Rapid Pro To Typing and Reverse Engineering

Rapid
Prototyping
and
Reverse
Engineering
Rapid Prototyping and Reverse Engineering
A rapid prototyping primer Part 1: Stereolithography ...........................................................4

Rapid Prototyping.............................................................................................................4
Stereolithography .............................................................................................................4
The process..................................................................................................................4
Supports .......................................................................................................................5
Post-processing ............................................................................................................6
Speed ...........................................................................................................................6
Materials .......................................................................................................................7
Machine manufacturers ................................................................................................8
When to use stereolithography .....................................................................................8
Factors to consider when ordering ...............................................................................8
A rapid prototyping primer Part 2: laser sintering .............................................................9
The process..................................................................................................................9
Supports .....................................................................................................................10
Post-processing ..........................................................................................................10
Machine makers .........................................................................................................10
Materials .....................................................................................................................11
Metal...........................................................................................................................12
Speed .........................................................................................................................12
When to use laser sintering ........................................................................................13
Factors to consider when ordering .............................................................................13
A rapid prototyping primer Part 3: fused deposition modeling ........................................13
Fused deposition modeling.........................................................................................14
Equipment manufacturers...........................................................................................15
Supports .....................................................................................................................16
Accuracy and surface finish........................................................................................16
Materials .....................................................................................................................16
Speed .........................................................................................................................17
When to use fused deposition modeling .....................................................................17
A rapid prototyping primer Part 4: Three-dimensional printing .......................................17
Three-dimensional printing .........................................................................................18
Speed .........................................................................................................................18
Materials .....................................................................................................................19
Post processing ..........................................................................................................20
Color ...........................................................................................................................20
When to use three-dimensional printing .....................................................................21
Rapid prototyping primer -- Part 5: Multijet modeling .....................................................23
Supports .....................................................................................................................24
Material.......................................................................................................................24
Speed .........................................................................................................................25
Post processing ..........................................................................................................25
When to use multijet modeling....................................................................................25
On the horizon -- Invision............................................................................................26
Preparing data for rapid prototyping ..................................................................................26
Service-bureau recommendations .................................................................................28
CATIA version four .....................................................................................................28
2
Pro/Engineer...............................................................................................................28
SDRC I-DEAS ............................................................................................................29
SolidEdge ...................................................................................................................29
SolidWorks .................................................................................................................29
Rapid prototyping large objects -- from parts to art............................................................30
The Materialise Mammoths ............................................................................................30
Virtual medical modeling and rapid surgical templates ......................................................32
Reverse Engineering .........................................................................................................34
Capturing scan data .......................................................................................................34
Read scanned data.....................................................................................................34
Align point clouds .......................................................................................................34
Simplify the data .........................................................................................................36
Polygon meshing ........................................................................................................36
Polygon editing ...........................................................................................................37
Defining surface boundaries .......................................................................................37
Applying NURBS ........................................................................................................39
Exporting the data.......................................................................................................39
God is in the details ....................................................................................................39
Reverse-engineering update ..........................................................................................39
Much improved ...........................................................................................................40
Picking the right mix....................................................................................................41
Software .....................................................................................................................41
Caveat emptor ............................................................................................................44
UNDERSTANDING THREE-D SCANNERS AND DIGITIZERS — Part 1......................45
Coordinate-Measuring Machines ................................................................................45
Scanners ....................................................................................................................46
Laser Scanners ..........................................................................................................47
White-Light Scanners .................................................................................................47
Finicky About Finishes................................................................................................48
Computed Tomography ..............................................................................................48
Destructive Cross Sectioning......................................................................................49
3
A rapid prototyping primer Part 1: Stereolithography

Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is helping many companies to shave days, weeks, or even months off
the time required to bring new products from concept to market. Moreover, rapid
prototyping technologies have improved greatly in recent years. God is in the details, and
rapid prototyping equipment makers have worked hard to get the details right. Today
stereolithography, selective laser sintering, inkjet printing, and fused deposition modeling
all produce good parts with relatively little hassle.
Each technology has strengths and weaknesses, and it’s a mistake to think that all rapid
prototypes are created equal. Some are more durable than others. Some are more
accurate. Some are more resistant to heat. Some are cheaper. In order to choose the
rapid prototyping system best suited for each application, it’s necessary to understand the
basics of each technology. Over the coming weeks, we’ll present primers on
stereolithography, laser sintering, inkjet, and fused deposition modeling, and discuss how
the mechanics of each affects characteristics of the parts it produces.
Stereolithography
Stereolithography is the process most people picture when they think of rapid prototyping.
Perhaps the most complex of all rapid prototyping technologies, it was the first to emerge
as a commercial enterprise and is still the most widely used.
Stereolithography builds three-dimensional objects by exposing and hardening thin layers
of photocurable resin. It produces parts with good surface finish and detail but with limited
physical properties. Parts won’t withstand excessive heat or moisture and tend to be
brittle. They are, however, durable enough to be used as patterns for duplication
processes such as silicon-rubber molding. Solid stereolithography parts don’t work well as
investment-casting patterns because they expand during burnout and crack investment-
casting shells. But parts built with a lattice-like internal structure work well as long as they
contain no thin walls or delicate features.
The process
The basic process of stereolithography begins by creating an STL file -- the standard input
format for all rapid prototyping. (See Preparing Data for Rapid Prototyping) The STL file
consists of a closed mesh of triangles generated from the surfaces of a CAD model.
Software in the stereolithography system slices the STL file into a series of horizontal
cross sections. These sections, solidified one on top of another, form a stereolithography
prototype.
Stereolithography machines build each layer by tracing the pattern of a cross-section on
the surface of a vat of liquid resin. Wherever the laser touches, the resin absorbs light
energy and polymerizes from liquid to solid. A platform suspended in the vat supports the
part. After each layer is built, a mechanism lowers the platform into the vat by one layer’s
thickness -- typically 0.001 to 0.005 inches (0.025mm to 0.125mm) to allow the next layer
to be scanned. Between layers, a recoater blade sweeps across the surface of the vat to
smooth liquid resin across the top of the growing part. This process is repeated --
solidifying a layer, lowering the platform, smoothing the surface -- until the entire part is
built.
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Supports
Because stereolithography builds parts by drawing on the surface of the liquid resin,
overhanging areas that aren’t directly above a previous layer must be connected with
support structures either to the part below or directly to the bottom of the building platform
so that they won’t sag or float away. Stereolithography builds both a part and any
necessary supports from the same material. After a part is finished the supports must be
cut away.
A large stereolithography part built by a 3D Systems SLA-7000 stereolithography system. Note the supports
connecting the bottom of the part to the building platform.
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Post-processing
When a part is complete, the building platform is raised from the vat and the excess resin
allowed to drain. At this point the part is not fully cured. After a hand-wiping to remove any
of the viscous liquid resin that might still be on the surface, the part is placed in an agitated
bath of solvent or wiped by hand with solvent to remove any additional uncured resin. It’s
particularly important to make sure all such resin is removed from narrow passages.
Otherwise it could solidify during post-curing. Technicians who clean the parts must wear
gloves, masks, and eye protection to avoid contact with the uncured resin, which can
cause allergic reactions. (See Cleaning stereolithography parts.)
Once a part is completed, it is carefully removed from the stereolithography system, washed with solvent to
remove any excess resin, and then post-cured with light and heat.
After cleaning, the so-called “green part” must be post-cured to complete polymerization of
the resin and fully harden it. In a special chamber called the post-curing apparatus (PCA),
the part is exposed to light from ultraviolet lamps and sometimes, depending upon the
resin, heat from infrared lamps. Post-curing takes between one and ten hours depending
upon the part size.
After post-curing, any supports can be cut away and the surface of the part finished by
sanding or bead blasting. Parts built with thinner layers require less sanding to remove the
stairsteps between layers. However, thinner layers increase part building time.
Speed
Since a stereolithography machine’s laser solidifies each layer one point at a time,
stereolithography builds parts more slowly than some rapid prototyping technologies,
particularly those that deposit materials with multiple jets or build parts from sheets of
material. Between each layer, the stereolithography machine must pause in order to let the
liquid resin settle before building the next layer. The time needed to build a particular
stereolithography part, therefore, is dependant upon the height of the part (the number of
layers), the complexity of the part (the time required to scan each layer), and the wait time
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needed between layers to level the liquid resin (determined by the resin’s viscosity). Post-
curing time is generally determined by the overall part size.
Materials
The resins used in stereolithography -- exotic materials that harden when exposed to light
energy -- both make stereolithography possible and also limit it. Perhaps the most
impressive advancement in stereolithography technology over the last few years has been
the improvement in the physical properties of resins. Unlike users of other rapid
prototyping systems who are required to buy proprietary materials supplied by the machine
manufacturers, stereolithography users may purchase resins from competing vendors
including 3D Systems, DSM Somos, Vantico, and others.
While the properties of proprietary materials used by other rapid prototyping technologies
have remained fairly static over the years, competition among stereolithography resin
manufacturers has resulted in a vast improvement in resin properties. Early
stereolithography parts were so brittle that they rarely survived a design review meeting,
and they often warped badly. But resins now deliver properties that approach those of
such popular plastics as polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene.
Most resins build opaque parts, but some now make it possible to build parts that can be
finished to optical clarity. (See 2002 Rapid Prototyping Materials Roundup.) Resin
manufacturers often offer incentives to entice customers into switching resins. While
stereolithography resins are still some of the most expensive materials used in rapid
prototyping, competition has helped keep prices down.
3D Systems SLA-7000 stereolithography system
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Machine manufacturers
3D Systems is the largest and most successful manufacturer of stereolithography
equipment, although Japanese companies such as Teijin Seiki and Sony/D-MEC also
make stereolithography systems, some of which soon may be available in the United
States. (See 3D Systems settles with justice department.) 3D Systems’ machines range in
capacity and price from the SLA Viper Si2, which starts at $179,000 and can build a part
as large as a ten-inch cube (254mm), to the SLA-7000, which costs $799,000 and can
build parts as large as 20 inches long, 20 inches wide, and 23.6 inches tall (508mm by
508mm by 600mm). (See 2002 U.S. Rapid Prototyping Equipment Roundup and Rapid
Prototyping Outside the U.S.)
When to use stereolithography

Stereolithography isn’t the fastest rapid prototyping technology, so it is not the best choice
if you want the fastest possible delivery. Stereolithography uses expensive materials that
are difficult to handle, so parts tend to be more costly.
Photopolymers have limited physical properties. If you need high strength or high
temperature resistance or you plan to submerge parts in water, stereolithography must be
combined with secondary processes such as silicon-rubber molding or investment casting
using 3D Systems’ Quickcast building style.
Stereolithography remains the technology of choice for engineers seeking high accuracy
and detail. For the most accurate, best looking parts that don’t need to survive rigorous
physical testing, stereolithography is ideal.
Factors to consider when ordering

When placing an order for stereolithography parts, here are factors to consider:
• Part size -- Can your part be built as a single piece in your service provider’s
stereolithography machine? Large parts can be built in pieces and then glued
together but this takes extra time and can degrade accuracy.
• Feature size -- Does your part have any features that are smaller than the layer
thickness. If so, be sure and tell your service provider so that the part can be built
with thinner layers.
• Type of resin -- There are a variety of resins with varying mechanical, water-
resistant, and optical properties. See the 2002 Rapid Prototyping Materials
Roundup.
• Support removal -- Be sure part supports can be positioned for removal and that
stubs are accessible for sanding if necessary.
• Layer thickness -- Thinner layers can eliminate the need for hand-finishing, but
they require more machine time, which is costly.
• Secondary processes -- Silicon-rubber molding or investment casting using 3D
Systems’ Quickcast building style add cost and take more time but can provide very
good mechanical or chemical properties.
Each rapid prototyping service company has unique policies and practices. Discuss your
requirements and available materials with your rapid prototyping supplier before placing an
order.
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A rapid prototyping primer Part 2: laser sintering

Choosing the best rapid prototyping technology for a job can be confusing. Rapid
prototyping methods are lumped together as a class because they build complex parts
without either tools or the complex programs and machine setups required for numerically
controlled milling. But various rapid prototyping technologies employ different methods and
materials to fabricate parts. Stereolithography, the most widely used rapid prototyping
technology, excels at building accurate parts with good surface finish and detail. However,
stereolithography parts have limited physical properties. When more durable parts are
required, laser sintering often can deliver better results.
The process
Laser sintering is one of the most straightforward rapid prototyping technologies. Laser
sintering builds three-dimensional objects by heating and fusing together grains of
powder. Like most rapid prototyping processes, laser sintering builds parts in thin layers
stacked on top of each other.
Laser-sintering machines build each layer by first spreading a shallow layer of powder
onto a building platform and then scanning a cross section of the part on the powder with a
CO2 laser. Everywhere the laser touches, its energy heats the powder grains, causing
them to adhere to their neighbors. Once a layer is complete, the building platform, which is
mounted on a moveable piston, lowers by a single layer’s thickness 0.004-0.006 inches
(0.10-0.15mm) and a new layer of loose powder is spread across the top of the growing
part.
As in stereolithography, the part cross-sections are derived from an STL file -- the
standard input format for all rapid prototyping. (See Preparing Data for Rapid Prototyping.)
The STL file consists of a closed mesh of triangles generated from the surfaces of a CAD
model. Software in the laser-sintering system slices the STL file into a series of horizontal
cross sections that define the laser’s pattern for each layer.
In order to produce accurate parts, it’s critical to control the amount of energy transferred
as the laser scans the powder. If the powder grains soften too much and begin to flow like
liquid, shrinkage may become unpredictable. If the powder isn’t heated enough, coherent
layers won’t form. The building chamber is heated to just below the melting temperature of
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the powdered material so that only a slight amount of extra energy from the laser will sinter
the powder grains. Heating the chamber also reduces the thermal shrinkage of the layers
during fabrication. The chamber is filled with nitrogen to reduce the hazard of explosion
that is present when handling flammable powder in air.
Supports
Parts built by laser sintering don’t require supports. The unsintered powder surrounding
previous layers supports isolated or overhanging areas of a layer as it is built. When
finished, a sintered part is encased in loose powder.
Post-processing
Sintered parts require no special post-processing. Once a sintered part is complete, the
piston supporting the build platform rises and the unsintered powder surrounding the part
can be scraped and brushed off and put back into the powder-supply bin for reuse. The
warm part is then removed from the sintering system and transferred to a rack or table
where it must be allowed to cool for several hours. After cooling, any remaining loose
powder can be removed using compressed air, brushes, or other tools.
Parts can be used as soon as they have cooled and the excess powder has been
removed. Because they are constructed of a lattice of fused powder grains, however,
sintered parts are porous and have a relatively rough surface finish. Parts can be infiltrated
to improve strength and reduce surface roughness. Sanding and painting also can improve
the smoothness of the surface of a sintered part.
Laser-sintered part. Note the rough surface. finish.
Machine makers
Two companies manufacture laser-sintering equipment. In the United States, laser
sintering was developed by the DTM Corporation, which was purchased by 3D Systems
in 2001. 3D Systems sells the Vanguard laser-sintering system, which is capable of
building parts as large as 15 inches by 13 inches by 18 inches (375mm by 330mm by
450mm) for $320,000 to $370,000. Electro Optical Systems GmbH (EOS) of Germany
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also sells several models of sintering machines. The smallest is the EOSINT P380,
capable of building parts as large as 13 inches by 13 inches by 24 inches (340mm by
340mm by 620mm). It costs approximately $300,000. The largest is the dual-laser
EOSINT P700, which can build parts as large as 28 inches by 15 inches by 23 inches
(700mm by 380mm by 580mm) and costs $750,000 to $850,000. Recently EOS said it
was planning to sell systems in the United States. To date, however, we have not heard
that this is occurring.
3D Systems Vanguard system.
Materials
Perhaps the greatest advantage of laser sintering is the broad range of potential materials.
(See “2002 rapid prototyping materials roundup.”) Theoretically, any material that can be
powdered and melted might be used. Commercially available materials include
polycarbonate, nylon, glass-filled nylon, polyamide, acrylic-based polymer, elastomeric
polymer, zirconium and silica sands, and polymer-coated steel and metal-alloy powders.
In practice, the most commonly used materials are nylon and glass-filled nylon powders.
While sintered nylon parts don’t have the same physical properties as those made by
injection molding, they are sufficiently durable to be used for physical testing and some
end-use applications. NASA, for example, has used sintered parts in spacecraft production
(See “Selective laser sintering parts used directly in spacecraft production”), and Siemens
is currently using laser sintering to manufacture custom hearing aids. (See “Laser
Sintering makes custom hearing aids.”)
Most laser-sintering materials are available only from the equipment manufacturers.
Companies who have attempted to use second-source materials have been sued. Over
the years, this has inhibited innovation in materials development and kept prices high.
Laser- sintering system manufacturers have developed some innovative materials but
have pursued only the most popular. Nevertheless, some specialty materials do exist.
DSM Somos, the maker of popular stereolithography resins, offers a flexible sponge-like
material for laser sintering. 3D Systems sells a polystyrene material called CastForm for
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making investment-casting patterns. And EOS sells binder-coated sands for building
casting patterns.
Metal
Both EOS and 3D Systems have developed methods to make metal parts with laser
sintering. 3D Systems offers RapidSteel materials that consist of stainless-steel powders
coated with binder. The binder coating on the powder grains melts during sinter to create a
“green part.” After a part is built, the binder is burned away over several hours. With the
binder gone, the part is delicate -- held together primarily by friction between the steel
particles. In a second oven cycle, the part is placed in a crucible with bronze ingots. As the
crucible is heated the bronze melts and flows into the part’s pores via capillary action.
EOS has developed a direct-metal sintering material that combines metal powders of
different melting temperatures but no organic binders. During sintering the components
with lower melting temperatures melt and flow into the pores of the part. EOS direct-steel
parts don’t require a separate infiltration step.
An EOS DirectMetal part.
Speed
As in stereolithography, a sintering machine’s laser solidifies each layer one point at a time
and thus builds parts more slowly than rapid prototyping technologies that deposit
materials with multiple jets or build parts from sheets of material. Between each layer, the
sintering machine must pause while the build platform lowers and a new layer of powder is
spread. Building speed also is determined by the melting temperature of the material being
used. Materials with lower melting temperatures are processed more rapidly than those
with higher melting temperatures. The time needed to build a particular part, therefore, is
dependant upon the height of the part (the number of layers), the complexity of the part
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(the time required to scan each layer), and the scanning speed of the laser (determined by
the material’s melting temperature).
When to use laser sintering

Laser sintering is best suited to applications requiring parts with superior material
properties. Although laser sintering materials are more expensive than would seem
necessary -- they are, after all, simply ground up plastic or metal -- sintered parts are
strong and resist weather, chemicals, and heat. Because sintered parts don’t require
supports that must be removed after building, it’s possible to create complex parts with
inaccessible internal features that would be impossible to make with stereolithography.
Laser sintering also is the only commercial rapid prototyping technology that can build
complex metal parts, although the metals used are alloys that don’t deliver the same
properties as cast, forged, or milled steel.
Sintered parts, because they are made of powders, tend to have a grainy surface finish
and need extra sanding and perhaps infiltration or painting if a smooth finish is required.

When placing an order for sintered parts, think about:
• Part size -- Can your part be built as a single piece in your service provider’s
machine? Large parts can be built in pieces and glued together but this takes extra
time and can degrade accuracy.
• Feature size -- Does your part have any features whose size approaches the
building-layer thickness? Sintering systems can have problems producing very
small features.
• Type of material -- Available materials include: polycarbonate, nylon, glass-filled
nylon, polyamide, acrylic-based polymer, elastomeric polymer, zirconium and silica
sands, and polymer-coated steel powder. For details about these, see the 2002
Rapid Prototyping Materials Roundup.
• Layer thickness -- Thinner layers can reduce the need for hand-finishing, but they
require more machine time, which is costly. At their best, laser-sintered parts won’t
match the surface finish of those produced by stereolithography.
• Finishing -- Be sure to specify what kind of finish you want or are willing to accept.
If you require a smooth surface, you may need to have sintered parts painted.
order.
A rapid prototyping primer Part 3: fused deposition modeling

Many companies see the advantages of bringing rapid prototyping technologies in house
in order to produce parts for design review, fit testing, and functional prototypes. But as
discussed in the first two parts of this series, stereolithography and laser sintering systems
can’t be operated in offices.
Stereolithography machines use messy liquid chemicals that must be handled with
caution. (See “A rapid prototyping primer Part 1: stereolithography.”) Laser sintering
employs fine-grained metal or plastic powders that can be messy. (See “A rapid
prototyping primer Part 2: laser sintering.”) Both processes employ powerful lasers that
can cause eye damage. These characteristics dictate that stereolithography and laser-
sintering systems be installed in dedicated facilities apart from engineering offices.
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Fused deposition modeling

For companies that want to produce their own rapid prototypes but don’t want the expense
of setting up a dedicated rapid prototyping shop, fused deposition modeling (FDM) can
provide a good alternative. Compared with stereolithography or laser sintering, fused
deposition modeling seems downright low-tech.
Instead of lasers and space-age materials, FDM builds by extruding molten plastic that
hardens layer-by-layer to form a solid part. The building material, in the form of a thin solid
filament, is fed from a spool to a movable head controlled by servomotors. When the
filament reaches the head, heaters melt it. The molten material is then extruded through a
nozzle onto the part surface.
As the molten material is extruded, it is flattened by the nozzle the way a plumber or
painter uses the tip of a caulking gun to spread the material. The width of the road (in FDM
parlance) can range between 0.0076 and 0.038 inches (0.193 and 0.965 mm) and is
determined by the size of the extrusion nozzle. Nozzles can’t be changed during building,
so the model resolution must be chosen in advance.
As the molten material is dispensed, it quickly cools -- within a tenth of a second -- and
solidifies. When a layer is completely covered, the building platform, mounted on a
moveable stage, descends by one layer thickness, typically 0.005 inches to 0.010 inches
(0.178mm to 0.356mm), and the process is repeated.
As in stereolithography and laser sintering, FDM systems read STL files -- the standard
input format for all rapid prototyping. (See Preparing Data for Rapid Prototyping.) The STL
file consists of a closed mesh of triangles generated from the surfaces of a CAD model.
Software in the FDM system slices the STL file into a series of horizontal cross sections
that are traced by the material-extrusion head.
In order to build accurate parts, it is critical to control the temperatures of both the building
chamber and the growing part. The temperature of the chamber must be kept just below
the melting temperature of the material so that only a small amount of heat is required to
14
melt the filament sufficiently for extrusion and the growing part won’t sag or otherwise
deform. The part must be kept cool enough that the molten material solidifies upon
contact.
3
A close-up of the extrusion head in Stratasys' Maxum FDM machine. (Click image for a close-up.)
Equipment manufacturers
The only maker of fused deposition modeling equipment is Stratasys of Minneapolis,
Minnesota. Stratasys offers a range of FDM systems. The affordable Dimension (sold by a
distributor network) builds parts as large as eight inches by eight inches by 12 inches
(200mm by 200mm by 300mm) and costs $29,900. The giant FDM Maxum, which has a
building capacity of 23.6 inches by 19.7 inches by 23.6 inches (600mm by 500mm by
600mm), costs $250,000. (See the “U.S. rapid prototyping equipment roundup 2002.”)
Stratasys’ $29,900 Dimension, like all FDM systems, can be operated in an office environment.
15
Supports
Overhanging or isolated features of FDM parts require temporary support during building.
FDM machines use a second nozzle located next to the primary nozzle to extrude support
material where necessary. Stratasys offers two types of supporting material: a wax-like
material for its lower-priced machines and a water-soluble material for its more expensive
ones. The wax supports can be broken away from a part but are difficult to remove from
internal passages or small features. The water-soluble supports can be dissolved in an
agitated bath. Other than support removal, FDM parts require no additional post-
processing.
Accuracy and surface finish

Stratasys claims its FDM systems deliver accuracy of +/- 0.005 inches (0.127mm). The
surface finish of FDM parts is not as good as that of parts made with stereolithography but
ranks with those produced by laser sintering. Whereas sintered parts have a grainy
texture, FDM parts have a ribbed appearance because both the horizontal layers and the
roads that make up the layers remain visible.
Materials
Over the years, Stratasys has developed a number of materials for its FDM systems. The
one that produces the highest-quality parts is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Other
materials include wax for investment-casting patterns, polycarbonate for tough parts, and
polyphenyl sulfones for high-temperature applications. FDM parts, because they are made
of material that has been melted and solidified, exhibit physical properties close to those of
parts made of similar materials by conventional methods. (See the “2002 rapid prototyping
materials roundup.”)
Vacuum cleaner-maker Oreck uses FDM parts for extended physical testing of new designs.
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Speed
Because FDM systems build parts by drawing a narrow bead of material, large or solid
parts or those with thick walls can take a long time to complete. Small or thin-shelled parts
can be built fairly rapidly. The time needed to make any part depends upon the deposition
rate of the FDM system (determined by nozzle size), the height of the part (the number of
layers), the gross size of the part (the time required to deposit each layer), and the number
and complexity of supports required (supports for each layer are built in a separate step).
When to use fused deposition modeling

FDM parts are tougher and more durable than those produced by stereolithography, but
they have an inferior surface finish and sharpness. Stratasys’ ABS, polycarbonate, and
polyphenyl sulfone materials are sufficiently resistant to heat, chemicals, and moisture that
FDM parts can be used for limited to extensive functional testing, depending upon the
application. FDM parts aren’t porous and don’t require secondary infiltration. Unlike
stereolithography or laser sintering, FDM machines can be used in an office environment
and FDM materials don’t require any special handling. Most FDM systems cost less than
comparable stereolithography or sintering systems. For companies wanting to produce
durable and accurate prototypes in house, FDM can be a good choice.

When placing an order for fused deposition modeling parts, consider:
• Part size -- Can the part be built as a single piece in your service provider’s
machine? Large parts can be built in pieces and then glued together, but this takes
extra time and can degrade accuracy.
• Support removal -- Will your part have any supports in inaccessible areas? If so,
specify that water-soluble supports should be used if possible.
• Feature size -- Does your part have any features whose size approaches the
building-layer thickness? FDM systems can have problems producing very small
features.
• Layer thickness -- Thinner layers can reduce the need for hand-finishing, but they
require more machine time, which is costly. Increasing bead size and layer
thickness can speed the building process considerably but at the expense of part
detail.
• Finishing -- Be sure to discuss with your service provider what kind of finish you
want or are willing to accept. If you require a smooth surface, you may need to have
FDM parts painted.
order.
A rapid prototyping primer Part 4: Three-dimensional printing
October 31, 2002 -- In the first three articles of this series, we discussed the pros and cons
of stereolithography, laser sintering, and fused deposition modeling. Each of these
technologies has advantages and drawbacks: Stereolithography produces parts with high
accuracy but limited durability. Sintering creates parts with good material properties but
mediocre surface finish. Fused deposition modeling provides an economical way in an
office environment to make parts that are durable but with limited accuracy. The ultimate
aim of the aforementioned technologies is to make prototypes -- accurate parts that are
17
sturdy enough to be used for at least limited functional testing. Although parts made by
these technologies cost a fraction of similar prototypes made with traditional methods, they
can still cost hundreds or thousands of dollars. At these prices, many companies don’t
bring rapid prototyping into play until a design is nearly complete.
Concept modelers, on the other hand, produce relatively crude parts cheaply and quickly.
Concept models are typically used early to evaluate a product’s design. Whereas a
prototype simulates how a product will function, a concept model is the equivalent of a
three-dimensional sketch. One industrial designer tells us that his concept models often
have a useful life of only minutes before they hit the trashcan -- just long enough to tell him
whether or not he is on the right track.
Three-dimensional printing
The most popular concept-modeling systems are those based on three-dimensional
printing (3DP), a process developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
licensed to Z Corporation of Burlington, Massachusetts. Z Corporation offers a range of
3DP machines. The Z400, which costs $33,500 and can build parts as large as eight
inches by 10 inches by eight inches (200mm by 250mm by 200mm) is the least
expensive. The Z406, with the same build envelope, sells for $66,500 and offers greater
speed. The Z810 with a maximum part size of 16 inches by 20 inches by 24 inches
(400mm by 500mm by 600mm) and automated production features lists for $175,000.
(See “A closer look at the Z810” for details.)
As with other rapid prototyping systems, the input for three-dimensional printing is a CAD
file that has been converted into the tessellated STL format. (See “Preparing data for rapid
prototyping.”) Software in the 3DP system slices the STL model into a series of horizontal
cross sections. 3DP machines build parts by printing the cross sections in liquid binder
onto layers of powder.
To start the process, a thin layer of powder -- between 0.003 inches and 0.010 inches thick
(0.076-0.254mm)-- is spread by a roller onto a platform mounted on a piston in a building
box. Multiple inkjets sweep across the surface of the layer and print the image of a single
cross section onto the powder. Where the binder is printed, the powder is glued together.
Loose powder surrounding the printed area remains in place and supports the part as it is
built. Once a layer is complete, the piston lowers the build platform by one layer thickness
and the process is repeated.
The only time required between layers is the time needed to spread each new layer of
powder. When a part is finished, the piston raises the build platform and any excess
powder can be brushed or vacuumed off the part.
Speed
Because the printheads sweep across the platform in a raster pattern and dispense binder
from multiple jets simultaneously, three-dimensional printing is very fast, as much as 40
times faster than other rapid prototyping technologies. (In raster printing the printheads
sweep back and forth rather than drawing patterns.) Every layer, regardless of complexity,
takes the same amount of time to print. Building speed is approximately one layer every 30
seconds. According to Z Corporation, the Z810 can build an automotive manifold in about
four hours and a full-sized engine block in about 16 hours. The Z406 can build six parts
the size and shape of a soda can in less than two hours.
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Materials
Z Corporation offers two material systems. The fastest and least expensive is a starch-
based powder. Parts made of this material can be used as investment-casting patterns.
More durable parts can be built using a plaster-based powder. (See “2002 rapid
prototyping materials roundup.”) Total material cost is $0.30 to $1.65 per vertical inch of
part.
Once a 3DP part is finished, the build platform is raised and excess powder brushed and vacuumed away.
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Post processing
Because parts are surrounded by powder as they are built, no support structures are
required. Starch parts, however, are very fragile and must be infiltrated with wax,
cyanoacrylate, or two-part epoxy for added strength. Plaster parts are stronger but also
require infiltration for extensive handling.
The infiltration process can be messy. Parts are porous, and it is only necessary for the
infiltrate to penetrate one-quarter inch to one-half inch in order to give the part a durable
shell. Z Corporation sells an automated system for wax infiltration but cyanolacrylate and
epoxy typically are applied with a cloth.

The principal advantages of three-dimensional printing are speed and low-cost materials.
Accuracy and surface finish are inferior to stereolithography and laser sintering. Because
they are made of layers of powder, 3DP parts, like sintered parts, have a grainy texture.
Once infiltrated, however, they can be sanded to achieve a smoother surface.
3DP parts have a grainy surface finish
Color
A unique capability of three-dimensional printing is the ability to produce multicolored
parts. A part’s color is determined by dyes added to the liquid binder. Almost any color is
possible. Each layer, in essence, is like a full-color image printed on a flat sheet of paper
by an ink-jet printer.
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Multicolor 3DP parts can be built by mixing different colored inks in the liquid binder.
When to use three-dimensional printing

Three-dimensional printing is best used when speed and price are more critical than
accuracy, surface finish, and material properties. 3DP parts are most often used as
concept models but, when infiltrated, also can be finished and used as patterns for
duplication. Parts built with starch-based material can be used directly as investment-
casting patterns. 3DP parts a have relatively poor surface finish. Small features and fine
details are not replicated well. Thin walls can be problematic because all materials are
brittle.
A secondary use of three-dimensional printing is for making casting shells. Soligen
Technologies of Northridge, California is a long-time M.I.T. licensee of 3DP for the
production of ceramic investment-casting shells. Recently Soligen’s license with M.I.T.
became nonexclusive, and Z Corporation is now testing methods of building casting shells
from its plaster material. One challenge Soligen has faced in the production of ceramic
casting shells has been that the poor interior surface finish of molds produced by 3DP is
transferred during casting to the cast metal parts. Instead of making single-piece shells as
Soligen does, Z Corporation suggests making molds in pieces that are put together along
with cores prior to casting, much like sand-casting molds are assembled. That way, the
casting surface of each mold piece can be sanded or filled to remove stair steps. Z
Corporation says shells built with 3DP deliver a surface finish and accuracy similar to
traditional sand casting in a fraction of the time.
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3DP casting shell produced by Z Corporation's Zcast process..

When placing an order for 3DP parts, consider:
machine? Large parts can be built in pieces and then glued together, but this takes
extra time. Moreover, the low accuracy of 3DP can prevent part sections from fitting
together well.
• Feature size -- Does your part have any small features or thin walls? 3DP systems
can have problems producing very small features, and thin walls are sometimes
impossible to build.
• Accuracy -- Three-D printed parts have low accuracy. Consequently, it is difficult
(although not impossible) to assemble parts made with 3DP. Threads are not
replicated.
• Joining -- Because materials are brittle, 3DP parts are difficult to drill and tap for
joining with conventional fasteners.
• Material -- Be sure to specify what material and infiltrate you want. Plaster powder
is more expensive than starch but delivers better strength, detail, and surface finish.
If you want to use your parts as investment-casting patterns or just want to get parts
as cheaply and quickly as possible, go for the starch dipped in wax. Changing
materials in a 3DP system is messy and takes time. Not all service providers will
offer both starch and plaster.
• Finishing -- Be sure to discuss with your service provider the type of finish you
want or are willing to accept. For concept models, it may not be necessary to spend
the extra time required to get pretty parts.
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order.
Rapid prototyping primer -- Part 5: Multijet modeling
Rapid prototyping systems such as stereolithography, laser sintering, and fused deposition
modeling are designed to create accurate parts that are durable enough for at least limited
functional testing. Concept modelers, on the other hand, produce relatively fragile parts
cheaply and quickly. Where rapid prototypes are often used to evaluate how a part will
perform, concept models typically are used early to evaluate a product’s design.
Just as there are multiple rapid prototyping technologies, there are also several processes
for making concept models. The characteristics of concept models vary widely. To get the
most benefit from a concept model, choose a process that makes parts matching your
requirements.
In our last installment, we discussed Z Corporation’s three-dimensional printing (3DP).

(See “A rapid prototyping primer Part 4.”) Z Corporation parts are inexpensive but have
relatively poor detail and surface finish. While 3DP is a good choice for building bulky
parts, if you require small features or fine detail, 3D Systems’ multijet modeling might do a
better job.
3D Systems’ ThermoJet multijet modeler builds parts as large as 10 inches by 7.5 inches
by 8 inches (250mm by 190mm by 200mm). It costs $50,000. The ThermoJet builds parts
by spraying a molten wax-like material in layers onto a platform using an eight-inch-wide
print head containing 352 jets. Droplets from the jets measure just 0.003 inches (0.025
mm) in diameter) so they cool rapidly and harden upon striking the model surface. When
each layer is complete, the build platform lowers by one layer thickness -- typically 0.0017
inches (0.042mm) -- and the next layer is sprayed.
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Supports
Features of ThermoJet parts that are isolated or overhanging require supports. 3D’s
ThermoJet takes a unique approach to support-generation. Thin hair-like structures hold
up all downward-facing surfaces. When a part is complete, the supports can be brushed
away.
Material
The waxy materials used by the ThermoJet are not very strong. 3D doesn’t provide much
data on material properties, but parts generally are tough enough to withstand handling
and shipping if properly packed. Because the materials are wax-based, ThermoJet parts
can be used directly as investment-casting patterns.
The real strength of ThermoJet parts is their detail and surface finish. 3D claims that
resolution of the system is 300 by 400 dots per inch along the horizontal X- and Y-axes
and 600 dots per inch in the Z (vertical) direction. The smallest feature or wall that can be
built measures about 0.003 inches (0.075mm) across. Surfaces where supports have been
removed are quite rough but can be improved by polishing.
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Thermojet parts have good surface finish and detail. The material is available in a number of colors including
gray as pictured here.
Speed
Because the ThermoJet builds by dispensing material through hundreds of jets

simultaneously, the process is relatively fast. Z Corporation’s three-dimensional printers
are faster, but ThermoJet systems can make even parts that fill the building volume in less
than a day.
Post processing
Other than support removal, ThermoJet parts require no post processing and can be used
as soon as they are built. Unlike porous parts produced by laser sintering or three-
dimensional printing, they can’t be infiltrated with resins for additional strength.
When to use multijet modeling
MultiJet modeling is best for applications where part detail is more important than
durability. It is also ideal for building parts to be used as investment-casting patterns.
Because ThermoJets run cleanly and quietly in an office environment, the technology is
ideal for small company use in-house. Material is loaded into the machine in cartridges.
There is no messy powder or liquid. Support removal can be done over a wastebasket and
requires no protective clothing.

When placing an order for multijet modeling parts, consider:
machine? It’s not easy to glue waxy Thermojet parts together.
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• Build orientation -- Downward facing surfaces on multijet modeling parts are

uneven after supports have been removed. Though much of this roughnes can be
smoothed with solvent, you should indicate which surfaces are most important so
the operator can orient them facing upwards.
• Finishing -- Be sure to discuss with your service provider the type of finish you want
or are willing to accept, especially on downward facing surfaces. For concept
models, it may not be necessary to spend the extra time required to get perfect
finishes on all surfaces.
requirements with suppliers before ordering.
On the horizon -- Invision

Earlier this year, 3D announced that is developing a new machine that combines multijet
modeling with photopolymer technology. The Invision Si2 modeler will build parts by
spraying acrylate photopolymer as a building material and using a wax similar to its current
Thermojet material for supports. 3D says the new Invision system will include a separate
finisher unit that will automatically remove the waxy supports. 3D has not yet announced a
price for the Invision or when it will be available.
3D Systems demonstrated the new Invision at this summer's SIGGRAPH trade show.
Preparing data for rapid prototyping

Rapid prototyping machines are often described as three-dimensional printers. Just as
inkjet or laser printers produce physical copies of electronic documents, rapid prototyping
systems make physical copies of three-dimensional CAD models.
But making rapid prototypes is not as easy as printing documents. Whereas most two-
dimensional printing is done through drivers installed with a computer’s operating system,
rapid prototyping machines require that CAD models be converted into a special format
called STL, a name derived from the first rapid prototyping process, stereolithography.
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Generating STL files is usually a fairly simple process. Virtually all modern CAD systems
now include STL output as a standard feature and, for the most part, the files created are
suitable for rapid prototyping. But the extra step of converting CAD models into STL format
still presents a barrier to rapid prototyping novices or occasional users. Imagine how
annoying it would be if you had to select parameters and convert word-processing
documents or spreadsheets into a special file format before you could print them.
Making STL files is further complicated by the fact that every CAD system uses different
terms and parameters for defining the STL file’s resolution, requiring users to interpret
such mystifying terms as chord height, absolute facet deviation, angle control, and
adjacency tolerance.
Such terms are needlessly confusing. The STL file format is simple. It’s not necessary to
understand precisely what all the CAD system parameters mean in order to create useful
files.
An STL file is simply a mesh of triangles wrapped around a CAD model. CAD system
settings specify how closely the STL mesh conforms to the actual surface geometry of a
part. A mesh with triangles that are too large will create a small STL file, but the prototype
made from it will have visible facets. A mesh with triangles approximately the size of the
layers used by the rapid prototyping systems (typically about 0.003 inches or 0.075 mm)
will produce a prototype with the best fidelity. A mesh with even smaller triangles will
increase the size of the STL file and take longer to process, but it won’t increase prototype
accuracy or resolution.
If an STL file is set with too loose a tolerance, facets will show on the prototype (left). Ideally, the triangle size
should be close to the layer thickness used by the rapid prototyping system.
It would make sense for the rapid prototyping machine manufacturers to work with the
CAD software folks to develop a set of standard drivers that would eliminate the need for
users to select STL output parameters. Whenever the idea has been suggested to 3D
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Systems or Stratasys, however, executives have brushed it off, saying they’ll get around to
it sooner or later.
Service-bureau recommendations
We’ve surveyed rapid prototyping services and find that they generally agree on the STL
settings for various CAD systems that will produce the best rapid prototypes. Regardless
of the parameters that any CAD system uses to define model resolution, service bureaus
say the chord height of an STL file (the maximum distance a point on a triangle can
deviate from the true surface of the part) should be between 0.001 and 0.003 inches
(0.025 and 0.075 mm). Whenever possible, STL files should be in binary format. (In the
past, some CAD systems did such a poor job of STL creation that developers included an
ASCII STL option as a debugging tool. ASCII STL files tend to be huge, but they can be
edited with a text editor.)
Some CAD systems will generate error messages during STL conversion saying that
some part geometry is outside of the positive X, Y, Z quadrant or is in negative space.
These messages can be ignored, as the STL file will be located in the rapid prototyping
machine’s build space and oriented for optimal surface finish and build speed by the
system software.
If you’re using a solid-modeling CAD system listed below, the following settings should
produce good STL files. If you’re using a surface modeler or another system not listed,
we’d suggest discussing file preparation with your service provider or in-house prototyping
shop. Surface-modeling CAD systems describe part geometry using mathematical patches
with no thickness. In order to create good STL files, all of these surfaces must be joined so
that there are no gaps or overlaps. This stitching or sewing, as it is frequently called, can
be a tedious process, and it’s easy to miss small flaws that can crash a rapid prototyping
system.
CATIA version four
• Select STL command.

• Set Maximum Sag to 0.0005 inches or 0.0125 mm.
• Pick the model to be converted to STL.
• Select Yes to generate triangles.
• Select Export, type a file name, and click OK to output an STL file.
Note: CATIA has a utility for checking and analyzing STL files. It is a good practice to
check the direction of normal vectors (they should point outward) and verify that the
STL surface is closed. Parts created as CATIA solids should be no problem. Parts
created as volumes from surfaces are more likely to have flaws.
Pro/Engineer
• Open your model and from the File menu choose Export/Model.
• Select the file type STL.
• In the Export STL dialog box, set Format to Binary.
• Set the Chord Height to 0. The field will be replaced by a minimum
acceptable value for the geometry of the model.
• Set Angle Control to 1.
• Name the file and click the OK button. Pro/Engineer will save your STL
file.
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SDRC I-DEAS
• From the File menu, select Export/Rapid Prototype File.

• Select the file to be exported.
• Select Prototype Device to SLA500.dat.
• Set Part Positioning to Centered.
• Set Absolute Facet Deviation to 0.000395 inches.
• Select Binary as file type.
• Name and Save your STL file.
SolidEdge
• Open your model and from the File menu choose Save As.
• Select the file type STL.
• Click on the Options button in the Save As dialog box.
• Set the Conversion Tolerance to 0.001 inches or 0.0254 mm.
• Set the Surface Plane Angle to 45o.
• Select the Binary radio button and click the OK button.
SolidWorks
• Open your model and from the File menu choose Save As.
• Set the file type to STL.
• Click on the Options button at the bottom of the Save dialog box.
• Select Output as Binary and select the desired units (inches or
millimeters).
• Set Quality to Fine.
• If you want to preview the STL model before saving, check the “Show
STL info before saving” box
STL files can be created from

SolidWorks parts or assemblies.
If you wish to create an STL file
of an assembly, there is a check
box at the bottom of the Export
options dialog box to save the
assembly as one STL file or
individual STL files for each part.
SolidWorks also allows users to use

custom triangle deviation settings. With
our test file, using SolidWork’s coarse
settings resulted in a 244-kilobyte STL
file with visible facets. The default fine
settings (triangle deviation 0.006
inches) produced a smooth file of 836
kilobytes. Setting a custom deviation of
0.003 inches made an 1,828-kilobyte
file. An ASCII STL file generated with
the fine settings was 7,894 kilobytes.
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Unigraphics
• Open your model and from the File menu choose Export/Rapid
Prototyping.
• Set Output Type to Binary.
• Set Triangle Tolerance to 0.0025.
• Set Adjacency Tolerance to 0.12.
• Set Auto Normal Gen to On.
• Set Normal Display to Off.
• Set Triangle Display to On.
Rapid prototyping large objects -- from parts to art

Most companies use technologies such as stereolithography, selective laser sintering, and
fused deposition modeling to make parts for such small consumer products as telephones,
toasters, and track shoes. A typical rapid prototyping part is less than ten inches in length.
Because most rapid systems build parts by depositing, solidifying, or sintering material
point-by-point, making larger objects takes a long time, and in many cases, large objects
won’t fit the fabber’s building chamber. For instance, the largest part that a 3D Systems’
SLA-7000 stereolithography machine or a Stratasys FDM Titan can make is only 24
inches long (600mm). (See “2002 U.S. Rapid Prototyping Equipment Roundup.”)
But what if you need to build models larger than two feet across? The approach taken by
most companies is to build larger parts in sections and then glue them together. But
building multiple pieces takes time, and assembling them can be tricky.
The Materialise Mammoths

To meet customer demand for larger parts, Materialise of Belgium has built three custom
large-format stereolithography machines. The Mammoth I has a building capacity of
2,100mm by 640mm by 490mm (82.6 inches by 25.2 inches by 19.2 inches). The
Mammoth II can build parts as large as 2,150mm by 620mm by 500mm (84.6 inches by
24.4 inches by 19.7 inches). And the newest, the Mammoth III, can build parts 2,100mm
by 650mm by 600mm (82.6 inches by 25.6 inches by 23.6 inches). Each Mammoth
employs multiple lasers and uses a formulation of DSM’s Somos 9100 resin that it calls
PolyPox. Materialise demonstrated the capabilities of the Mammoths recently, as part of a
project sponsored by the European Union to explore the possibility of using waste powder
created in marble quarrying to manufacture replicas of statues. The idea behind the project
is to use rapid prototyping models as masters for duplication by powder-injection molding
with a marble-powder composite.
For the demonstration, Materialise built a full-sized copy of a Greek kouros on the
Mammoth II. Kouroi are life-sized statues of idealized young men, sculpted in ancient
Greece between 650 B.C. and 500 B.C. to mark graves or as gifts in temples to the gods.
Only a few dozen of these statues remain, and their stylistic progression from idealized to
more realistic representation helps art historians delineate the transition from the Archaic
to the Classical period of Greek art.
The Volomandra Kouros, on display in the National Archeological Museum in Athens,
stands almost six feet tall and is dated to 550-570 B.C. For the EU project, the Greek
company Geo-Analysis S.A. of Thessaloniki, scanned the statue and sent the files to
Materialise in Leuven, Belgium.
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After 24 hours of building, the shape of the kouros

began to emerge.
The original Volomandra Kouros and the

stereolithography replica.
Lifting the kouros out of the Mammoth.
Materialise converted the scan data to STL format and built the giant stereolithography
replica. In all, it took 99 hours and 23 minutes to build the kouros. Sixteen kilograms of
stereolithography resin were used. To save resin and minimize building time, Materialise
built the statue as a shell with a wall thickness of five millimeters.
The resulting copy makes it clear that the real challenge to duplicating art lies not in the
limitations of rapid prototyping but rather in the difficulty of collecting good scan data. The
technicians from Geo-Analysis faced precisely the same problems met by companies
doing full-body scans of people to create computer games or action figures. While it’s easy
to scan geometric shapes, the human form, with all its curves, is more difficult to capture.
The stereolithography statue duplicated flaws in the scan data along with the features of
the original.
Building statuary, however, won’t be the primary mission for the Mammoths. Materialise
says it has experienced growing demand, particularly from automotive companies, for
single-piece prototypes of such large parts as instrument panels, bumpers, and interior
trim items. Contact: Materialise NV, Technologielaan 15, 3001 Leuven Belgium
Telephone: (32) 16 39 66 11 Fax: (32) 16 39 66 00 Web site: http:// www.materialise.be.
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More typically, the Mammoths are used to build large automotive parts such as this instrument panel.
Virtual medical modeling and rapid surgical templates

In recent years, forward-thinking surgeons have used rapid prototyping models to help
plan difficult operations. From scan data collected by computed tomography (CT) or
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), it is possible to build models of biological structures
such as damaged jaws or joints. With biomodels in hand, surgeons can practice
operations and build custom surgical appliances prior to actual operations. These
techniques can drastically reduce the time required for operations and in some cases
eliminate the need for preliminary exploratory surgery. Doctors have even used
stereolithography models to help plan the separation of conjoined twins. (See “Rapid
prototyping helps separate conjoined twins.”).
The logical next step is to dispense with the physical models
and rehearse surgeries in a virtual world. Even the speediest
rapid prototyping systems can take hours or days to build
medical models, and the relatively high cost of rapid
prototypes limits their use. Virtual models, by contrast, can
be created in just a few hours and cost nothing except the
time required to process scan data. A team of maxillofacial
surgeons at the Morriston Hospital in Swansea, United
Kingdom, is exploring how virtual models can shorten the
time and costs involved in planning surgery.
Using a mirror-image of the scanWorking with Dr. Richard Bibb, head of medical applications
data of a patient’s healthy ear,
at the University of Wales’ National Centre for Product
doctors created a virtual model of
a prosthetic ear. Design and Development Research (PDR) in Cardiff,
doctors recently decided to see if virtual modeling could be
used to plan an operation to insert implants for attaching a prosthetic ear. In similar cases,
says Bibb, the team has used stereolithography models built by PDR to help assess the
depth of bone and select drilling sites for implants. While the physicians credit the rapid
prototypes with improved surgical accuracy, they say the stereolithography parts often
break during practice drilling. And the cost of rapid prototyping makes it impractical to build
multiple models to evaluate different surgical options.
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For the test case, the doctors took CT and MRI scans of
a patient’s skull and soft head tissue. Bibb used
Materialise’s Mimics software to convert the scan data
into virtual models in STL format. He says the process
took a few hours but with practice might be done in as
little as 30 minutes.
Bibb created a three-dimensional mirror image of the

patient’s healthy ear. Bibb and the surgeons aligned the
new virtual ear with the virtual model of the patient’s skull
to determine the best way to attach it. Cylinders
representing implant screws were placed through the The doctors were able to plan the
location of the implant screws and
virtual prosthetic into the virtual skull. Bibb says the create a virtual drilling template.
doctors were able to determine the bone depth at
potential implant sites by viewing cross-sections of the
skull model. Then they optimized the position of the
implants.
When the doctors were satisfied with the location of the implants, Bibb created a virtual
block around the cylinders that fit exactly against the patient’s skull. Then he subtracted
the cylinders from the block in a Boolean operation to create guide holes for drilling. Bibb
used an STL file of this block, with the guide holes, to build a stereolithography part with
Vantico’s RenShape SL H-C 9100R resin. This is the only stereolithography material that
has been t
During the subsequent implantation operation, the surgeons

exposed the patient’s skull. By placing the sterilized
stereolithography template against it, they were able to drill
holes precisely where they had planned. Bibb says PDR has
since worked with the Morriston maxillofacial doctors on
several similar cases. Where it used to take days and cost
hundreds of dollars to have anatomical SLA models made,
plan an operation, and then hand-make templates from the
models, surgical planning now can be done in a matter of
minutes and costs very little.ested and approved to a
recognized standard (FDA USP 23 Class VI) for medical use.
A stereolithography model of the
drilling template was used during
surgery to align the implant holes.
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Reverse Engineering
Capturing scan data
Converting scanned data to CAD models is a complex but straightforward process. Unlike
design, which starts with only vague requirements and entails frequent revisions, reverse
engineering can be reduced to a recipe. Here’s how it goes.
Read scanned data
Scanners typically write out point data in proprietary formats that must be converted to the
format of the reverse-engineering software. Better scan-processing programs read directly
the formats of a variety of scanners. Some scanning software also reads data directly from
the scanner interface.
After each data set is imported, it is helpful to remove stray data points that are obviously
not part of the cloud of points that define the product’s surfaces. Some scan-processing
software has filters that will recognize the stray points and select them for deletion.
The reverse-engineering process begins with a point cloud, generated by a high speed optical or x-ray
scanner.
Align point clouds
Rarely can a product model be captured in one shot from a scanner. More typically,
overlapping scans are taken from multiple directions. These are frequently saved in
multiple data files that must be aligned and merged to create a single point cloud covering
the entire product surface.
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Multiple scans of the Venus de Milo capture different portions of the statue’s face.
Until recently, scanner operators frequently glued targets, such as ping-pong balls, to the
surface of the physical product before scanning it. These targets aided operators in the
painstaking alignment of scan sets. Today scan-processing software can align multiple
point clouds in semi-automated fashion without the aid of targets.
Three scans registered to form a single surface.
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Simplify the data
Today’s scanners typically gather more data than is needed to make accurate CAD
models. Operators generally crank up the scanner resolution, because setups can be
costly, and the operators don’t want to risk having to reshoot a product. Redundant data
also occurs in areas where multiple scans overlap.
Good reverse-engineering software contains a variety of routines for finding and removing
unnecessary data points. Some algorithms filter out points in areas where scans overlap.
In general, more accurate measurements are made on surfaces that are normal to the eye
of the scanner.
All measurements are inaccurate, and point clouds are no exception. Most points deviate
from the true surface by some amount that varies according to a statistical distribution.
Some systems enable users to find and delete points that vary from mean values by more
than two or three standard deviations.
Most software also has routines for sampling points at a uniform density over the model
removing some of them. Point density also can be further reduced in areas of the model
where the radius of curvature is large. In more rounded regions or near sharp bends,
higher data density is needed to maintain accuracy. Some algorithms can recognize
regions of low curvature in the point cloud and automatically remove points from them.
Polygon meshing
The next step is to connect the remaining points in the cloud with straight lines to produce
a polygon mesh of triangles. This polygonal surface, which resembles the
stereolithography file or the faceted solid models of CATIA version four’s solid-M type, is
easier to work with than a set of disconnected points.
Getting a good polygon surface over a large point cloud may take some work. Different
settings may be required for scans of varying point density. It may be necessary to remesh
certain sections to get good results.
Close-up of a polygon mesh derived from data scanned from a folded air bag. A CAD model of this part
would be useful for designing an airbag enclosure.
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Polygon editing
Editing the polygon surface enables users to improve the quality of scan data in a number
of ways. Indeed, it is the ability to create and manipulate polygon data that sets modern
reverse-engineering software apart from its forebears.
Modern systems enable operators to smooth the surface data globally or to smooth local
areas with tools that sand or cut away rough spots. Once the surface is smoothed, the
polygon count can again be reduced in areas of low curvature to reduce the file size.
Other tools enable users to repair holes in surfaces that scanners missed. These tools
also enable users to cut out regions, such as a manufacturer’s ID or serial number cast
into a part, and repair the cutout. Users also can trim rough surface edges using smooth
curves drawn on the surfaces.
Polygon editing tools enable users of scan-processing software to fill holes caused by spots that the scanner
missed.
Polygon editing tools enable multiple surfaces to be merged into completely enclosed
volumes, enabling them to be used for rapid prototyping or imported into solid models.
Polygonal models can be scaled or sculpted to change them from the original design.
If the end use of the scanned data is to create rapid prototypes, the process can stop here.
Polygon models can be exported in the STL format used by rapid prototyping systems
without having to set tolerance parameters. (See “Preparing data for rapid prototyping” for
a description of the STL format.)
Defining surface boundaries
If scanned data’s ultimate destination is a CAD or CAM system, then polygonal surfaces
must be converted to parametric surfaces, specifically non-uniform rational b-splines
(NURBS) that have become the building blocks of most commercial CAD software. In
principle, numerically controlled mills could be programmed to cut polygonal surfaces.
However, people familiar with the process say that machines work faster when tool paths
are based on spline surfaces instead of more randomly oriented polygons.
37
Orange lines denote boundaries of surfaces drawn by the operator. Black lines show boundaries of individual
NURBS patches generated by the reverse-engineering software.
NURBs have four-sided boundaries. Some CAD systems group these four-sided patches
into larger surfaces that can be manipulated as one object. However, it’s not possible at
this time to apply NURBS to arbitrary surfaces without human intervention.
Modern reverse-engineering software enables operators to define the boundaries of multi-

patch surfaces and control the arrangement of patches in each surface. Such control
reduces the size of CAD models and assures that small splinter surfaces don’t impede the
functioning of finite-element or tool-path generating programs.
Operators define surface boundaries by drawing curves on the polygon surface that divide
it into manageable regions. In most cases, the curves follow ridgelines, valleys or sharp
edges that form the natural features of the part. Some programs detect such contours and
draw boundary regions automatically. The operator can change the curve locations if the
computer makes poor choices.
38
Operators may craft boundaries of patches interactively, if necessary, to satisfy special

requirements.
Applying NURBS
After surface boundaries have been created, the operator applies surfaces to the region.
Most systems allow the operator to control the patch size and orientation. Better systems
enable users to define how surfaces blend into one another. All systems that produce data
suitable for CAD assure that adjacent surfaces are continuous and, if desired, tangent. So-
called class A scan-capture software (used primarily for automobile design) lets users
assure that the derivative of tangency (called C2 in computer graphics parlance) and the
second derivative (C3) also are continuous, if desired.
After the system has generated parametric surfaces, operators can edit them interactively.
Such editing is painstaking work, as splines may bulge or sink in unexpected places.
When editing, operators can use the original polygonal surface as a guide for correcting
such errors.
Exporting the data
After the surfaces are shaped satisfactorily, data can be exported as either surfaces or
solid models, as the user chooses. Most CAD software, from SolidWorks to Unigraphics,
can import surfaces and incorporate them in solid models.
Better systems have direct translators to the leading CAD programs including
Pro/Engineer, Parasolid (for Unigraphics, SolidWorks, and Solid Edge), and CATIA. Most
systems also can write data in STEP or IGES formats when direct translators aren’t
available.
The end product of reverse-engineering software is a solid or surface model without

dimension-driven form features. Developers of higher end products are working to add
limited feature-creation capabilities that will enable operators to produce round holes and
cylinders, for example.
God is in the details
The process described above is greatly simplified. Most reverse-engineering software has
a variety of sophisticated functions that have been added to satisfy specific customer
needs. The art of learning reverse-engineering software involves knowing which functions
and parameters to employ for your company’s classes of problems. Some systems have
programming interfaces that enable certain functions to be selected automatically,
enabling work to be performed by less highly skilled operators.
For more, see "Reverse engineering Update."
Reverse-engineering update
Most of the articles on CADCAMNet are about creating computer models and turning them
into physical products or tools. Sometimes, however, companies have physical products
that they need to turn into CAD models. The reasons people might need to do this are
varied.
39
No CAD model may exist. Some manufacturers need models of production parts or
subsystems to incorporate into a new product model. Existing automobile engines and
transmissions, for example, are frequently reused in new models with only slight
modifications. Lack of CAD models may occur for a couple of reasons. The product may
originally have been designed with a combination of draftings and physical modeling
techniques. In some cases, CAD models may have been lost due to poor data
management.
Another reason manufacturers want to make CAD models from physical products is
because as-built parts may deviate from original designs. During product development and
tooling design, it's common for manufacturing engineers to change part geometries in
subtle ways. If these changes cause parts to fail, manufacturers may need to apply finite
element analysis to the as-built parts to determine why they failed. It such cases, it's
important to faithfully copy the failed geometry. If the as-built geometry is satisfactory,
designers may want models of it to use in derivative product designs.
A third reason for reverse engineering is that in some industries, stylists still prefer to work
in physical media such as clay, wood, or foam board. CAD systems are great for modeling
regularly shaped parts such as round shafts or sheet-metal enclosures. They are much
harder to use for products with arbitrary curved surfaces or fine details. Capturing artists'
models enables manufacturers to use techniques such as numerically controlled milling
and rapid prototyping to make production tools. And engineers can use CAD software to
add internal details such as stiffening ribs and bosses for fasteners.
Much improved
Reverse engineering of physical models used to be a slow, costly process. Technology

improvements have made it faster and easier than it was only a few years ago. Scanners
operate faster and hold more data, thanks to increases in semiconductor speed and
reductions in memory-chip costs. Today's visual light scanners can capture millions of
points in seconds with the ease of photographic cameras. CT (computed tomography)
scanners can produce accurate cross sections of internal details that white-light or laser
scanners can't reach.
Computer workstations have doubled in speed and memory capacity in the past 18
months, enabling them to process larger quantities of data than ever. It takes 12 bytes of
data to store one coordinate from a three-D scanner, according to Ping Fu, chief executive
of Raindrop Geomagic, a maker of reverse-engineering software. That means a desktop
system with 512 megabytes of RAM can handle up to 1.5 million data points (including
allowances for the operating system and application software). Systems with two
gigabytes of RAM can manage up to 20 million scanned points.
Lastly software for reverse engineering has improved steadily along with hardware.
Modern products are easier to use and more capable than ever of automating the
conversion of scanned data to CAD models.
40
Integer performance of Intel Pentium processors as a function of clock speed.
Picking the right mix
To convert physical models to computer models successfully and efficiently, engineering

managers must have the right technologies available. These include scanners, software
for converting scanned data to CAD or rapid prototyping models, and workstations for
running the conversion software. Workers who use these technologies also must receive
the right training.
Whether shopping either for scanners or scanning services, it's important to know the
degree of accuracy your work requires. White-light scanners are fast and easy to set up
and use, but they are the least accurate. Coordinate-measuring machines (CMMs) are
slow and highly accurate. For details, see “Understanding three-D scanners and digitizers”
in the February and March 2000 CAD Reports.
Software
As with scanners, there is a large variety of software for converting scan data into CAD
models. Some industrial designers employ plain CAD software. Speaking at the 2002
SolidWorks World conference, Edward Eaton explained how he used SolidWorks with no
supplemental software to create accurate models of cars and computer joysticks from data
scanned from physical models. Such techniques work well for relatively simple products
where some deviation from the scanned geometry might be okay. These techniques also
may require extraordinary operator skill and resourcefulness, characteristics that aren’t
universal.
41
Inus Technology’s Rapidform software converts clouds of points captured by high-speed scanners into
NURBS surface models suitable for CAD software.
Some companies employ add-in software to supplement their basic CAD systems. Some
of these products, such as Parametric Technology’s Pro/Scantools for Pro/Engineer
and Dassault Systèmes’ Reverse Engineering Configuration for CATIA version five,
are made by the CAD software makers themselves. Others, such as RevWorks for
SolidWorks or HighRES’ Sphinx for Pro/Engineer, come from third parties.
Built-in reverse-engineering software has advantages. It may be less costly than the stand-
alone applications described below. It also requires CAD-system operators to learn and
memorize fewer commands because functions such as creating, opening, or closing files
and positioning three-D models on the display are common to both the reverse-
engineering software and the CAD program.
But built-in reverse-engineering systems also have limitations. First, they are best suited
for forms that need to capture models for only one CAD system. Exporting models to other
systems requires the use of data-translation software. Models optimized for one CAD
system might be less than ideal for another. Second, software that works within CAD
programs may be limited in the number of scanned points it can handle. CAD systems can
work with tens or even hundreds of thousands of points. But their designers didn’t envision
the millions of points that modern scanners can capture. Lastly, built-in packages from the
CAD companies don’t sell well, so they tend to get lower priority from sales, service, and
development people than do stand-alone packages made by smaller companies.
Stand-alone software is the other choice for converting scan data to CAD models. At this
writing, these products can be divided into two broad classes: those for what are called
class A or class 1 automobile surfaces and those intended for other than class A work.
Class A reverse-engineering software is characterized by the ability to control the
continuity of curvature (called C2) and the derivative of curvature (C3) across surface
42
boundaries. Class A software also gives stylists special features needed for auto body
design. One example is control over the radius of curvature as surfaces approach other
surface boundaries.
ICEM Technologies’ ICEM Surf and EDS’ Imageware are the two best known products
for Class A reverse engineering. Both products have fallen on hard times. In August, PTC
sold ICEM Technologies to a group of its managers led by Lee Cureton, acting general
manager of ICEM, and financed by Indigo Capital Limited, a UK-based investment firm.
The company is currently called ICEM Limited and is headquartered in Southhampton,
U.K.
Imageware was originally founded by University of Michigan graduates for the purpose of
converting scanned data from automotive clay models into class A surfaces. Over the
years, the software has gotten mixed reviews from users: some loved it and some hated it.
In 1998 SDRC bought the company to bolster the surfacing capabilities of its I-DEAS
software, following the winning of a $200 million CAD-software contract from Ford.
However, Ford continues to use ICEM Surf. Imageware now appears to have fallen
between the cracks of the merger of EDS and Unigraphics Solutions. According to one
customer who uses the software, EDS allowed more than a year to pass without providing
an upgrade release.
EDS is continuing to sell Imageware as part of the Unigraphics software family. Dassault
Systèmes has developed a new class A surfacing product for CATIA version five.
Outside the rarefied world of car-body design, the two main companies sell general-
purpose software for converting scan data to CAD models: Raindrop Geomagic Studio
and Inus Technology’s Rapidform. Automakers and other industries use these products
to reverse-engineer parts that don’t have class A surfaces such as power train and
suspension components and interior body panels. For details, see “Geomagic and
Rapidform.”
Raindrop Geomagic’s Studio software automatically aligns clouds of points from multiple scans to make a
complete part envelope.
43
The market for reverse-engineering software is small and the technology complex. So
reverse-engineering products cost more than most CAD systems.
Many software products can get the job done. To maximize efficiency, potential buyers
need to match their requirements with the capabilities of each software product. The right
one depends on the frequency, complexity, and accuracy of your reverse-engineering
tasks.
Buyers shouldn’t rely only on demonstrations and vendor-run benchmarks to make a final
selection. Obtain an evaluation license, send at least one user for training, and attempt to
use the software before writing a purchase order. Only hands-on experience can reveal
cumbersome operating procedures, poor training or reference manuals, or bugs that can
make scan-capture software even harder to use than it otherwise would be.
Caveat emptor
As reverse-engineering software becomes more powerful, some companies may be

tempted to use it as a substitute for good engineering practices. It pays to resist
temptation.
Reverse engineering is still an arduous process. It’s cheaper to care for your original CAD
data. Companies need to organize CAD models for long-term storage, fast retrieval, and
reuse. Parts suppliers should not be allowed to deviate from CAD-model geometry if
strength, safety, performance, and reliability are important to your company’s product.
Changes required for manufacturing reasons should be made to the master CAD model,
approved, and reanalyzed by the customer’s engineers before they’re permitted. They
should not be made by unsupervised toolmakers to shave costs.
Scan-capture software is complex, and operators need to learn how to use it properly.
Training in software functions is important. So is understanding the uses to which the data
will be put. For example, if parts are to be milled or used in FEA, the presence of tiny faces
on the surface of reverse-engineered parts can trouble these applications. Deciding how
surface boundaries are defined and the level of accuracy required can affect model quality.
Finally, reverse engineering with large numbers of scanned points is a computationally

demanding activity. Budget for powerful desktop systems with adequate memory.
Compared to the cost of most software, computers are cheap.
For a detailed description of the reverse-engineering process, see “Capturing scan data.”
44
For most engineering uses, you won't need an instrument as big as this Lambda, an extremely large gantry-
type coordinate- measuring machine from Browne & Sharpe, North Kingstown, Rhode Island.
UNDERSTANDING THREE-D SCANNERS AND DIGITIZERS — Part 1
Last July, we wrote about techniques for developing CAD models from coordinate data
captured by three-D scanners or digitizers. This reverse engineering is painstaking and
time- consuming, but interest in it continues to grow as more companies employ three-D
CAD in their engineering processes. Moreover, the software for working with point clouds
is improving; more engineers are gaining experience with the techniques, and the digitizing
hardware is improving as well. Thanks to these changes, more engineering managers are
evaluating whether to integrate scan data into their design and manufacturing workflow.
This month, we review the major classes of hardware used to capture point data, including
how each type works and some of its strengths and weaknesses. Next month, we'll look at
how to choose from the various types of commercial systems.
Three-D capture hardware can be installed in-house through use of purchased or leased
equipment or obtained on a job-by-job basis from a service bureau. In either case, a basic
understanding of the available capture technology will help you pick the right hardware for
each of your applications.
Coordinate-Measuring Machines
Three-D data acquisition in the manufacturing trades remains rooted in industrial

metrology and inspection. The coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), the mainstay of
metrology, still is the most common tool used by firms for capturing data from existing
parts, even in reverse engineering, rapid prototyping, and related disciplines. In part, this is
due to availability. CMMs are widely distributed in workplaces, typically in large-company
quality-assurance departments. The technology is proven. Portable CMMs also are
cheaper than optical scanners, which have emerged as their main rival in automobile and
45
aerospace design offices. Beyond inertia and price, CMMs have technical advantages that
should keep them relevant for a long time.
In a typical installation, CMMs find use as contact devices (also called digitizers), acquiring
data upon hitting the target surface. CMMs normally are tipped with a touch probe, a small
metal or jeweled instrument shaped like a ball or pin. The probe is deployed like a finger at
the end of an articulated arm, with segments that rotate around various axes named for
their human analogues: shoulder, elbow, and wrist. Encoders track the movements of the
joints, allowing width, length, and depth to be specified as values along all three Cartesian
planes, `X,' `Y,' and `Z.'
Some CMMs are built into extended platforms, their arms hanging from gantries that can
slide over working volumes large enough to envelop big parts, such as an entire
automobile. These behemoths, stabilized by granite bases, can provide for unrivaled
accuracy, measured in microns. The CMM is also available in portable versions, notably
those made by Faro Technologies and Romer, Inc. They can be mounted on heavy-duty
tripods, tables with threaded holes, even onto a fuselage or truck body. Portable CMMs
can be packed up and trucked to remote locations, though their precision is measured at
best in thousandths of an inch.
A plus for CMMs is that data from a touch probe tends to be sparse and is relatively easy
to structure (as splines), particularly when an engineer who knows what to look for
operates the apparatus. The biggest drawback to CMMs is that harvesting data one point
at a time is a tedious way to copy curving, free-form surfaces. And touch-probe accuracy
can be skewed when acquiring data from surfaces that deflect on contact, such as the
fabric cover of a convertible or a leather seat cushion. Though soft-tipped devices are
available, touch probes are not recommended when targets are prone to scoring. Touch
probes also aren't designed to obtain features buried beneath the surface of a part, unless
the part is broken open. And depending on the probe head, CMMs may not be able to
obtain data from recesses or tight curves, such as those that might be found on a bumper
or automobile grille.
Scanners
Hoping to capitalize on CMM deficiencies, vendors for more than a decade have been
bringing to market many different types of machinery capable of copying multiple points
simultaneously. The market for scanners, as these bulk-data acquirers are sometimes
called, has of late begun to take off.
The enabler has been the growing power of relatively cheap Intel-based computers, says
Dr. Anshuman Razdan. Razdan is technical director of Arizona State University's
Partnership for Research in Stereo Modeling, and he tracks reverse-engineering
technology closely. Computers once took forever to cull useful features from the volumes
of unstructured coordinates, called point clouds, collected by scanners. This reality
sustained the CMM because in comparison to scanners the data CMMs acquire is easier
for computers to handle. For this reason, the new computer power is welcome to scanner
manufacturers. A related momentum booster is that the work of culling usable features
from a point cloud can be readily distributed to multiple processors. This means point-
cloud processing is one of the rare desktop applications that will benefit from Intel's
campaign to seed the technical world with workstations equipped with multiple
microprocessors (see the April 1998 CAD Report).
46
Bulk-data scanners have gained an impulse from yet another techno-commercial

development, says Razdan. The cost of chips carrying charge-coupled diodes, a key
element for the sensors used in most of today's scan heads, has dropped as CCDs have
found their way into consumer products such as digital cameras.
Most scanners acquire data by interpreting the interactions of target volumes with various
forms of energy, including white light, laser beams, and x-rays. Laser and white-light
scanners derive range data via a technique called triangulation. Z-axis values are
calculated using trigonometric functions. Broadly speaking, this is similar to how humans
and other beasts blessed with binocular vision achieve depth perception, reconciling
discrepant views captured by our two eyes.
Laser Scanners
Laser-based systems use a low-intensity red laser to capture data as either points or
ribbons of coordinates. In laser scanning, Z-axis values are calculated on a matrix of X and
Y coordinates like so many holes in a pegboard. Laser light is shot at the grid like a pawn
progressing across a chessboard one square at a time. The laser light approaches its
target along a line of sight, fixed at between 30 and 45 degrees with respect to the
receiving sensor. If an outcropping of the target object sits between the reflected beam
and the sensor, this area will remain in shadow.
A laser beam can also be spread into a fan of light. Upon hitting the object, the line will
follow the surface's contour, as if it were a ribbon. Various profiles of a solid object are
collected as the laser fan sweeps across the face of the target.
The laser market is populated by a dizzying array of products and companies. Among the
top ones are Digibotics's Digibot point scanners, popular for capturing small to medium-
sized objects, and Mensi's SOISIC-brand scanners for capturing very large targets, such
as wall-sized structures in power plants or underground mines.
Cyberware manufactures laser scanners that work quickly, making them popular for
obtaining models of entertainers or medical patients. The latter includes burn victims for
whom face maps need to be generated to make therapeutic masks. Cyberware also
markets a variety of products aimed at industrial reverse engineering.
Polhemus sells portable scan heads operated like hand-held magic wands. These collect
data when they are waved over the volume to be copied. An electromagnetic tracker
monitors the wand's location, making the device useless for capturing metal parts. But
Polhemus scanners can capture plastic or fabric and live subjects. Several vendors also
manufacture laser scan heads that replace touch probes on the ends of CMMs. Among
these are ribbon scanners from Perceptron, Hymarc, and Kreon.
White-Light Scanners
Optical scanners can be thought of as three-D cameras. They develop models by reading
the play of white light over the surface of a target object. An optical scan head contains a
projector assembly, including a light source (usually a halogen bulb) and one or two digital
cameras.
47
Typically, white-light scanners combine triangulation with interferometry, a technique for

generating interference patterns, to gather information about the target surface. A moiré (a
wavy pattern) is produced when two geometrically regular patterns are overlapped at
acute angles. Flat surfaces provoke little deformation in the pattern, while contours
produce more distortion.
On the plus side, optical scanners are portable. They can be mounted on tripods or
sometimes portable CMMs. Optical scanners can acquire large data volumes quickly,
because they harvest many points in parallel. The combination of interference and
triangulation also makes for excellent levels of accuracy, as good as portable CMMs.
On the downside, optical scanners will pick up only surfaces that are visible along their line
of sight. Nooks and crannies or parts that are blocked by other parts may end up in
shadow, a problem if you're trying to capture a turbine or pump assembly with closely
overlapping blades. As with laser devices, sometimes this drawback can be overcome by
shooting the target from multiple angles, though this may make the downstream work of
postprocessing the image more time-consuming.
Two rival optical scanner product lines, both originating with German companies, have
become popular in automobile design studios and aerospace firms. These are the ATOS
scanners, developed by GOM GmbH, and the Comet series scanners from Steinbichler
GmbH. Minolta and EOIS also have offerings based on white-light scanning technology.
Finicky About Finishes
White-light and laser scanners can both be extra sensitive to target surface finishes.
Objects that are very shiny, such as chrome parts, will generate too many erratic
reflections resulting in point clouds too full of noise or garbage data. The reverse also is
true: A flat black surface will absorb so much light that not enough data will be acquired. If
the surfaces can be prepared, shiny or dark surfaces can be sprayed with chalky powders
or paint to obtain the dull-gray matte finish preferred by optical scanners.
Ambient lighting conditions also have to be controlled. We were told by a service bureau
professional about the results of an optical scanning session that were thrown off when
sunlight, filtering in from an open window, was covered by a passing cloud. Optical
scanning sessions are best conducted in dim ambient light. Red-laser scanners don't like
sun or incandescent light because both carry plenty of red in their spectrums. Fluorescent
ambient lighting is less objectionable for laser scanning sessions. Mensi reports that it has
come up with a way of filtering out ambient light so that its scanners will work out of doors.
Computed Tomography
Computed tomography (the term comes from the Greek word for section) is familiar to
anybody who has been forced to lay down in one of those large, tube-shaped devices and
undergo a medical CT scan. As in medicine, industrial CT scanners are adept at obtaining
information about internal features without having to open the surface. CT scanners are
maximum strength versions of their medical counterparts, powered up to nine mega
electron volts.
“Parts don't complain if you radiate them with lots of energy,” said Simon Huss, a research
scientist at Aracor, a manufacturer and vendor of industrial CT scanners. That's good
48
news, because the greater the x-ray flux, the better the resulting image. When more
energy is used, x-ray images have sharper contrasts along edges, and less noise is
produced.
The raison d'etre of CT scanners is that they can obtain internal geometry without
destroying a part. But they have other advantages. They don't care about surface finishes,
and they come in sizes large enough to easily scan parts as big as automobile engines.
With only a few exceptions (a lead object being one), x-rays will penetrate just about
anything, even the hardest of metals used in jet turbines. They also can be used to report
details about the composition of parts. They can distinguish between plastic and metal,
and even between different kinds of metal — say aluminum and steel.
Cost is their biggest disadvantage. Lower- powered devices start at around $500,000, and
the high-end ones cost $2,000,000. They are owned outright only by the largest of
industrial concerns in aerospace and the automobile industry. Even on a contract basis,
individual scans are expensive.
Destructive Cross Sectioning
Cross-sectional scanning was developed by Crump Group International, which does

business as Capture Geometry Inside. The company's devices are usually just called
CGI scanners. The main advantage of cross-sectional scanners is that, like CT scanners,
they readily obtain point clouds from parts with complex internal geometry. The machines
range in cost from $90,000 to $225,000. A CGI scanner can digitize any object that can be
milled, including steel or aluminum parts.
A part to be digitized by a CGI scanner is placed in a mold and liquid epoxy is poured
around it. The epoxy is chosen so that upon drying it will contrast in color with the part.
The mold is put in a pressurized vacuum system to extract bubbles from the epoxy and
push the glue into all internal channels and cavities. The goo dries within two to six hours,
depending on how much was poured. The hardened block that results is then ready for the
cut-and-scan process. A mill grinds down the block. Layers range in thickness from 0.0010
inch to 0.0005 inch. A digital camera captures an image of each layer, and a computer
captures these cross sections, ready for reverse engineering.
The biggest drawback is that any part scanned will be obliterated — literally turned to
powder. It also takes a relatively long time for the scanner to chew through the parts.
Scans, however, are automated, so shops that use the system generally load multiple
components and let the machines run overnight.
Next month, we'll discuss how to match scanning technologies to the problems you need
to solve. Sometimes it takes more than one type of hardware to get the job done.
49

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A rapid prototyping primer Part 1: Stereolithography ...........................................................4

A rapid prototyping primer Part 1: Stereolithography

3D Systems SLA-7000 stereolithography system

When to use stereolithography

Factors to consider when ordering

A rapid prototyping primer Part 2: laser sintering

Laser-sintered part. Note the rough surface. finish.

3D Systems Vanguard system.

An EOS DirectMetal part.

When to use laser sintering

Factors to consider when ordering

A rapid prototyping primer Part 3: fused deposition modeling

Fused deposition modeling

Accuracy and surface finish

When to use fused deposition modeling

Factors to consider when ordering

A rapid prototyping primer Part 4: Three-dimensional printing

Accuracy and surface finish

3DP parts have a grainy surface finish

When to use three-dimensional printing

3DP casting shell produced by Z Corporation's Zcast process..

Factors to consider when ordering

Rapid prototyping primer -- Part 5: Multijet modeling

In our last installment, we discussed Z Corporation’s three-dimensional printing (3DP).

Accuracy and surface finish

Because the ThermoJet builds by dispensing material through hundreds of jets

When to use multijet modeling

Factors to consider when ordering

• Build orientation -- Downward facing surfaces on multijet modeling parts are

On the horizon -- Invision

Preparing data for rapid prototyping

CATIA version four

• Select STL command.

• From the File menu, select Export/Rapid Prototype File.

STL files can be created from

SolidWorks also allows users to use

Rapid prototyping large objects -- from parts to art

The Materialise Mammoths

After 24 hours of building, the shape of the kouros

The original Volomandra Kouros and the

Lifting the kouros out of the Mammoth.

Virtual medical modeling and rapid surgical templates

Bibb created a three-dimensional mirror image of the

During the subsequent implantation operation, the surgeons

Read scanned data

Align point clouds

Three scans registered to form a single surface.

Simplify the data

Defining surface boundaries

Modern reverse-engineering software enables operators to define the boundaries of multi-

Operators may craft boundaries of patches interactively, if necessary, to satisfy special

Exporting the data

The end product of reverse-engineering software is a solid or surface model without

God is in the details

For more, see "Reverse engineering Update."

Reverse engineering of physical models used to be a slow, costly process. Technology

Integer performance of Intel Pentium processors as a function of clock speed.

Picking the right mix

To convert physical models to computer models successfully and efficiently, engineering

As reverse-engineering software becomes more powerful, some companies may be

Finally, reverse engineering with large numbers of scanned points is a computationally