International Journal of Mineral Processing 136 (2015) 2–6

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International Journal of Mineral Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijminpro

Size specific energy (SSE)—Energy required to generate minus 75

micron material
Grant R. Ballantyne a,b,⁎, Wolfgang Peukert c, Malcolm S. Powell a,b
a
The University of Queensland, Sustainable Minerals Institute, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, 40 Isles Road, Indooroopilly, Brisbane, QLD 4068, Australia
b
CRC ORE: Optimised Resource Extraction, The University of Queensland, Level 7, Sir James Foots Building, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
c
Institute of Particle Technology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauerstrasse 4, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper explores the relationship between energy and the generation of minus 75 micron material. Rittinger's
Received 13 December 2013 law of comminution states that the energy input is proportional to the generation of new surface area. An accu-
Received in revised form 27 August 2014 rate and consistent measurement of surface area, applicable across multiple size ranges, is required to apply this
Accepted 24 September 2014
practically. The amount of new −75 μm material generated has previously been proposed as a proxy for surface
Available online 2 October 2014
area. This has been demonstrated to some extent on a range of different laboratory equipment, but not in a man-
Keywords:
ner suited to equipment-independent ore characterisation. To this end the JK Rotary Breakage Tester (JKRBT) and
Comminution Schönert breakage device have been used to measure the progressive production of fines from cumulative single
Energy impacts starting with 37.5 mm particles down to 250 μm. As per expectation, the generation of −75 μm material
Efficiency was found to be proportional to the specific energy, but there was a secondary influence of size. A model was de-
Benchmarking veloped to describe the breakage and it was found that the standard t10 relationship could be used to effectively
calculate the size specific energy. Measuring the intrinsic competence of an ore in this way can then be used to
assess the energy efficiency of full-scale mills in relation to a lab scale test. It is envisaged that this relationship
also has the potential to be used in the design of new comminution circuits. The methodology and the results
from its application are presented for discussion and review.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction probability of internal flaws and weaknesses (Napier-Munn et al.,

The relationship between energy and size reduction is of primary
importance in the field of comminution. Rittinger (1867) was credited
as proposing that the work done in crushing is proportional to the
area of new surface produced. Just 18 years later, Kick (1885) proposed
that for a homogeneous rock, the work input is proportional to the
reduction in particle. Bond (1952) proposed the third theory, a compro-
mise between the two earlier relationships, originally thought to infer
proportionality with the length of new crack formation. Walker
(1937) and later Hukki (1961) found that these three laws may not be
mutually exclusive and are each applicable within a specific size
range. Tavares and King (1998) proved experimentally that Kick's as-
sumption is valid at large sizes where the surface energy is negligible
compared to the internal energy required for breakage. The results of
Griffith (1921) have more recently been used to relate the increase in
energy required to break smaller particles with the reduction in the
⁎ Corresponding author at: The University of Queensland, Sustainable Minerals
Institute, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, 40 Isles Road, Indooroopilly,
Brisbane, QLD 4068, Australia. Tel.: +61 7 3365 5839; fax: +61 7 3365 5999.
E-mail address: g.ballantyne@uq.edu.au (G.R. Ballantyne).
2005; Wang and Forssberg, 2007).
This paper proposes the use of the energy required to produce new
− 75 μm material (hereafter referred to as size specific energy or SSE
after (Powell et al., 2003–2010)) as a simplified measure across a
broader range of particle sizes. Hukki (1979) first introduced this
method to characterise the efficiency of closed grinding circuits. Later,
Levin (1992) argued that the energy required to generate −75 μm ma-
terial could be used as a competence measurement, providing similar
results to the Bond work index. More recently, Hilden and Suthers
(2010) found the linear relationship between energy and per cent
−75 μm to hold true over a wide range of machines, from crushing to
ball milling (see Fig. 1). Musa and Morrison (2009) found that typically
70 to 80% of the surface area of mill product existed below 75 μm. The
75 μm proxy has no intrinsic value. For circuits producing a much finer
(or coarser) product, a finer (or coarser) proxy size may be more appro-
priate. They also found that the total surface area measured from coarse
to fine was well enough limited at the fine end to justify the original
Rittinger hypothesis that comminution energy generates new surface
area—albeit not very efficiently. Therefore, the theory behind size specific
energy may be related to the original Rittinger hypothesis.
Currently, the standard method for calculating comminution unit
energy efficiency is the ratio of operating work index and the Bond

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2014.09.010
0301-7516/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

100%
90%
Fines generated (%-75µm)
80%
70%
60%
y = 0.054x
50%
40% y = 0.0407x
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 5 10 15
Specific energy (kWh/t)
Fig. 1. Published size specific energy data.
work index. This gives an indication of the efficiency of the milling cir-
cuit in relation to the Bond (1952) standard crush, rod and ball mill cir-
cuit. Observed and predicted specific energy calculations are displayed
in Fig. 2. The styles of the data points correspond to different databases.
Filled data points were collated from the database published by
Ballantyne and Powell (2014) and the unfilled data points were pub-
lished in Morrell (2004). Sixty percent of the mines analysed had overall
circuit efficiencies between 50 and 65%. These low efficiency values in-
dicated that there was great potential across the industry to improve ef-
ficiency of comminution equipment. However, when the efficiencies of
the autogenous and semi-autogenous grinding (AG/SAG) circuits and
the ball mill circuits were calculated a more complex underlying rela-
tionship was found. It is widely known that by calculating the energy ef-
ficiency using the Bond equation, AG/SAG circuits appear significantly
less efficient. A number of researchers have attempted to account for
this with a range of correction factors (Barratt and Allan, 1986;
Rowland, 1988) and alternative power factors (Hukki, 1961; Morrell,
2004). The underlying reason for the discrepancy is that the Bond equa-
tion requires parallel feed and product size distributions in log/log
space. AG/SAG mills do not fit this assumption because they tend to pro-
duce a large amount of fines without reducing the sieve size that 80% of
the material passes (P80) significantly. Using the size specific energy to
calculate the energy efficiency is more effective than the Bond equation
because it is related to the generation of fines, not the reduction in the
top size. However, a standard test procedure is required for this to be
achieved (Musa and Morrison, 2009). The operating work index and
size specific energy were found to be linearly related in the database
published by Ballantyne et al. (2012). This linear relationship suggests
similarity in the measurement of rock competence between the two
methods. However, this may have been a result of the similar circuits
across the sampled mines, because this would not be so if the gradient
of the size distributions in log–log space changed.
40
35
30
Observed kWh/t
25
20
AG/SAG
15
10
0
0 5 10
Bond predicted kWh/t
Fig. 2. Comminution energy efficiency calculated using ratio between operating and Bond
work indices (unfilled data points from Morrell (2004)).
G.R. Ballantyne et al. / International Journal of Mineral Processing 136 (2015) 2–6 3
2. Method
The relationship between input energy and generation of −75 μm
y = 0.0228x + 0.3312
material was tested using controlled single particle impacts. Two
Australian copper–gold ores were tested and the feed particle sizes
started at 37.5 mm and reduced to 250 μm over successive steps of
breakage. The JKRBT was used for breaking particles larger than
4.75 mm with accurate input energies (Shi et al., 2006). Breakage of
smaller particle sizes was achieved with the Schönert breakage device
Hilden and Suthers (2010)
at Erlangen Institute of Particle Technology (Vogel and Peukert, 2005).
Levin (1992) This equipment is able to break particles in the size range 4.75 mm to
20 25 30
250 μm within a vacuum of 20 mbar, thus reducing errors associated
with air-drag on the particles. Both machines utilise a spinning internal
rotor to propel the particles outward, impacting with a stationary anvil
ring (Fig. 3).
The specific kinetic energy (kWh/t) of the particle before impact was
determined by half the velocity of the particle squared. Theoretically,
when the particle exits the rotor, its tangential and radial velocity com-
ponents equal the tip speed. However, in practice the transfer of energy
is not 100% efficient. For the JKRBT, these calibration factors have been
established through high-speed video analysis (Shi et al., 2006). Dis-
crete element modelling (DEM) was used to calculate the factors for
the Schönert breakage device. Analysis of the DEM simulations allowed
the velocity efficiency to be calculated for a range of particle sizes using
the following equation (Weerasekara, 2013):
Velocity efficiencyð%Þ ¼ 84:08−0:89  particle sizeðmmÞ ð1Þ
The breakage testwork procedure started with 90 particles between
37.5 and 26.5 mm and progressively comminuted these down through
root-2 size intervals to 100% passing 250 μm (Fig. 4). The methodology
was repeated for energy levels between 0.4 and 3.5 kWh/t. Due to the
small diameter of the rotor, the maximum input energy for the Schönert
breakage device was 0.8 kWh/t. Care was taken to minimise sample
losses that can occur during this type of testwork. This justified the
assumption that all the material lost during the experiment was dust
below 75 μm in size. On average this added 1.55% to the −75 μm figures.
3. Results
Previous work has shown linear relationships between cumulative
comminution energy consumption and material generated below
75 μm (Hilden and Suthers, 2010; Hukki, 1979; Levin, 1992; Musa and
Morrison, 2009). The results from this investigation have found
that the generation of − 75 μm is dependent on more than simply
the input energy. The results for one of the two samples (Ore 1) are
Combined
Ball
15 20 25
Fig. 3. Rotor/anvil configuration for both JKRBT and Schönert breakage device (Tavares,
2007).
4 G.R. Ballantyne et al. / International Journal of Mineral Processing 136 (2015) 2–6

25% Ore 2
y = 0.09x

Cumulative generation of-75 µm

20%

15% Ore 1
y = 0.04x

10%

5%

0%
0 1 2 3 4
Cumulative specific energy (kWh/t)

Fig. 6. Combined progressive generation of −75 μm.

mines corresponding to ore 1 and 2 being 74% and 43% efficient

Fig. 4. Simplified testwork workflow. The Schönert breakage device replaced the JKRBT
below 4.75 mm.
displayed in Fig. 5. The sample was split into three and progressively
comminuted in the JKRBT at 1, 2 and 3 kWh/t. The generation of
−75 μm material appeared relatively linear within each of these energy
levels. The gradient of the relationship is consistent at different energy
levels, but the y-intercept was strongly dependent on variability of the
initial breakage event. Normalising the generation of − 75 μm after
the initial breakage event produced a linear relationship passing
through the origin. However, this analysis simply proved the similarity
of the gradients at different energy levels.
When the breakage was extended to finer sizes using the Schönert
breakage device, the relationship visibly deviated from linearity. As
the smaller particles were broken, the generation of −75 μm material
for the same energy input increased.
The results for the second ore are displayed together with the first
sample in Fig. 6. Ore 2 was less competent than ore 1, producing signif-
icantly more −75 μm material at the same input energy levels. The size
specific energy (SSE) for the sample is the inverse of the gradient of a
trendline forced to pass through the origin. For ore 1 and 2 the values
are 24.9 and 11.1 kWh/t−75 μm respectively. The scatter in the data re-
sults from a combination of ore variability, particle size effects and the
relationship between impact velocity and specific energy. The SSE
values corresponded well with historical survey results from the two
mines. A comparison of the theoretical minimum energy measured
through single particle breakage and mine site SSE resulted in the
respectively.
The cumulative generation of − 75 μm material displayed a slight
non-linear relationship. To investigate this deeper, the results were
analysed independently for each feed particle size. This technique re-
vealed that the generation of −75 μm material increased with decreas-
ing particle size. The cause of this trend is that the marker size of 75 μm
corresponds to a smaller reduction ratio when the feed particle size is
reduced. Therefore, since the breakage function was found to be consis-
tent, smaller particles resulted in larger production of −75 μm material.
This phenomenon was explored further through the development of a
model to describe the breakage.
4. Model development
A model was developed to describe the results generated through
the experimental programme. The model was based on the breakage
(appearance) function developed by Narayanan and Whiten (1988)
and the modified Weibull (1939) distribution model developed by
Vogel and Peukert (2005) and later modified by Shi and Kojovic
(2007). Musa (2010) developed a similar technique to analyse the effi-
ciency of breakage within crushers and mills. The degree of breakage
was characterised using the t10 parameter which is defined as the per-
centage of material passing through a screen size one tenth the size of
the initial geometric mean particle size. The Shi and Kojovic (2007)
model (Eq. (2)) was used to reduce the t10 data from different input
energies and initial particle sizes to one master curve (Fig. 7).
t10 ¼ Mð1‐exp ½‐ f mat : x :ðEcs ‐E min ÞÞ ð2Þ

15% 70%
Cumulative generation of -75 µm

60%

50%
10%
40%
t10

30%

5% 20%

10%

0%
0% 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0 1 2 3 4 Ecs.Fmat.x
Cumulative specific energy (kWh/t)
Fig. 7. Master curve showing the degree of breakage (t10) at different energy levels and
Fig. 5. Ore-type 1: progressive generation of −75 μm. initial particle sizes for ore 1.
 G.R. Ballantyne et al. / International Journal of Mineral Processing 136 (2015) 2–6 5

100% 45

Size specific energy (kWh/t-75µm)

90% 40
t 1.2
80% 35
t2
tn (% passing)

70%
30 Ore 1
60%
t4 25
50%
t 10 20
40% t 25
15
30%
t 75 Ore 2
10
20%
t 150 5
10%
0% 0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 0.1 1 10 100

Breakage Index, t10 (%) Initial particle size (mm)

Fig. 10. Relationship between initial particle size and size specific energy for both Ore 1
Fig. 8. Breakage (appearance) function for ore 1 in the form of the t-family of curves.
and 2. Error bars represent the standard deviation around the mean and the line is the
predicted size specific energy from the model.

where M represents the maximum t10 for a material subject to breakage,

fmat (1/kWh m) is the material breakage property, x (m) is the initial
particle size, Ecs (kWh) is the mass-specific impact energy, and Emin
(kWh) is the threshold energy.
Plotting of the degree of breakage (t10) parameter against the other
reduction ratio parameters (t-family) provides the basis for determin-
ing the whole size distribution from the t10 parameter (Narayanan
and Whiten, 1988). The results for ore 1 are displayed in Fig. 8. To enable
a more accurate prediction of the progeny over a wide range of t10, t1.2
and t150 values were added to the classic analysis. The t1.2 corresponds
to the probability of breakage parameter as described by the proportion
of material that falls through the screen below in a root two sieve series.
This technique provides a method for linking the results from low
energy collisions where breakage probability is the dominant descriptor
and high energy impacts where t10 becomes dominant. A spline func-
tion is fitted through five chosen points that cover the whole range
of t10 values. Using this technique, the whole t-family of curves can be
described by a 5 × 7 matrix. This analysis technique is able to effectively
describe the breakage progeny when self-similar breakage is apparent—
as evident in this case.
Combining these t-family modelling techniques provides a robust
methodology for determining the progeny from single particle impact
tests over a wide range of input energies and initial particle sizes. Dou-
ble parabolic interpolation functions were used to calculate the t-values
from the experimental size distributions, the t-values that corresponded
to the fitted t10, and the per cent passing screen sizes between the given
100%
R² = 0.992
80%
% passing (observed)
t-values. The accuracy of the interpolation function was improved by
taking the log of the particle size. The goodness of fit for this model
over the range of tests completed within this experimental campaign
is displayed in Fig. 9. The top and bottom end of the size distribution
was predicted more accurately than the intermediate sizes. This is evi-
dent in the wider scatter that is observable between the 30 and 70%
passing figures.
The model was tested to its limits by the predicting the size specific
energy and its variability with initial particle size (Fig. 10). As alluded to
earlier, the %−75 μm corresponds to a larger t-value for coarser initial
particle sizes. Therefore, since self-similar breakage is assumed in this
model, the size specific energy is smaller for finer initial particle sizes.
This trend matches the experimental data well across the wide range
of initial particles sizes and energy levels. There is a sharp increase in
the modelled SSE at the extreme coarse end of the distribution. In this
range, 75 μm corresponds to large t-values and, the model under-
predicts the amount of −75 μm material generated.
5. Discussion
The SSE consumption is a useful metric for the determination of the
practical comminution energy efficiency. Thermodynamic milling
efficiencies are typically calculated as below 2%, a value so low as to
be useless (Fuerstenau and Abouzeid, 2002). Determining the practical
minimum SSE from single particle impact breakage will result in a much
more realistic and achievable efficiency benchmark. This can also be
measured easily by sampling at different points around the comminu-
tion circuit to troubleshoot where the inefficiencies enter the system.
The SSE calculation has a key advantage over the use of t10—it can be
found for single particle breakage as well as size distributions. Com-
pared to Bond's use of P80 it is more closely related to the surface area
production than top size reduction and doesn't rely on the assumption

of parallel feed and product size distributions.

60%
The SSE decreases with particle size—a result opposed to the tradi-
tional t10 approach. This highlights an inherent limitation in the calcula-
tion because the t10 changes with feed size, whereas the 75 μm marker
40% does not. A factor related to the tn of the marker size may help reduce
this effect, but may also affect the applicability of the results.

20% 6. Conclusion

Single particles from 37.5 mm to 250 μm were broken using impact

breakage—a wider range than previously attempted. This was achieved
0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% by combining coarse particle breakage data from the JKRBT with fine
% passing (predicted) particle breakage using the Schönert breakage device. A linear relation-
ship was observed between specific breakage energy and generation of
Fig. 9. Correlation between predicted and observed progeny size distributions obtained for −75 μm material for two ores comminuted via single particle impact.
ore 1. The inverse gradient of this relationship is the SSE (kWh/t− 75 μm)
6 G.R. Ballantyne et al. / International Journal of Mineral Processing 136 (2015) 2–6
which is a measure of the competence of an ore. This can be used as a
benchmark and to provide a simple method for assessing the practical
comminution energy efficiency of full scale grinding circuits. It can be
used to assess energy efficiency of existing circuits, benchmark opera-
tions internationally, measure productivity improvements and assess
performance of individual equipment.
A simple model relating the t10 to input energy, feed size and the
resulting t-family of curves was developed to validate the results.
Using this model, the size specific energy was calculated proving that
the size specific energy is not independent from classical t10 analysis.
Using this analysis technique, it is also possible to assess the breakage
probability functions that were also previously thought of as indepen-
dent variables.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of CRC ORE,
20090048 established and supported by the Australian Government's
Cooperative Research Centres Program and all their sponsors who pro-
vided financial assistance for this research. We thank the research group
at the Institute of Particle Technology at Erlangen University for their
hospitality and the use of the Schönert breakage device. We thank
JKTech management for their permission to access its database. Nirmal
W contributed DEM simulations for this work
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