of emissions is contingent
upon the inherent efficiency of the individual
ResuIt s
processes and housekeeping in refinery petro-
chemical complexes.
VOC Emissions from Fuel Combustion for
Power Generation and Domestic Use
Emissions from Natural Gas: Production
Combustion of fuel wood and agricultural
and Distribution
straw in the domestic sector and the use of fossil
fuels, particularly coal, lignite, and fuel oil in Table 3 lists the VOC emissions connected
thermal power plants and in industry, are the with the extraction and distribution of natural
major sources of VOCs. gas. Emissions from gas extraction are about
40% of the total emissions from natural gas,
Emissions from Domestic Sector which may be caused by leaks from joints, fit-
Fuel wood and agricultural straw represent tings, and valves in the storage and distribution
the traditional sources of energy in the domestic network. Fugitive releases from liquid petroleum
sector. The emission factor for fuel wood com- gas (LPG) plants and other petrochemical com-
bustion is highest among the different fuels and plexes represent additional sources of VOC

Varshney and fadhy, Total Anthropogenic VOC Emissions in India 95

I RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Table I VOC emissions from fuel consumption for power generation and domestic use
Tod consumption Emission factor Total emissions
FWls (TI) . (WI) (4
Thermal power plant'
Coal 3,259,859 3.4" 11,084
Lignite 2,753,878 3.4" 9,363
Oil 121 6.P 1
Natural gas 117,623 0.51 59
Energy consumption in industries'
Oil 293,496 1O.Ob 2,935
Gas'.' 54,996 2.0b 110
Energy consumption in small commercial stoves2
Coal 70,174 400.0 28,070
Fuel oil 11,369 20.0 227
Gas 108,234 10.0 1,082
Energy consumption in small domestic stoves*
Soft coke 14,650 20.0 293
Kerosene 216,614 20.0 4,332
Natural gas 79,784 10.0 798
Fuel wood 4,023,516 800.0d 3,218,813
Agricultural straw burning' 99,000,000 (tons)" 15 kg/tc 1,488,000
lEconomics and Statistics Division, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India December 1992.
'Tata Energy Research Institute 1990 (derived figure).
Tata Energy Research Institute 1990.
'Tata Energy Research Institute 1994.
Unlike other data in this column, this emission factor is calculated in terms of kg/tons in the literature.
'BMHGI 1984.
bUBA 1981.
'Friedrich et al. 1987.
Calculated after Bocola and Cirillo 1987.
Calculated after Bocola and Cirillo 1987; Brice and Derwent 1978.
Conversion factors used : 1 metric ton of coal equivalent to 0.0293 TJ.
1 metric ton of oil equivalent to 0.042 TJ.
1 metric ton of gas equivalent to 0.046 TJ.
1 metric ton of wood equivalent to 0.01596 TJ.

Table 2 Emission from petroleum: Production and refining

Amount Emission factor Total emission
(TI) ~WI) (ton)

Production' 1,134,000 2.51 2,835

Refining' 2,499,000 10.0b 24,990
IUN 1993.
CONCAWE 1986.
bCORlNE 1986.
Conversion factor used: 1 metric ton of oil is equivalent to 0.042 TJ.

96 Journal of Industrial Ecology


Table 3 Emissions from natural gas: Production and distribution'
Amount (t)
Production (mining) 8,634,000
Distribution 8,634,000
'UN 1993.
CONCAWE 1986.
bShareof methane is about 98.6% amount emitted as NMVOC is 3,445 t .
'Share of methane is about 98%; amount emitted as NMVOC is 5,180 t.
dIncludes0.04%NMVOC component.
=Includes0.06%NMVOC component.
emissions. It has been reported that about 3% of
the total quantity of natural gas in Europe leaks
from the pipeline distribution system and from
appliances at the consumer end (CONCAWE
1986). At the consumer end, the process of re-
placement of LPG bottles and often minor de-
lays in ignition after opening the gas valve may
collectively lead to appreciable VOC emissions.
Present emissions from this sector are relatively
small, but they are likely to increase in the future
due to growing demand and expansion of the
consumer network.
Emissions from Tmnqaortation
Automobiles are one of the most widespread
and growing sources of anthropogenic VOC
emissions. The exhaust gases released from the
tail pipes of petrol- (gasoline-) and diesel-driven
vehicles are ubiquitous sources of VOCs. In ad-
dition, evaporative losses of gasoline and diesel
during transportation, storage, and dispensation
to the consumers at retail outlets results in con-
siderable VOC emissions. The emission factor
(in units of gram per kilometer) for mopeds is
high (about 1.2 times that ofscooters and motor-
cycles, 7.4 times higher than passenger cars, and
26 times higher than heavy diesel vehicles), but
the total fuel use is less; hence the total VOC
emissions from mopeds is not high. VOC emis-
sions from two-wheelers (scooters and motor-
cycles) constitute about 44% of all traffic-related
emissions because of their large number and high
emissions factor (table 4).Emissions from two-
stroke engine vehicles constitute about 37% of
the total emissions from the transport sector.
Vanhney and Padhy, Total Anthropogenic VOC Emissions in India
RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS I
Emission factof Total emission (C)
3%d 259,O2Ob
3%' 259,O2Oc
Diesel consumption in the country currently ex-
ceeds that of gasoline, but the consumption of
the latter is likely to increase significantly with
the growth of two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
The VOC emissions from diesel locomotives
used by railways constitute about 2.1% of the
overall emissions from the transport sector.
Emissions m m Manufadurlng
VOC emissions from manufacturing are
mainly from solvent evaporation and dispersion,
which constitute about 71% of the total emis-
sions from manufacturing sector (table 5). Ac-
cording to a study conducted in Europe, about
85% of the total solvents used are emitted into
the atmosphere (CONCAWE 1986).The emis-
sions are highly dependent on the type of evapo-
rative chemical substances and the efficiency of
the technology used.
VOCs from the food and beverage industry
are emitted from processing, drying, fermenta-
tion, distillation, and related process operations.
The emission from the food and beverage indus-
try represents about 24% of the total emission
from the industrial sector.
Methane Emissions fmm Coal Mining
Methane is a dominant gas released from the
coal mines in India along with traces of other
hydrocarbons. Coal production in the country
has significantly increased, from 147.4mt to 308
mt from 1984-1985 to 1996-1997. During coal
mining volatile substances are released into the
atmosphere. The underground Indian coal
97
 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Table 4 Emissions from tmsDortation

Vehicle Fuel consumed Emissionfactor Total emission
name ( I osl) (nll) (tons)
Passenger car' 22 28 61,600
Scooters and motorcycles' 26 165 429,000
Cycles (two-stroke)'
Mopeds 6 209 125,400
Diesel 216 8 172,800
(tons") (kglt)
Trainz 1,485,000 14.0b 20,790
Ships and boatsz 497,000 14.0. 6,958
Air craft3 75,946 (cycles') 18.0 kg/cycled 1,367
Evaporational loss 20% of the total
vehicle emission' 157.600
I Pundir and Kumar 1993.
Economics and Statistics Division, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India December 1992.
Air Transport Directorate, Directorate General of Civil Aviation 1994.
* The fuel oil used in trains, ships, and boats is converted to tons from liters using the conversion factor of
I liter =
750 grams because the emission factor available is in kilograms of VOC emissions per tons of fuel consumed.
bBriceand Denvent 1978.
One cycle refers to one takeoff and one landing of the aircraft.
dOECD1986; Mueller and Alfons 1986.
Department of Environment, Government of India 1985.

mines are relatively more gassy than open-cast
(open-pit) mines, and they have been grouped
according to their methane content into three
degrees of gassiness (DGMS 1967), namely,
Degree (less than 1 m'lton)
Degree I (1-10 m31ton)
Degree I1 (more than 10 m'lton)
The total methane emissions from under-
ground and open-cast coal mines have been es-
timated to be 53 1,200 tons (table 6; Banerjee et
al. 1994).
Methane Emissions * m Rice Paddy Fields
Rice paddy fields are an important source of
methane emission. Estimates of yearly methane
emission from Indian paddy fields by different re-
searchers vary widely: 18 million tons, World Re-
sources Institute (1990); 3 to 9 million tons,
Parashar and colleagues (1990) and Saha and col-
leagues (1989); 4.2 million tons, Parashar and
colleagues (1994); and 1.2 million tons, Sinha
(1995). The estimate in table 7 from Parashar and
colleagues(1994) is based on over 2,000 observa-
tions made during national methane campaign
from a network of field stations, involving scien-
tific institutions and universities, covering differ-
ent rice paddy areas in the country. The estimates
of other researchers are largely extrapolations
based on isolated values reported in the research
literature. Because it is most comprehensive, the
value of 4.2 million tons from Parashar and col-
leagues (1994) is used in the present study.
Emissions from Other Sources
Methane emissions from ruminants are con-
siderably affected by the type of diet (cellulose in
particular), level of nourishment, and body
weight of the animal. Methane emissions from
livestock have been estimated to be about 5.7
million tons (Pachauri et al. 1992), and from
animal waste another 1.6 million tons are emit-
ted (Bandyopadhyay et al. 1996; table 8).
Organic wastes undergoing anaerobic micro-
bial decomposition are an important source of
CH, and trace quantities of a variable mixture of

98 journal of Industrial Ecology

 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS I

Table 5 Emissions from manufacturing

Amount Emission factors Total emission
Name (d (Wd (ton)
Plastic production'
LDPE and HDPE 262,930 1.e 420
Polypropylene 69,051 2.0b 138
Polyvinyl chloride 280,700 O.Sb 154
Chemical
Formaldehyde* 162,600 3.01 488
Organic solvent2 1,130,328 85% of totalc 960,779
Ammonia3 9,669,028 43 45,444
Food and drink
Baking production' 1,833,888 4.7' 8,619
Wine (beer) productionz 167,314 0.81' 136
Vegetable oil' 866,400 2.169 1,871
Fish processing' 1a9,oi2 0.95h 180
Coffee processing2 144,576 1.0' 1,446
Sugar processin$ 240,287,000 1.31' 314,776
Pulp/Paper/Cellulosez 2,737,032 1.25' 3,421
Tobacco Smoking' 311,000 15.0k 4,665
Metal8
Aluminium 477,643 1.4d 668
Iron (pig) production 1,320,000 20 plt productd 264
Steel 13,914,000 30 glt productd 417
' Planning Commission, Government of India 1992 and personal communication with Indian Petrochemical Ltd.,
Nehru Place, New Delhi.
Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning and Programme Implementation, Goverment of India 1992.
3Fertiliser Association of India 1997.
'Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning and Programme Implementation, Goverment of India 1992, Das
1992.
5 F A 0 1991.
dDepartment of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Government of lndia 1994.
'Industry Estimates 1994-95.
6Ministry of lnformation and Broadcasting, Government of India 1996.
'Average of UBA 1981 and OECD 1986.
bUBA 1981.
'CONCAWE 1986.
IPCC 1996.
'Average of Rentz et al. 1990; Munday 1990; Nieman 1982.
Weldt 1991.
gU.S. EPA 1985.
hFaith 1977 (average is taken).
'Friedrich et al. 1987.
'Stockton and Stelling 1987 (average is taken).
'Calculated as straw burning.

Varshney and Padhy, Total Anthropogenic VOC Emissions in India 99

I RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS

Table 6 Methane emissions from coal mining’

Mine Amount Emission factor Total emission
crpe (million metric tons) (mJ/tP ~
(t)
Open-cast mining 216.0 1.09 158,000
Degree I 67.0 1.09 49,000
Degree I1 33.0 11.07 245,200
Degree 111 5.0 23.53 79,000
~~ ~

‘Data after Banerjee et al. 1994.

“Conversion factor: 1.49 x 109m3of coal = 1 million metric tons ofmethane.

Table 7 Methane emissions from rice paddy fields”

TYP of Area Methane flux Total emission
paddy Feh ( 107~2) kh2) (t)
Rain-fed water-logged area 17,328 21* 3,638,880
Deep water area 2,434 19 462,460
Irrigated area 16,497 0.74 22,077
’Parashar et al. 1994.
*Integrated seasonal average of different states.

Table 8 Emissions from other sources

Total emission
Amount Emission factor (t)
Livestock’
Stomach ruminants 5,788,000
Animal waste 1,600,000b
Wastewater2 243 Gg BOD 0.22 Gg/ Gg BOD 53,460
Organic waste’ 5.43 x lo7ton 1% methaned 543,162
‘Includes bovine, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, camel, horse and pony, donkey, and mule.
zTakingurban population (180 million) and 0.0135 gm BOD/l,OOO persons.
’All of Us 1994 (waste generation per capita: 375 gm per day; organic component 47%).
”Pachauriet al. 1992.
bBandyopadhyayet al. 1996.
‘IPCC 1995.
dU.S.EPA 1980; calculated after Orthofer 1991.

organic compounds. Methane emissions from or- Discussion

ganic waste are estimated to be 0.5 million tons
yearly. Generation of municipal and domestic
waste is rapidly increasing because of rapid
changes in lifestyle, leading to significant in-
crease in CH, emissions. In addition, about 0.05
million tons of methane emissions arise from
wastewater treatment.
An assessment of TVOC emissions in the
country has been attempted. The annual anthro-
pogenic TVOC emissions from India is esti-
mated to be 21 mt for the year 1991-1992, of
which NMVOCs comprise about 8 mt (39%,
table 9). In terms of relative contribution, live-

I00 lourno1 of Industrial Ecology


Table 9 AnthropogenicTVOC emissions in India
Sousce ategory
Fuel consumption for power generation and domestic use‘
Petroleum industry: production and refining’
Natural gas: production and distribution (8,634‘+ 509,406b)
Transportation’
Manufacturing
Coal miningb
Rice paddy fieldsb
Othersb
Total
“RepresentsNMVOC.
bRepcesentsCH,.
stock emit the largest share at 34.4% of TVOCs
included in table 9 under “Others”), followed by
fuel consumption in power and domestic sectors
(22.7%), rice paddy fields (19.7%), manufactur-
ing (6.3%), petroleum (production and refining;
4.7%), transportation (4.5%), coal mining
(2.5%). organic waste (2.5%, included in table 9
under “Others”), production and distribution of
natural gas (2.4%), and wastewater treatment
(0.25%, included in table 9 under “Others”).
At present, the contribution of the manufac-
turing sector to TVOC emissions is relatively
small, amounting to 2.6 mt, representing 12.4%
of the total emissions (industry, 1.3 mt; petro-
leum production and processing, l mt; mining
part of natural gas, 0.2 mt; and energy consump-
tion in various sectors such as thermal power
plants, manufacturing, and commercial stoves,
0.05 mt; see tables 1, 2,3,and 5). In 1991,the
consumption of primary energy (solid, liquid,
and gas) was only 289 million ton coal equiva-
lent (mtce), increased to 398 mtce in 1997,and
has been projected to reach 1,222 mtce by the
year 2020 (UN 1996a). The growth in energy
consumption implies that the relative contribu-
tion of the manufacturing sector to TVOC emis-
sions is likely to increase in the coming years
because of industrial development.
The sectors that are major contributors to
TVOC emissions in low-income economies
such as India are different from those that play a
significant role in countries with middle- and
high-income economies (developed countries).
Vanhney and Padhy. Total Anthropogenic VOC Emissions in India
R E S E A R C H A N D ANALYSIS 1
Emission
(t) % of tomi
4,868,167 (22.7)
1,007,878 (04.7)
518,040 (02.4)
975,515 (04.5)
1,343,886 (06.3)
531,200 (02.5)
4,223,417 (19.7)
7,984,622 (37.2)
21,452,725 (100)
In India, fossil fuel consumption in the power
sector, burning of firewood, and agricultural
wastes are major contributor to VOC emissions,
whereas in the middle- and high-income econo-
mies (developed countries), transportation, sol-
vent use, and power generation are the prime
sources of VOC emissions (EEA 1995). VOC
emissions from selected critical sources in India
(1991-1992) and the United States (1991)are
compared in figure 1.
The VOC emissions in the United States from
transportation are about 6 times higher than in
India. In the future, however, VOC emissions
from automobiles in India are likely to increase as
a result of the expansion of the automobile sector.
Manufacturing is a major source of VOC emis-
sions in the United States, and its emissions are
almost 6 times higher than in India. The VOC
emissions from fuel combustion are relatively
smaller in the United States than in India, al-
though the former is highly industrialized. This
apparent paradox may arise because the major
contributor to the emissions in India is the burn-
ing of fuel wood and agricultural straw, which ac-
counts for more than 96% of all emissions,
whereas the emissions from fossil fuel combustion
in stationary sources are approximately only 4%
(see table 1). In the United States VOC emis-
sions from solid waste (from landfills and incin-
eration) in absolute terms are 67% greater than in
India (figure 1). In terms of per capita emission
from solid waste, in India it is only 0.7 kg per year
in contrast to 3.5 kg per year in the United States.
101
 RESEARCH A N D ANALYSIS
0 I Transportation Fuel
combustion
(stationary)
Figure I VOC emissions:A comparison between India and the United States, 1986, (tg per year).
Source: U.S. EPA 1998.
A comparison of the NMVOC emissions of
various countries, differing in the level of indus-
trial and economic development, in terms of
area (per square kilometer), population (per
capita), and income (per dollar GDP), clearly
shows the differences between developed and
developing countries (see table 10). The emis-
sions of NMVOCs per square kilometer and per
capita amount to 2.5 tons per year and 9.7 kg,
respectively, in India (low-income economy).
The corresponding values for developing coun-
tries (nine medium-income economies) vary be-
tween 1.0 to 6.7 tons per year (average, 2.53
tons per year) and 13 to 34 kg (average, 22.2 kg),
respectively. For the developed countries (18
high-income economies) they vary between 0.1
to 13.8 tons per year (average, 4.6 tons per year)
and 17 to 85 kg (average, 38.9 kg), respectively
(see table 10). Emissions of NMVOCs per U.S.
dollar GDP is around 26.94 gm for India, 7.2 gm
for low-income economies, and 2.4 gm for high-
income economies (developed countries).
The average NMVOC emissions in terms of
tons per square kilometers per year and emissions
I02 Journal of Industrial Ecology
t
Manufacturing Solid waste
per capita are relatively higher in developed
countries than in developing countries (both
middle- and low-income). The average per
capita NMVOC emissions in middle- and low-
income economies (India) is about 57% and
25%, respectively, of the developed countries.
O n a per dollar GDP basis, the NMVOC emis-
sions in a low-income economy (India) and me-
dium-income economies is more than 13 and 4
times greater, respectively, than the average for
developed countries. A cross-country compari-
son has revealed that GDP and NMVOC emis-
sions appear to be inversely related. The VOC
emissions per dollar GDP in developing coun-
tries, such as India, are far greater than the aver-
age emissions of developed countries, implying
that a considerable reduction in VOC emissions
can be made in developing countries if appropri-
ate policy measures are taken. The reason for the
relatively high emissions per dollar GDP appears
to be poor energy use efficiency, inefficient tech-
nology, excessive fugitive releases, and lack of
motivation among the industry and administra-
tors to reduce VOC emissions.
 RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS 1

Table 10 A comDarison of NMVOC emissions in develoDed and develoDinr! countries'

Emission Dewloped
countries" Devebping countries
Middle-income Low-income
ecoMmiesb economyC
Tons/kmzper year 4.6 (0.1-13.8) 2.53 (1.0-6.7) 2.5
Kg per capita per year 38.9 (17-85) 22.2 (13-34) 9.7
Gm per dollar GDPd 2.402 7.207 26.94
'Based on the ECE emission data of 1987 (ECE 1987). Calculated by using population data of the 1991 census and
the geographical area of individual countries. Classification of countries as developed, middle- or low-incomedevel-
oping based on World Bank classification (World Bank 1992).
IAustria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (both), Iceland, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Norway,Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,United Kingdom, and the United States.
bAlbania,Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Yugoslavia.
'India NMVOC (present study).
dGDP taken from UN 1996b.

In spite of the limitations of the data, this References

VOC emissions inventory will serve as a baseline
that will enable comparison over time and across
countries. In addition, it may serve as an impor-
tant tool for formulating national voc
control
policies. A detailed source inventory, time series
data on ambient VOC levels, and different emis-
sion sources are needed a t the country level.
Trend analysis and monthly and annual statistics
are also required to understand the implications
of VOC emissions in relation to air quality at lo-
cal,national, and regional levels.
Acknowledgments
Financial support provided in the form of a
senior research fellowship to one author (PKP)
by University Grant Commission (UGC), New
Delhi, is gratefully acknowledged.
Notes
1. One psi = 7.031 x 1W kilogram/centimetel.
2. One TJ = joules = 2.4 x 108kilocalories = 9.5
108 Btu.
3. One metric ton = 1.10132 short tons. Unless oth-
erwise noted, in this article tons refers to metric
tons (106 megagcams, or MG). In this article, mt
refers to million metric tons (lo'*MG).
4. Peri-urban refers to areas lying a t the urban
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