Police Photography Instructional Material

Police Photography
-An Instructional Material-
WILLIAM C. DELA CRUZ JR

Instructor
Second Semester
School Year 2019-2010
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY ECHAGUE
VMGO
prevention, crime detection and investigation, law
enforcement, and custody and rehabilitation of offenders,
among others.
UNIVERSITY VISION The program is also envisioned as significant
educational institutions actively and continually involved
The Isabela State University as a leading, vibrant, in producing graduates who have the knowledge and
comprehensive and Research University in the country skills in addressing the problem of criminality in the
and the ASEAN region. country and the competence to meet the challenge of
globalization in the field of criminology.
UNIVERSITY MISSION
Specific Objectives
The Isabela State University is committed to develop The BS Criminology program aims to:
highly trained and globally competent professionals; 1. Foster the values of leadership, integrity,
generate innovative and cutting-edge knowledge and accountability and responsibility while
technologies for people empowerment and sustainable serving their fellowmen, community and
development; engage in viable resource generation country.
programs; and maintain and enhance stronger partnerships 2. Prepare the students for careers in crime
under good governance to advance the interests of prevention, law enforcement, scientific
national and international communities. crime detection and correctional
administration;
GOALS OF THE COLLEGE OF ARTS & 3. Encouraged research and inquiry on the
SCIENCES nature, causes, treatment or punishment of
criminal justice agencies respond to crime,
criminals and victims.
1. Provide general education in the arts and
sciences for the development of students mentally,
socially, spiritually, and emotionally transforming
them into well-rounded individuals.
2. Develop students into productive citizens both
economically and socially with the end in view of
improving the quality of their lives and that of their
fellowmen.
3. Produce graduates, majority of whom are
locally and globally competitive in their chosen
fields of their careers.
4. Cultivate and sharpen students’ potentials and
hasten their relationship capabilities to answer the
needs of their community and society to which they
INTRODUCTION
belong.
In our modern Criminal Justice System, the
investigation is required of an objectivity that can only
be achieved by means of scientific means. Photography
is one that plays a very important role in both criminal
and civil cases. The usefulness of forensic photography
in criminal investigation is very extensive.
Small objects but of great importance in a crime
committed may escape in the first place of examination
by the investigators but may be seen and recovered
OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAM only after close examination of the photographs of the
General Objective crime scene. Investigators are sometimes compelled to
The program provides the community with reconstruct or describe in court some of the details of
professionally competent and orally upright graduates the crime scene they have investigated several months
who can deliver efficient and effective services in crime
2 Police Photography Instructional Material
“This is for criminological purposes and therefore not for sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
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ago. With the bulk of cases they have handled, perhaps 9. Artificial light- light that comes into existence with
he would be confused or may not exactly recall some the intervention of man.
of these details or exact location of objects. However, 10. Astigmatism- the inability of a lens to project a
with the aid of photographs, investigator will not find sharply focused image of both vertical and
hard time to refresh their minds and will be able to horizontal lines upon the same plane.
describe or explain exactly the details in court. 11. Bellows- the part of some camera which is capable
A good photograph is a permanent record which is of being expanded.
always available especially in court presentation. 12. Blocking Out – Selected areas of a negative are
Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain painted with an opaque liquid on the non-emulsion
a normal, sharp and free of distortion photographs. side.
Photography can be used for identification, record, 13. Bracketing – The technique of shooting a number
presentation and substitution of evidence of the crime. of pictures of the same subject and viewpoint at
It can discover things that could not be seen by the different levels of exposure.
naked eye as photography extends man’s visual 14. Burning-in – Method of increasing printing
limitation. Always remember that the opinion of the exposure in specific areas of an image. Alternative
expert witness is always susceptible to ocular term for Printing-in.
inspection otherwise his testimony would have a lesser 15. Cable Release- the device use in pressing the
weight. shutter release button of the camera that avoid
incidental movement of the camera during the
Terms to ponder exposure period.
16. Camera- a light tight box equipped with a lens,
1. Aberration- the way in which the behavior of the shutter, diaphragm and a mechanism which
light affects image formation by a lens sometimes controls the film.
termed also as optical defects. 17. Candle Power- a standard for measuring the
2. Abrasions- these are streaks or fine black lines brilliants of illumination. The higher the candle
resembling pencil scratches on the film emulsion power the brighter the illumination.
caused by improper handling or when a sharp or 18. Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag.
rough object rubs against the emulsion surface, Light excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of
also cause by grits or rough spots in the camera. light-sensitized photo materials inside.
3. Actinic light- the radiant energy of wavelengths 19. Chromatic aberration- the inability of a simple lens
that is capable of producing latent image on to bring the different wavelengths (color) of white
photographically sensitized film or emulsion. light to focus on the same plane.
4. Acutance- the degree to which an emulsion can 20. Circle of confusion- a disc from image of a point in
record sharp division between images area details the object. The allowable circle of confusion is
of different contrast. usually 1/1,000 of the focal length of the lens of the
5. Agitation – Method used to keep fresh processing inches.
solution in contact with the emulsion surface 21. Color/Spectral Sensitivity- the response of a
during photographic processing. photographic emulsion to light.
6. Air Bells- are small air bubbles that adhere to the 22. Color temperature- the temperature to which a
film surface and prevent the processing solution black object must be heated to produce light
from acting on the film during the developing having integral color as the source under
process, living small clear spots. consideration.
7. Anti-halation backing- a thin layer of an opaque 23. Contrast- the difference between the bright and
dye on the back of the film which reduces, or dark areas in photograph or the difference in the
prevents lights from reflecting from the film base densities of various areas in the negative.
into the emulsion layer. 24. Contrast – Subjective judgment on the difference
8. Aperture- the opening in the lens diaphragm that between densities or luminosities and their degree
regulates the amount of lights entering and which of separation in the subject, negative or print
forms the image upon the focal planes. Opening in 25. Coma- a pear-shaped image or comet-shaped blur
front of or within a lens which controls the amount image of a small circle or point near the edges of
of light that passes through the lens to the the image plane.
photographic materials. 26. Cropping – Framing an image so that unwanted
part of the scene are not included on the final print

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27. Curvilinear distortion- a lens inability to produced either the color or the intensity of the light used to
the same enlargements in the image formed by the expose the film.
edges of lens as in that part formed by the center 45. Flare- stray or unwanted light from several sources
of the lens. which causes bright spots on exposed film.
28. Definition – Subjective term for the clarity of a 46. Flash Unit- an artificial light that synchronized with
photographic image. the opening and closing of the shutter. It could
29. Density- the degree of blackening or amount of both be flash bulb, electronic flash and cube flash.
metallic silver deposited in the negative emulsion. 47. Focal length- the distance from the optical center
30. Depth-of-field- the range of distance between the of the lens to its focal plane, when the lens is
nearest and farthest point of acceptable sharp focused at infinity.
focus. 48. Focal Plane- the point and plane were the lens
31. Depth of focus- the maximum permissible distance projected image is clear and sharp. This plane is
within which the film maybe placed without sometimes called the film plane as the film is
exceeding the circle of confusion in order to located at the point to capture the image.
produce clear image. 49. Halftones- the subject brightness between the
32. Diaphragm- an adjustable mechanical device in the lightest and darkest areas recorded on the
lens assembly which controls the amount of light negative in the corresponding densities.
passing through the lens to the film. 50. Highlights- the dense portion of a negative caused
33. Diffused light- incident light that is reflected in by bright are in the subjects which reflect a great
more than one direction when its rays hits an amount of light.
irregular and rough surface. 51. Hyper focal distance- the distance from the optical
34. Dispersion- the breaking up of light rays into its center of the lens to the nearest point in
component colors. acceptable sharp focus when the camera is
35. Dodging – Local control of density in photographic focused on infinity at any given f/number.
printing achieved by shading to reduce the 52. Incident light- is light rays striking the surface of an
exposure to specific areas of the printing paper object. The point where the light rays and object
36. Easel – Alternative name for masking frame. Flat come in contact is termed the point of incident.
board on which printing papers are held during 53. Infinity- a distance setting on a camera focusing
enlargement. scale, beyond which all objects are in focus.
37. Etching – Scraping or dissolving away unwanted 54. Latent image- the invisible image formed in an
areas from an image or image printing surface. emulsion by exposure to light.
38. Emulsion- a light sensitive of layer of finely divided 55. Latitude-the inherent ability of an emulsion to
silver salts, suspended in gelatin, which is spread record varying range of subjects’ brightness
on a permanent support such as glass, acetate, or differences and difference in densities.
paper. 56. Lens- (camera optics) a spherical and symmetrical
39. Enlarger/Projector-a machine which is essentially a piece of polished glass that refracts light rays so
camera in reverse that is, it projects rather than that a clear, sharp image is projected on the rear
receives the image. wall of camera.
40. Exposure- the time given amount of lights requires 57. Lens speed- the largest opening or stop which a
creating an image of the desired density of an lens can be used to transmit light to its focal plane.
emulsion. 58. Lights- an electromagnetic energy, that excite the
41. Exposure latitude- the extent to which the retina of the eye in passing thru it to form an
exposure of the negative can deviate from normal image.
and still produce an acceptable image. 59. Lumens- a unit for measuring the amount of light
42. Film- a type of light sensitized materials that produced by an artificial flash.
produces negative after development. 60. Masking – System of controlling negative density,
43. Film speed-(ISO-formerly known as ASA/DIN). The range or color saturation through the use of light
term used to express the degree of inherent let king mask (usually sharp).
sensitivity of an emulsion to light, or expresses the 61. Mechanical Flare- is the result of reflection from
amount of light required to produce a satisfactory worn shiny part of the lens such as stops, shutter,
negative with a given emulsion. or lens amount.
44. Filter- in photographic discussion, filter refers to a
transparent colored medium employed to regulate

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62. Mill micron or MU- a unit of length equals to one 78. Positive/Convergent lens- lenses which focuses
million of millimeter often use to measure the (brings to a point of convergence) all lights rays
wave length of light. passing through it.
63. Natural light- light that naturally comes to 79. Printing- the process whereby the negative is used
existence (gift of nature) without the intervention to make the positive or exposing an image to a
of man. sensitized material by permitting light to pass
64. Negative Density- the degree of blackening of through a negative or through a positive
silver halides deposit in a film emulsion in relation transparency.
to the light incident upon it. 80. Reflected light- refers to those light waves, or light
65. Negative Lens- lens which does not focus light rays rays, that are neither transmitted nor absorbed,
passing through it, but refracts light rays in such but are thrown back from the surface the of the
manner that the rays are spread out or diverge. media encounter.
66. Newton Rings- irregular lights and dark bands 81. Refraction- the bending or change of direction
which appear between the surface of positive and which occurs when a light ray passes from one
negative lenses when they are pressed together. transparent substance into another different
67. Opaque- substances which does not transmit light density.
but absorbed them. 82. Resolving Power- the capability of an emulsion to
68. Optical Flare- is the result of double reflections produce or record line subjects’ details.
from inner lens surfaces. 83. Reticulation- network of lines having a grainy,
69. Overexposure- too much light, producing a dense leather like or wrinkle appearance of the emulsion
negative with poor tone separation in the lighter due to sudden temperature changes in transferal
parts of the picture. from one solution to another.
70. Panning – Technique for photographing moving 84. Retouching – The purpose is to remove blemishes
subjects while the shutter is open the camera is on the negative or one that treat particular subject
swing in the same directions, as the subject is areas to improve the final effect.
moving. This creates a blurred background but 85. Safelights- are enclosed lights sources equipped
sharp subject with a filter for transmitting maximum amount of
71. Parallax – The difference between the image seen light that can be used safely without damage to
by having back and that record on the film. It is the the sensitized material being processed.
differences in the angle of view between what the 86. Shading – method of concealing the final quality of
camera lens transmits to the film and what the a print as varying the exposure given to different
photographer sees through the lens view finder. areas of the print through selective masking tape
72. Photography- the science of producing images on enlarging.
a sensitized surface (as a film) by the action of 87. Spherical Aberration- parallel marginal and axial
radiant energy (esp. light), and light sensitive rays passing through a simple lens focuses at
substances (silver halides). different planes along the optical center.
73. Point of principal focus- it is the nearest possible 88. Spotting – method of retouching blemishes or
distance that a given lens will refract light rays to a unwanted details are removed from negatives or
sharp focus. prints by brush and dye or pencil.
74. Police/forensic photography- it is the study of the 89. Shutter- an adjustable mechanism that regulates
fundamentals of criminology, its application to the amount of light reaching the film by varying
police work and the preparation of photographic the length of time light is allowed to pass through
evidence. the lens.
75. Photomicrography- photographing enlarged 90. Shutter Speed- refers to the period of time during
images through a microscope, generally a which the shutter is opened, allowing light rays to
magnification of more than fifty times. reach the film.
76. Photomicrograph- a picture taken through a 91. Silver Halide- a metallic silver compound that
microscope, while a microphotograph is a very darkens on exposure to light.
small picture as encountered in microfilming. 92. Translucent- substances which allow the passage
77. Photomacrograph- a photograph with of part of the light but appear clouded and impair
magnification of from two to fifty times. A vision substantially.
macrograph would thus be a very large 93. Transparent- substances which permit the
photograph. penetration of clear vision through them, and

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which transmit almost all the light falling upon

them.
94. Tripod- a three-legged device that supports the
camera during exposure.
95. Ultraviolet light- radiation situated beyond the
visible spectrum at its violet end.
96. Underexposure- too little light, producing a loss of
tonal separation and detail in the shadow area or a
picture.
97. Vignetting – Printing technique where the edges
are faded out toward the border of the print.
98. Wavelength- the distance between two successive
crests.
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
In the field of criminal Investigation

documentation plays a vital role in the presentation of
the crime scene during court trials. The evidence
gathered as well as the appearance of the crime scene
will all be necessary to prove the association of the
suspect/s with the crime scene. Photography will
accurately show the evidence taken from the crime
scene. The recorded photograph could vividly show the
actual appearance of the evidence collected from the
crime scene.
The first known use of the camera for law

enforcement purposes was in the mid 19th century,
initially to record still images of arrested individuals
and to document crime scenes. This is still important
today, but police also now use camera and video to
record interrogations, traffic stops, surveillance, public
thoroughfares, and traffic accidents. They also
frequently use cameras to document physical evidence
at a crime scene before it is collected into evidence.

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Photography is method of picture making surface. It is based on the notion of a single

developed in the early 19th century, based on principles observation point and results in lines that appear to
of light, optics, and chemistry. The word photography recede into the distance by converging on a fixed point
comes from Greek words and means “drawing with on the horizon, called the vanishing point.
light.” Photographs serve as scientific evidence,
conveyers of news, historical documents, works of art, In the 16th century many artists employed a
and records of family life. boxlike device known as a camera obscura (Latin
meaning “dark room”) as an aid to depicting space
Origin of photography with single-point perspective. This consisted of a box
with a pinhole on one side and a glass screen on the
Photography is a method for producing lasting other. Light coming through this pinhole projected an
images by means of a chemical reaction that occurs image onto the glass screen, where the artist could
when light hits a specially prepared surface. It was easily trace it by hand. Artists soon discovered that
invented during the first three decades of the 19th they could obtain an even sharper image by using a
century as a direct consequence of advances in small lens in place of the pinhole. The camera obscura
chemistry and optics (the science of the behavior of was used by Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo
light). The word photography comes from two Greek and Leonardo da Vinci.
words that mean “writing with light.”
Also essential to the invention of photography
was knowledge of the light sensitivity of certain
materials. More than 2000 years before the invention
of the camera obscura, the ancient Phoenicians knew
that a certain snail, the purpura, left a yellow slime in its
wake that turned purple in sunlight. In the 18th century
a German anatomy professor, Johann Heinrich Schulze,
observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to
light. But the idea of making pictures using this
phenomenon did not occur to him. That innovation
required the talents of a later generation of scientists.
By 1800 a young English chemist, Thomas

Wedgwood, had succeeded in producing images of
leaves on leather that he had treated with silver salts.
However, he could find no way to halt the darkening
action of light and his leaf images eventually faded into
blackness. His attempts to capture the image displayed
by a camera obscura also proved unsuccessful. For the
birth of photography two key discoveries were still
needed: a way to combine a light-sensitive material
A simple camera can be built by making a pinhole in a box. with the camera obscura, and a way to fix, or make
Light passes through the hole and forms an inverted, permanent, the resulting image.
backwards image of the subject on the back of the box.
Artists of the Renaissance used a similar device, called the Invention
camera obscura, as an aid to drawing. The earliest camera
obscura was a small room, on the back wall of which the In the 1820s French scientist Joseph Nicéphore
artist could trace the projected scene Niépce was experimenting with improvements to the
new printmaking technique of LITHOGRAPHY. In the
Although the technology is fairly recent, the process he discovered a way to copy engravings onto
origins of photography lie in an artistic technique glass and pewter plates using bitumen, a form of
known as single-point or linear perspective, which was asphalt that changes when exposed to light. He first
developed in the early 1400s. Pioneered in Italy by coated a drawing or etching with oil so that light would
architect Filippo Brunelleschi and others, the system of shine through it more easily, then placed it on a
single-point perspective provided painters with a bitumen-coated plate and exposed the plate to light.
method for depicting three-dimensional space on a flat
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Light shining through the paper burned an image into

the dark bitumen, creating a nearly perfect copy of the invented an early method of photography in 1835.
original. Niépce could then etch and print this image Talbot’s method, which he called “photogenic
using traditional printmaking techniques. In 1826 he put drawing,” involved coating a sheet of paper with light-
a bitumen-coated plate in a camera obscura, which he sensitive chemicals and exposing it to light through a
then placed with its lens facing the window of his simple pinhole camera. This produced a paper
estate in central France for eight hours. The resulting negative, which he then used to create a positive
image, View from the Window at Le Gras (Gernsheim image. Talbot had difficulty at first in preventing the
Collection, University of Texas at Austin), is the earliest paper from continuing to darken when exposed to
camera photograph still in existence. light. As a result his method was not initially successful.
However, it was later refined into the calotype process,
In 1826 Niépce began sharing his findings with and became the basis for most modern negative-to-
Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, an artist and theatrical positive photography.
designer who owned a theater in Paris. This theater,
the Diorama, provided a popular spectacle consisting On January 7, 1839, Daguerre’s process, called
of large, painted scenes that were shown in succession, the DAGUERREOTYPE, was announced to the French
changing before the viewers’ eyes. Like Niépce, Academy of Sciences, and hence to the world. The
Daguerre hoped to find a way to create images from announcement by respected French scientist François
the camera obscura, but he had little luck until the two Arago was brief but nonetheless created a sensation.
decided to become partners in 1829. Even then, Newspaper accounts spoke of pictures 'given with a
Daguerre’s most important discovery came only in truth which nature alone can give to her works.' Half a
1835, two years after Niépce’s death. Daguerre found year later the French government gave Daguerre and
that the chemical compound silver iodide was much Niépce’s son, Isidore, lifetime pensions in exchange for
more sensitive to light than Niépce’s bitumen, and he their release of all rights to the invention and public
placed a copper plate coated with silver iodide in a disclosure of the process. The daguerreotype was to
camera obscura. After exposing this plate to light for a become France’s gift to the world.
relatively short time and then to fumes of mercury, an
image appeared. One problem remained: The image Just three weeks after Arago’s announcement
darkened over time. But in 1837 Daguerre solved this in Paris, William Henry Fox Talbot, an English amateur
final obstacle by washing away remaining silver iodide scientist, read a translated account of the discovery.
with a solution of warm water and table salt. Perturbed, if not distraught, Talbot recognized
Daguerre’s invention as similar to his own unpublicized
process, which he called PHOTOGENIC DRAWING.
Talbot moved quickly to claim priority over Daguerre,
writing to members of the French Academy and
presenting his process in a paper to the Royal Society
in London, England.
To create a photogenic drawing, Talbot first

coated a sheet of drawing paper with the chemical
compound silver chloride and, placing it inside a
camera obscura, produced an image of the scene with
the tones reversed (a negative). He then placed the
negative against another coated sheet of paper to
produce a positive image. Talbot did not find a way to
make the image permanent until a month after
Daguerre’s announcement. But his photogenic drawing
process—later refined and renamed the CALOTYPE—
forms the basis for most modern film technology,
which relies on negatives to produce multiple positive
First Negative Image prints.
British amateur scientist William Henry Fox Talbot

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For a number of reasons, including the Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson, who worked
imperfections of Talbot’s process, the daguerreotype together in Edinburgh producing atmospheric portraits
was the method of photography that first took the that were admired for their similarity to paintings.
world by storm. The low-cost daguerreotype became
so popular that, by the end of 1839, Paris newspapers
were referring to a new disease called Interest in daguerreotypes dwindled in Europe
Daguerreotypomania. With improvements in its after 1851, when English photographer Frederick Scott
sensitivity to light, the daguerreotype quickly proved Archer invented the COLLODION, or wet-plate process.
ideal for portraiture. By 1840 daguerreotype studios Like Talbot’s calotype, this was a negative-to-positive
throughout Europe and in the United States were process, but because the negatives were made of
producing unique, detailed likenesses that were set smooth glass rather than paper, the collodion process
inside hinged leather cases. An emerging middle class produced much sharper images. Glass was also more
gazed in amazement at its own image in these 'mirrors durable than paper, so it was easier to produce many
with a memory.' paper prints from one glass negative.
Photography arrived in the United States due Using the collodion method, French painter

to the enthusiasm of Samuel F. B. Morse, an American and photographer Adolphe Disdéri in 1854 invented the
artist and inventor. Morse visited Daguerre in Paris in carte-de-visite, a form of photographic calling card,
March 1839 and observed a demonstration of the which soon became the new rage. Taken with a special
daguerreotype process. Morse returned to the United camera that produced eight poses on one negative, the
States to spread the news, and by year’s end new carte-de-visite—and its larger sibling, the cabinet card
practitioners such as John Plumbe of New York City —created a market for celebrity photographs in France
and the Langenheim brothers (William and Frederick) and England. Cartes, as they are known, were both
of Philadelphia had mastered the daguerreotype traded and collected; they served to connect royalty
process and set up successful portrait studios. The yen with commoners, actors with their audiences, and old
for daguerreotypes persisted in America well into the society with the newly prosperous.
1850s, long after European photographers had
switched to a much improved positive/negative In the United States, the carte-de-visite played
process derived from Talbot’s method. Most pictures second fiddle to ever-cheaper variations on the
of the California Gold Rush of 1849, for example, are daguerreotype theme. The first of these, the
daguerreotypes. ambrotype, was nothing more than a glass negative
backed with black material, which enabled it to appear
Early Uses as a positive image. Patented in 1854, the ambrotype
Portraiture was made, packaged, and sold in portrait studios as the
daguerreotype had been, but at a lower cost. Even less
People were by far the most common expensive was the tintype, patented two years later,
photographic subject of the 19th century. Photographic which substituted an iron plate for glass. During
portraits were much less expensive than painted ones,
the American Civil War (1861-1865) tintypes
took less of the sitter’s time, and described individual
faces with uncanny accuracy. So great was the sense of
were the most readily available form of location
presence in these pictures that photographers were portraiture. Tintype photographers often worked
often called on to take portraits of the recently from the back of horse-drawn wagons,
deceased, a genre now known as post-mortem photographing pioneer families and Union
portraits. Miniature painters, who had previously soldiers.
supplied the least expensive form of portraiture,
quickly went out of business or became
daguerreotypists themselves. View of Distant Lands
Architecture, travel views, and scenic

Although thousands of daguerreotype portrait landscapes also vied for the attention of early
studios operated in the 1840s, only a few portraitists photographers. A book called Excursions Daguerriennes
chose to use Talbot’s process. Among the most (Daguerrian Excursions), published in Paris between
distinguished were Scottish photographers David 1840 and 1844, and contained engraved reproductions
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of daguerreotypes made by French photographers in Photographers using the collodion, or wet-

Egypt. Other Europeans recorded views of the Italian plate, process hauled their large cameras, tripods, and
and Swiss countryside. In the United States portable darkrooms to the farthest reaches of Europe’s
Southworth and Hawes, partners in a respected Boston imperial quest in the years between 1850 and 1870.
portrait studio, produced some remarkable Félice Beato, Antonio’s brother, photographed in India,
daguerreotypes of Niagara Falls. China, and Japan. Samuel Bourne from England took
pictures all over the subcontinent of India. While
Several early calotypists journeyed to the photographing in the Himalayas, he required the
Middle East, Italy, Greece, and other sites on the so- services of 40 porters to carry his equipment up and
called Grand Tour of Western civilization that had down mountains. Between 1868 and 1872 John
become popular among 19th-century travelers. French Thomson, a Scottish photographer, took some of the
photographer Maxime DuCamp, one of the earliest most beautiful images ever made of China.
makers of calotype images, traveled to Egypt where he
photographed the temples at Abū Simbel and the Publishers of albums made many of these
pyramids at Giza in 1849 and 1850; these pictures were photographs available to European and British
printed in multiple copies for an album published in audiences eager to see what their country’s far-off
France in 1852. Others who photographed monuments colonies looked like. French photographers Gustave Le
of the Middle East include Francis Frith of England, Gray and Henri Le Secq contributed some of the few
Auguste Salzmann and Felix Bonfils of France, and early landscapes that were admired primarily as artistic
Antonio Beato of Italy. scenes. Other photographs served as an early form of
photojournalism, such as the images of the Crimean
War (1853-1856) by British photographer Roger Fenton.
The British government commissioned him in 1855 to
document the British army in Crimea (now part of
southern Ukraine), primarily to counter charges that its
troops were undersupplied and malnourished. Fenton’s
photographs showed little evidence of combat but
much of camp life. They were among the first
photographs to be used for government propaganda.
Personalities in the development of Photography
1. Aristotle – a famous Greek philosopher who

invented the first pinhole camera that was
later known as CAMERA OBSCURA, which is
literally translated as “darkened box”.
2. Dr. William Wollaston – He designed the
Camera Lucida in 1807. Camera Lucida was an
aid to drawing. It was a reflecting prism which
enabled artists to draw outlines in correct
perspective. No darkroom was needed. The
paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and
Frith’s “Temple of Amon” the artist would look through a lens containing
the prism, so that he could see both the paper
Light falls on the columns of the Temple of Amon, built and a faint image of the subject to be drawn.
in the 1200s BC during the reign of Egyptian king Ramses He would then fill in the image. However, as
II. The temple’s hypostyle hall, shown here, had more
anyone who has tried using these will know
than 100 columns, each incised with hieroglyphics. This
photograph was taken in Luxor, Egypt, by British only too well, that too required artistic skills,
photographer Francis Frith, who combined his interests as Fox Talbot also discovered.
in travel and photography, and first traveled to Egypt in 3. Sir Isaac Newton – the English philosopher,
1856. mathematician and physicist who discovered
and proved that the strongest light is white
light; he defended his theory by allowing a

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white light to pass though a prism thus and-white film that yields a positive paint by
refracting and diffracting the light into its the diffusion transfer reversal method.
component parts – the ROYGBIV colors. 11. Rudolf Russ – Father of Forensic Photography
4. Joseph Nicephore Niepce – In 1816 near
Chalon Su-Saone, he experimented by NOTA BENE:
combining photosensitive materials with
LITHOGRAPHY to facilitate this and favors in 1839 – The Birth Year of Photography; the year
print making. By 1822, he could drain some when the science of photography became a public
success, achieving what he called “point de knowledge. Photography as born when Joseph
vas” (smart images made by the camera Nicephore Niepce preserved an image on a
obscura with more that eight hours of powder plate in a primitive camera, and when
exposure). He produced HELIOGRAPHIC William Henry Fox Talbot made a public
DRAWING (contact-print image of engraving demonstration on a photographic process that he
of other line copy on glass, paper or metal invented in the Royal Society of London. The term
coated with a bitumen varnish that hardens “Photography” was coined by John F.W. Herschel.
when exposed. TIMELINE (HISTORICAL
5. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre – as Parisian DEVELOPMENT)
painter and theater designer, who contained The basic principles of optics and
the efforts of niepce to perfect a photographic
process in 1839, he was successful enough to
cameras were first mention by Chinese and
have his invention purchased by the French Greek philosophers. The first surviving mention
government and made public (The first of the principles behind the pinhole camera or
practical photographic process is given to the camera obscura belongs to the Chinese
world) philosopher Mozi (Mo-Ti) around 5th to 4th
centuries BC, who referred to this device as a
Daguerreotypes – an image formed on a “collecting plate” or “locked treasure room”.
copper plate that has been silver-plated,
On the other hand, the Greek philosopher
polished to a mirror-like surface, and then
exposed to iodine vapor ally create a understood the principles of pinhole camera
photosensitive layer of silver iodide, the when he noted that the light passing through the
description of the first photographs that were leaves of a tree and sieves produce elliptical
scientifically produced after the birth of rays.
Photography. Later, Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham), a
6. William Henry Fox Talbot – the English great authority on optics in the Middle Ages
scientist who in 1839, pointed out the basis of who lived around 1000AD, invented the first
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY
pinhole camera, (also called the camera
7. John F. W. Herschel – he coined the word
PHOTOGRAPHY (then suggested NEGATIVE obscura) and was able to explain why the
and POSITIVE in the following year), and images were upside down. There were more
pointed out that images can made permanent who contributed to the development of the
by dissolving away unexposed silver modern day photography. The following is the
compounds with a solution of hyposulphite of historical development of photography:
soda (“hypo” or sodium diselsulfate), which
he had discovered in 1819.
1604 - Johannes Kepler was the first person to
8. Nadar – (Gaspar Felix Tournachon) he took
the first AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS of Paris from
coin the phrase Camera Obscura in
free balloon in 1858. 1604, and in 1609, Kepler further
9. Sir William Abney – he discovered the use of suggested the use of a lens to improve
HYDROQUINONE as a developing agent in the image projected by a Camera
1880, England Obscura.
10. Edwin Herbert Land – in 1947, USA he 1664-1666 – Isaac Newton discovers that white
introduced the POLAROID’s (1 – STEP light is composed of different
PHOTOGRAPHY) with a self-processing black-
colors.
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1727 – Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered title for a land grant was, in fact, a
that silver nitrate darkened upon forgery (Miller, Larry S., 2006).
exposure to light. 1861 – Oliver Wendell Holmes invents
1816 – Joseph Nicephore Niepce achieves first stereoscope viewer.
photographic image with camera obscura – Scottish physicist James Clerk-
– however, the image required eight Maxwell demonstrates a color
hours of light exposure and later faded. photography system involving three
1834 – Hercules Florence coined the term black and white photographs, each taken
“photograpie”. through a red, green, or blue filter. The
1837 – Louis- Jacques- Daguerre’s first photos were turned into lantern slides
daguerreotype, the first image that was and projected in registration with the
fixed and did not fade and needed under same color filters. This is the "color
thirty minutes of light exposure. separation" method.
1839 – John F. W. Herschel – coined the word 1871 – Richard Leach Maddox invented the
PHOTOGRAPHY (then suggested gelatin dry plate silver bromide process
NEGATIVE and POSITIVE In the – negatives no longer had to be
following year), and pointed out that developed immediately.
images can be made permanent by 1875 – First recorder use of accident
dissolving away unexposed silver photography in Blair v. Inhabitants of
compounds with a solution of Pelham where a photograph was
hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium admitted in evidence to assist the jury in
thiosulfate). understanding the case.
1939 – Birth year of photography when William 1877 - Eadweard Muybridge paved the way
Henry Fox Talbot, an English scientist, for motion picture photography.
1839, pointed out the basis of MODERN – Photographs were admitted as
PHOTOGRAPHY. Later in 1849, Talbot evidence in a civil suit involving a train
patents the Caloptype process – the first wreck in Lock v. The Sioux City &
negative-positive process making P.R.R. (Miller, Ibid.)
possible the first multiple copies. 1879 – Redden v. Gates was the first case to
1840 – First American patent issued in hold that a relevant photographs of an
photography to Alexander Wolcott for injured person was admissible in
his camera. evidence (Miller, Ibid.)
1843-44 – The earliest evidence of photographic 1880 – Eastman Dry Plate Company founded and
documentation of prison inmates in in 1884, George Eastman invent
Belgium and 1851 in Denmark. flexible, paper – based photographic
1850s – The earliest evidence of these galleries film. Later in 1888, Eastman patents
was found in Birmingham, England. Kodak roll-film camera.
1851 – Frederick Scott Archer invited the – In England, Sir William Abney
Collodion process – image required discovered the use of
only two or three seconds of light HYDROQUINONE as a developing
exposure. agent.
1858 – Nadar or Gaspard-Felix Tournachon 1884 – George Eastman is particularly
in real life, made the first aerial remembered for introducing flexible,
photograph of Paris from a hot-air paper-based photographic film. Four
ballon. years later he introduced the box camera,
1859 – A photograph was used in the case Luco and photography could now reach a
v. US to prove that a document of the much greater number of people.
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1890 – Alphones Bertillon published La 1967 – Beginning of the use of video tapes as a
Photographie Judiciaire (1890), which legal evidence.
contains rules for a scientifically exact 1973 – Polaroid introduces one-step instant
form of identification photography. photography with the SX-70 camera.
1898 – Reverend Hannibal Goodwin patents 1978 – Konica introduces first point-and-shoot,
celluloid photographic film. autofocus camera.
1900 – First mass-marketed camera – the 1980 – Sony demonstrates first consumer
Brownie. camcorder. This decade also the
1910 – The State of Massachusetts approved introduction of quality 35mm “point-
the use of photographic speed recorders and-shoot” cameras which are fully
to detect speeding motorists. (Miller, automatic 35mm SLRs.
Ibid.) 1984 – Canon demonstrates first digital
1911 – People v. Jennings, the use of electronic still camera.
fingerprints photographs for 1985 – Pixar introduces digital imaging
identification purposes was approved. processor.
(Miller, Ibid.) 1990 – Eastman Kodak announces Photo CD as
1913/1914 – First 35mm still camera developed. a digital image storage medium.
1927 – General Electric invents the modern flash
bulb.
1932 – First light meter with photoelectric cell
introduced. Moti – a Chinese philosopher noted that a pinhole
can form an inverted focused image when light
1934 – In State v. Thorp, UV photography was
passes through the hole and into dark area. He is the
approved concerning a picture of first person recorded to have exploited this
footprint in blood on a linoleum floor. phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a
1935 – Eastman Kodak markets Kodachrome picture.
film and in 1941, Eastman Kodak
introduces Kodacolor negative film. Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) – an Egyptian scientist
Later in 1954, Eastman Kodak who wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a
introduces high speed Tri-X film. pinhole and described how a sharper image could
1942 – Chester Carlson receives patent for be produced by making the opening of the pinhole
electric photography (xerography). smaller.
1943 – First appellate court case passing upon
Lumiere Brothers – introduced the autochrome, the
the admissibility of color photographs in
first commercially successful color process.
Green v. Country of Denver. (Miller,
Ibid.) Kodachrome – the first modern tribal color film,
1948 – Edwin Herbert Land markets the was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the
Polaroid camera. basic color components in a multi-layer emulsion.
1963 – Polaroid introduces instant color film as
the Polacolor film capable to take
finished pictures in B&W or color in less
than one minute. (Miller, Ibid.)
1965 – Introduction of a fully automatic
electronic flash unit which made
possible to take strobe flash photographs
at distance from 2 to 20 feet without CHAPTER 2
changing lens opening or shutter speed. NATURE OF PHOTOGRAPHY

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Photography defined images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a

sensitive material.
It is a study concerning the production of
permanent and visible records of images by the Police Photography defined
combined action of light on sensitive surfaces (films
and photographic papers), a mechanical device Police Photography is the study of the general
(camera) and chemical processing (Film development practice methods and steps in taking pictures of the
and printing). crime scene, physical things and other circumstances
that can be used as criminal evidences or for law
NOTA BENE: enforcement purpose.
- CAMERA – to RAF (Regulate, Absorb, and It deals with the study of the different types of
Filter) Light cameras and its principles, its historical development
- FILM– to record light and the kinds of photography as applied in police works
as well as techniques in the preparation of
As an Art and Science photographic evidence in court
It is an art certainly is a science of recording an
image by the action of light on light – sensitized Forensic Photography defined
substances (silver halides) and by the application of
several chemicals. The study of the fundamentals of photography, its
It is the art of reproducing image on a sensitized application to Police work and the preparation of
material or surface through the reaction of a certain photographic evidence of court presentation.
electromagnetic radiation of rays. The field covering the legal application of
It is the science of recording/producing an image photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal
by the reaction of light and light sensitive substances investigations. It is that branch of forensic science
(silver halide) that forms an image called latent image dealing with the:
by the application of several chemicals.
1. Study of the fundamental but pragmatic
As a Process and Activity principles/concepts of photography.
It is the process and activity of creating still or 2. Application of photography in law
moving pictures by recording radiation on a radiation- enforcement, and
sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or 3. Preparation of photographic evidences needed
electronic image sensors. by the prosecutors and courts of law
NOTA BENE: Sometimes referred to as forensic imaging or

- Process - series of actions: a series of actions Crime Scene photography, is the art of producing an
directed toward a specific. accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident
- Art - beautiful or thought-provoking works scene using photography for the benefit of a court or
produced through creative. to aid in an investigation. It is part of the process of
- Still - not moving: motionless and undisturbed evidence collecting. It provides investigators with
photos of victims, places and items involved in the
crime.
Origin of the word Photography
It comes from the Greek word: Basic Principles involved in Photography
 (Photos) “light”
 (Graphis) “stylus”, meaning “drawing  A photograph is the mechanical and chemical
with light” result of photography.
In other book; Photography" is derived from the  To produce a photograph, light is needed aside
Greek words photos ("light") and graphein ("to from sensitized materials. Light radiated or
draw"). It literally means “to Draw or Write with reflected by the subject must reach the film
light.” while all other lights are excluded.
The word was first used by the scientist Sir John  The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by
F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a method of recording placing the film inside a light tight box. The
Effect of light on the film is not visible in the

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formation of images/objects. To make it  Photographs allow police investigators to

visible, it requires a chemical processing of the understand the elements of a crime under
exposed film (development). investigation; clarifying and revealing what is
 The visual effect of light on the film after not immediately seen and understood during
development varies with the quantity or the initial investigation of the crime scene.
quality of light that reached the emulsion of  Photograph provides a permanent record of
the film. The amount of light reaching the film the facts discovered at the crime scene. They
is dependent upon several factors such as: record facts for future references; they
 Lighting condition; provide necessary information needed in crime
 Lens opening; scene reconstruction and logical analysis of
 Shutter speed; the crime.
 Filter used.
Types of Photography
Aims and Purpose of Photography in Law
Enforcement 1. Forensic Photography – The process of
photographing or recording crime scene or any
1. Take photograph of the following: objects for court presentation
a. Crime scene 2. Photomicrography – the art of photographing
b. Suspects minute objects when magnified by means of the
c. Detainees microscope and enlarge from 10x up.
d. Prisoners  Combining a camera with a microscope can
e. Aliens take pictures too small to be detected by the
f. All apprehended prisoners naked eye. Photomicrography is a way of
g. All Military and Civilian Personnel comparing the characteristics of evidences by
h. Physical Evidence found in the Crime magnifying through the microscope the details
Scene which make the specimen distinct. As such,
i. All Applicant for Clearance photomicrography uses a standard of
j. Applicant to Posses Firearms comparison which is derived from the crime
k. Unknown Cadaver scene itself. It is specially useful in the identity
2. Conduct comparative examination and of tools based on the tool marks; in ballistics
analysis of questioned photographs or picture study as on bullet is compared with another
to the known photograph. which is fired from the same revolver, and in
3. Process color and black and white film, print, the study of trace materials such as pollen
reduce and enlarged for court presentation. grains hairs, fibers, stains, powdered debris
4. Reproduce picture and other printed matters and even bacteria.
5. Compose portrait by means of portrait  Under the microscope, the cells of living
composition tissues metallurgical structures, wood
6. Provide photographic intrusion detection striations and even disease causing bacteria,
devices show up clearly and provide valuable
7. Maintain rogue gallery information. These specific details cannot be
done at the crime scene but rather at the
criminalistics laboratory.
Main Significance of Photography in Police Work  It is the practice of photographing very small
objects in order that they may be seen in
 Photograph of the crime scene is a factual comfort.
record of an incident because it captures  The practice dates from the earliest days of
place, time and event in a single photograph photography. The first known example is that
or in a series of shots. A photograph is capable of Fox Talbot who, using a solar microscope,
of ‘catching and preserving’ the: had photographed an insect's wing, magnified
a. Place some 15 times. John Benjamin Dancer also
b. Time produced work in this field.
c. Event’ of a crime

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3. Photomacrography – photographing of objects 2. Aerial photography.

directly replaces to the negative and magnified  Infrared photography can enhance
from 1 to 9x. the contrast of the terrain.
 Photography of a subject where the image is  Coniferous (darker) and deciduous
recorded in the same or larger than actual size. (lighter) growth is differentiated.
 It is the process of obtaining a magnified 3. Surveillance photography.
photograph of a small object without the use 4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains
of a microscope, by using a short focus lens or and irregularities in cloth.
macro lens/close-up lens and a long bellow 5. Detection of certain types of secret writings.
extension. 6. It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments
that appears visually the same;
4. Infrared Photography – uses a special film 7. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have
sensitive to in traced radiation by infrared film been dyed differently can be identified by
allows a photographer to take pictures at night or infrared;
total darkness and its use at night surveillance and 8. It may also reveal the contents of sealed
offender is obvious. envelopes;
 It is the art or process of photographing or 9. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth,
recording unseen objects by means of infra including blood stains that are not visible to
red light. the eye; and,
 The infrared film is sensitive to the invisible 10. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in
rays given off by objects acted by light cloth, even when the fabric is dark in color or
photography can thus reveal the contents of a bloodstained, may be made visible by infrared.
sealed envelop and secret weddings on top 11. Used in medicine to inspect damage to veins
secret documents it is also especially helpful in and healing beneath scabs.
the study of questioned documents such that 12. Faults in the weaving of textiles show up in
closed out words and al forms of a sure can be infrared photography.
retraced with infrared photography
 It is also helpful in aerial photography because 5. Ultra – Violet Photography
one can produce clear and vivid pictures clear  The art or process of photographing unseen
outline of mountain hideouts protected by objects with the use of ultra violet rays and
camouflage because the green point used in filters. In contrast to infrared, ultraviolet filter
camouflage absorbs infrared light. is not the same as the UV filter which is gelatin
 Infrared techniques also widely used at police filter. In ultraviolet photograph, the ultraviolet
crime laboratories to trace gun powder burns, transmitting filter absorbs all visible light and
show light colored stains, differentiate visually only allows ultraviolet radiation.
identical pigments of different compounds and  Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while
in difficult finger print work. others will reflect these radiations. Some have
 Infrared photography is the recording of partial reflection. These effects can be
images formed by infrared radiation. Because recorded photographically suing ultraviolet
infrared radiation is invisible, some special radiation. Black-and-white films are sensitive
techniques may be needed. But, in general, to most wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using a
most of the commonly required methods are filter that absorbs all visible light but passes
as simple as those of ordinary photography. ultraviolet, it is possible to make a
This uses a special film that is sensitive to photographic exposure with just ultraviolet.
infrared radiation.  It is widely used to reveal document for
writings on documents. Used also to classify
counterfeited back now money checks and
Uses in Law Enforcement legal documents.
 It is absorbed to record status palm finger and
1. Questioned documents. Even crossed-out the solid print.
words or writings on a charred piece of paper  It is also used as colored surfaces or
can be read if photographs of them are taken background with invisible stains, even
with infrared rays. bloodstain which had been wiped on and no

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longer visible to the naked eye will reveal in UV for archival, portability or, as shown above,
photograph. clandestine purposes.
 It is also helpful on the flammable chemicals at  Micro-photography is the production of
the fire scene. photographs in which the image of an object is
reproduced much smaller than it actually is. It
Uses in Law Enforcement is just the opposite of photomacrography.
a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light 8. X-Ray – the process of photographing or recording
techniques and infrared light techniques fail internal organ. Are made with illumination from
(questioned documents, etc.). one or more photoflash.
b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust  Is widely use in medicine, industry, and
with fluorescent powder or ninhydrin). science. It is quite different from ordinary
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and photography. X rays are invisible
perspiration often glow when illuminated by electromagnetic waves. They behave much
ultraviolet light. like visible light. But they can pass through
d. Money and other valuables can be dusted or things such as wood, cardboard, and flesh,
marked to identify thieves. which light cannot penetrate
e. Photographing “invisible ink”.
Other Types of Photography (Modern):
6. Fluorescence Photography. FP is similar to ultra 1. Flash Photography – exposure are made with
violet photography the set up physically the same. illumination from one or more photoflash.
The difference however lies in the radiation that is
excited. FP makes use of fluorescence lamps to 2. STREAK Photography – traces movement by
illuminate the subject with an excite filter placed in either the camera of the subject being moved
front of the light source. The excited filter during exposure.
transmits the radiation necessary to excite
fluorescence. The exciter filter transmits ultra 3. Night-Time Photography – without a flash is
violet and absorbs the visible light. A barrier filter is now possible with many modern cameras, but
also placed in from of the camera lens which the long exposure time required means that it
absorbs ultraviolet light but transmits visible light. is advisable to use fast film (ISO 400-1600).
This filter acts as a barrier to the exciting radiation
and prevents the residual exciting radiation from Elements of Photography
causing exposure.
 Important documents such as land titles, 1. Light – is the portion of electromagnetic radiation
checks, lottery tickets and even stumps that is visible to the human eye, responsible for the
contain cellulose fibers. These fibers brightly sense of sight.
fluoresce when the paper is lighted with ultra 2. Subject – A good subject is whatever appears to
violet is dark room. you. Good pictures are often initiated by minds
that see the common in an uncommon way keep
7. Microphotography – a very small photograph is your imagination by constant practice.
one entered in microfilming. 3. Camera –Is a light tight box with a means of
 This is photography made on a vastly reduced forming an image (lens), with a means of holding
scale, to be observed using a microscope or sensitized materials (film holder), and with means
projected using a "magic lantern." Though of controlling the amount of light that will reach
George Shadbolt is credited with being the the film. It is a devise used in photographing
inventor of micro-photography, the first objects.
known example of micro-photography was by 4. Film - Is a light sensitized material that records an
John Benjamin Dancer, in 1839, when he image. Just there are different types of camera
produced photographs 15mm in diameter. there are different types of films.
 The term should not be (but often is!) 5. Chemical Processing – is the process of converting
confused with photo-micrography; the micro- the latent image into a visible and permanent
photographic process is taken to mean a image. By the time the processing is about to begin
substantial reduction of the "real thing" either the film has been exposed and carries what is

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known is a Latent Image: those silver halide crystal make something look like it is falling off the page,
that have been struck by light have undergone a etc.
very small reaction that needs the help of a
developing solution before can be seen.
Mechanical results of Photography

1. Picture The RAT Law:
2. Portraits
3. Photograph When incident light hits a medium, 3 things may happen.
The light maybe reflected, absorbed & transmitted.
Principles of Photography
1. Simplicity - The simpler, the better

2. Distractions - Avoid them!
3. Cropping - Do this with the camera first. Capture
the most important part of the picture - the part
that makes the story. Your pictures need to have a
variety of types of cropping.
4. Perspective - Try to get interesting perspective
that other photographers have not tried, or that
you have not often seen. Bend your knees, and
tippy-toe whenever necessary. Standing on a
bench, chair, ladder, etc. can be an excellent
helper.
5. Lighting - Use natural lighting whenever you can.
You want to create a mood with your lighting.
Watch where you have shadows. Any indoor
picture may need a flash.
6. Action - Place yourself close to the action. Try to
get people in action. Capture their daily activities.
Sports scenes lend themselves to fast action.
When photographing sports, try to get as many
faces as you can.
7. Contrast - Try to get your blacks as black as
possible and your whites as white as possible.
Contrast small shapes with large shapes.
8. Creativity - Create a new view of a common
picture. See things in a way that you never noticed
before. Crop your center of interest so that it is
telling the whole story - showing faces,
expressions, moods, movements, stances,
situations, and experiences that we all share at one CHAPTER 3
time or another. Find our likenesses and LIGHT OR PHOTOGARPHIC RAYS
differences. (1st Element)
9. Consistency - Be as consistent as you can. At first
this will be difficult, but it will slowly start to make LIGHT is a visible of energy that radial’s (from
an impression on you when you do certain things that sun or light as magical source) in waves of
the same that give you good pictures. Follow that, different lengths.
so your pictures are the best possible. Light is a form of radiant energy that you can
10. Balance - Each picture has its own balance and detect with your eyes. Light energy comes from
should be pleasing to look at. It can be formally chemical energy, electrical energy and nuclear energy.
balanced or informally balanced, but the basic It is a combination of electrical and magnetic energy
principles of design apply here too. Try not to that travels very, very fast. It is estimated to travel at

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approximately 300 000 km per second in open space. It

can pass through anything that is transparent, sort of Cosmic Rays - background radiation -
passes through translucent objects (frosted window) particles of enormous energy given off by stars
but doesn't make it through opaque objects such as a Gamma Radiation - deadly high
brick wall. energy given out by the sun and other stars
Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic X-rays - high energy used in x-ray
radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human equipment
eye (about 400–700 nm).
Ultraviolet Rays - invisible sunlight
In a scientific context, the word light is
energy waves that cause the skin to tan
sometimes used to refer to the entire electromagnetic
spectrum. Moreover, in optics, the term "visible light" Visible Light - the basic colors of light
refers to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths emitted by the sun and visible to the
of ~300 nm (near UV) through ~1400 nm (near eye - Colors of the spectrum -
infrared). Light is composed of elementary particles ROYGBIV
called photons. Infrared Rays - rays of heat energy -
The speed of light in a vacuum is exactly felt by our nervous systems
299,792,458 m/s (about 186,282.397 miles per second). Radio Waves - Microwaves. Radio
The speed of light depends upon the medium in which energy, TVs.
it is traveling, and the speed will be lower in a
transparent medium. Although commonly called the
"velocity of light", technically the word velocity is a

vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. Electromagnetic Spectrum - the whole range of
radiant energy that includes radio waves,
Photon – Electromagnetic Radiation – the energy microwaves, infrared light, visible light,
wave produced oscillation or acceleration of an electric ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays,
charged. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and visible light, which makes up only a tiny
magnetic spectrum consist of gamma rays, hard and fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is
soft x – rays, UV radiation, visible light or simple lights. the only electromagnetic radiation that
humans can perceive with their eyes.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum is all the Visible Spectrum - a small part of the
different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation electromagnetic spectrum where the visible
including radio waves, light waves and x-rays to name a light is found; the portion of the
few. Light waves or visible light covers the range of electromagnetic spectrum that affects the
wavelength from 400 to 700 nm which is the range in human sense of sight. visible light includes
size from a molecule to a protozoan. The sun emits all those radiation having a wavelength
most of its radiation in the visible range which we ranging from 400 mu to 700 mu.
perceive as the colors of the rainbow. Our eyes are
sensitive to this small section of the entire Wavelength
electromagnetic spectrum.

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 The distance between two peaks in a light second. The speed of the wave equals the
wave; used in measuring the intensity of frequency times the wavelength. Longer
light; common unit of measurement of light wavelengths have less energy. The higher
intensity is in terms of millimicrons (mu) the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
 and the lower the frequency the longer the
 wavelength.

 Invisible radiation with wavelength shorter than
 400 mu:
 1. Ultraviolet rays
 2. X-rays
 3. Gamma rays
A wavelength is the distance between two 4. Cosmic rays
troughs or two crests.
Crests - are the high points where the electrical field Invisible radiation with wavelength longer than
is the highest 700 mu:
Trough - the low points where the lowest electrical 1. Infrared rays
fields. 2. Radio waves
Amplitude - is a measure of how much energy the 3. Hertzian waves
wave has. 4. Long electrical oscillations
Frequency
 The number of complete waves per unit of Invisible radiation conveniently used in police
time; used in measuring the speed of light; photography:
unit of measuring the speed of light maybe 1. Ultraviolet rays
mu per second (mu/sec). 2. Infrared rays
 Frequency is the number of wavelengths 3. X rays
that pass through a given point in one 4. Gamma rays
R+B=M
Gamma Rays - used in recording or photograph of M+Y=W
internal organs. Photographing objects hidden by R+G=Y
opaque medium. M+C=W
Colors of light found in the visible spectrum: B+G=C
Y+C=W
Approximate Wavelength
1. Primary Colors of Light 2. Color Subtraction
(in mu.) W–R=C Y–R=G
a. Red (longest wavelength) 700 W – C= R W–Y=B
b. Blue 450 M–R=B M–B=R
c. Green 550 C – G= B Y–G=R
2. Complementary Colors of Light W–B=Y W–
a. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400 G=
b. Cyan 500 M
c. Yellow 590 W–
3. Neutral Colors of Light M=
a. Gray G
b. White C–B=G
c. Black The principles of color mixing can be easily
understood and memorized using the COLOR
COLOR MIXING PRINCIPLES WHEEL.
1. Color Addition:
R+B+G=W
LEGEND:
R- Red
“This is for criminological purposes and thereforeB-not
Bluefor sale.” S.Y.2019-2020
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Effective: September 1 2013 M- Magenta
C- Cyan
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W- White
3. Opaque objects - mediums that divert or

absorb light, but do not allow light to pass
through.
Sources of Light
1. Natural Source - those coming from the nature

like sun, moon, star, other heavenly bodies,
lightning, fire, etc.
2. Artificial Source – light sources of this
category are man – made and is divided into
the Continuous Radiation and Short Duration.
a. Continuous Radiation
- Those that can give illumination
continuously.
Ex. Photoflood Lamp, Fluorescent Lamps,
Incandescent Lamps, Carbon Arc Lamp, Gas Lamp,
Photoflood Lamp etc.
COLOR WHEEL. b. Short Duration
 An abstract illustrative organization of color - A flash unit gives a brief flash of light
hues around a circle, that shows relationships produced by a burning metallic wire (flush bulb) or an
between primary colors, secondary colors, electrical discharge through a gas – filled tube
complementary colors, etc. (electronic flash).
 A mechanical device that rotates an array of
colors arranged as petals or gradients around Kinds Artificial Light Source:
an axis.
Color wheel shows the primary colors, secondary 1. Photoflood Lamp – a reflectorized light or spot
colors, and the tertiary colors. It also shows the light
relationships between complementary colors across 2. Flash Bulb - are chemical lamps, as they generate
from each other on the color wheel, such as blue and lights by the rapid combustion of metal in oxygen.
orange; and analogous (similar or related) colors next 3. Electronic Flash – it produce light by
to each other on the color wheel such as yellow, green instantaneous electrical discharge between to
and blue. Black and white may be thought of as colors electrodes in a gas filled bulb.
but, in fact, they are not. White light is the presence of 4. Fluorescent Lamps– are tube lamps wherein the
all color - black is the absence of reflected light and walls are coated with material capable of
therefore the absence of color. fluorescing.
5. Infrared lamps – special type pf artificial light that
Mediums of Light is capable of producing infrared radiation.
6. Ultraviolet lamps – is a gas lamp burning disulfide
Mediums of lights are objects that influence the vapor in oxygen or in nitric oxide.
intensity of light as they may reflect, absorb, or
transmit light; mediums of light maybe classified TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT RAYS
as:
1. Transparent objects - mediums that 1. Visible light – 400-700 Millimicrons. A type of
merely slow down the speed of light but light that the human eye is capable of
allow it to pass freely in other respects. perceiving.
Transmit 90% or more of the incident light. 2. Ultraviolet Light – 200-400 Millimicrons – Ultra
2. Translucent objects - mediums that allow violet rays used in photographing question
light to pass through it in such a way that documents suspected of being falsified or
the outline of the source of light is not forged, can be used to detect overwritten,
clearly visible. Transmit 50% or less of the erased or hidden writing in document.
incident light. 3. Infrared Light – 700-800 Millimicrons. Used in
photographing or reducing unseen objects

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located in dimly lighted or dark areas for hundred (400) millimicrons wavelength.
recording charred (burnt) patters, overwriting, Thus ray is invisible like the infrared. The
internal injuries. position of the ultra-violet region falls
4. X-Rays – 10 -30 Millimicrons. Invisible radiation between X-ray and visible wavelength.
that can be used to photograph internal Since ultra-violet radiation can kill
organs. bacteria, it is sometimes used to sterilize
foods and water. Police scientists may
use ultraviolet light ot detect
Photographic Rays/Types of radiation bloodstains, forged document, and faked
1. Radio Waves oil paintings.
 Radio waves have the longest 5. 5. X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist.
wavelengths in the electromagnetic Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895)
spectrum. Radio waves were discovered  After UV come X-rays. It is an
by the German physicists Heinrich Hertz in Electromagnetic radiation similar to light
1888 and were at first called Hertzian but of shorter wavelength and capable of
waves. penetrating solids. X-rays can fog
 Radio waves generally are utilized by photographic film. Hard X-rays have
antennas of appropriate size (according to shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-
the principle of resonance), with rays are used for seeing through some
wavelengths ranging from hundreds of things and not others, as well as for high-
meters to about one millimeter. They are energy physics and astronomy. Neutron
used for transmission of data, via stars and accretion disks around black
modulation. Television, mobile phones, holes emit X-rays, which enable us to
MRI, wireless networking and amateur study them.
radio all use radio waves.
2. Infrared radiation/light 6.Gamma rays
 Infrared light are light having  After hard X-rays come gamma rays.
wavelengths greater than 700 These are the most energetic photons,
millimicrons. It s wavelength ranges from having no defined lower limit to their
700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a wavelength. It's uncertain what the
color or any kind of red. It is an invisible physical lower limit of their wavelengths
ray detected by the skin as heat. It is so- would be. They are useful to astronomers
called infrared because they sojourn the in the study of high-energy objects or
red spectrum. Infrared means below the regions and find a use with physicists
red. This ray of light although invisible is thanks to their penetrative ability and
important in law enforcement their production from radioisotopes. The
photography because it permits result to wavelength of gamma rays can be
be obtained which are not possible with measured with high accuracy by means
only visible light present. of Compton scattering.
3. Visible light  Gamma rays have frequencies of about
 The range of the visible light produces one hundred million trillion cycles per
different sensation when they strike the second and can easily pierce through
human eye. Colors of different objects are materials like concrete and steel. Nuclear
usually mixtures of light of various explosions release gamma rays that can
wavelengths and not a special color. The destroy living cells and cause radiation
wavelength of the visible light is from 400 sickness. However, they are also used by
to 700 millimicrons which produce white physicians to kill cancerous or diseased
light. cells in the body.
4. Ultra-violet light BEHAVIOR OF THE LIGHT
 The ultra-violet light is divided into the
near and far ultra-violet and ranges from 1. REFLECTION
about two hundred (200) to four  The bouncing of light

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from matter.
 When light strikes a surface and rebounds it is
said to be reflected and it is called incident
light. The angle at which it strikes is called the
incident angle. If an object does not emit its
own light, it must reflect light in order to be
seen.
 Reflection involves two rays - an incoming or
incident ray and an outgoing or reflected ray. If The Law of Reflection
we draw a line perpendicular to a flat surface,  Light is known to behave in a very predictable
this line is said to be the normal. A ray of light manner. If a ray of light could be observed
that hits this surface is called the incident ray. approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror,
This ray of light hits the surface and bounces then the behavior of the light as it reflects
off (reflected ray). would follow a predictable law known as the
 The angle between the incident ray and the law of reflection. The diagram below
normal will be identical in measurement as the illustrates the law of reflection.
angle between the reflected ray and the  Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence
normal. All reflected light obeys this formed by incoming ray of light is equal to the
relationship, called Snell's Law, that the angle angle of reflection formed by the outgoing ray.
of incidence equals the angle of reflection. This
is the Law of Reflection. Reflection from a
smooth, mirror-like surface is called specular.
If the surface is rough, the rays of light are
reflected in many directions. The angles of
incidence and reflection are still equal but the
rays appear to be scattered. This is diffuse
reflection. This diffuse reflection is how we can
see illuminated objects.
Kinds of reflection 2. TRANSMISSION

Diffuse reflection Specular reflection Kinds:
When a ray of light Some surfaces, especially A. TRANSPARENT - if
shines on an ordinary metals, are smooth and the object permits
surface such as a piece shiny, When a bright ray of light to pass
of cloth, it bounces off light strikes a shiny surface, through it as a
that surface in every it bounces off in only one clear pane of glass
direction. The one direction. If the ray strikes or lens
bright ray coming in the surface perpendicularly B. TRANSLUCENT – If an object scatters
becomes many not-so (head-on), it bounces the light to pass through it.
bright rays going out straight back in the opposite C. OPAQUE – an object that does not
direction. This type of permit light to pass through it.
reflection is called Specular
reflection, and the reflecting
surface is called mirror.
(“Specular” is derived from REFLECTED LIGHT VS. TRANSMITTED LIGHT
the Latin word for “mirror”
If the object is transparent, then the vibrations
When reflected light is If the surface is so smooth of the electrons are passed on to neighboring atoms
scattered by a rough and polished that the through the bulk of the material and reemitted on the
surface (or in a reflected rays are not opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of light
different angle). scattered. waves are said to be transmitted.

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If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of medians of different density, the ray is not
the electrons are not passed from atom to atom bent
through the bulk of the material. Rather the electrons b. If light hit an object (glass) at an angle the
of atoms on the material's surface vibrate for short light is not bent
periods of time and then reemit the energy as a c. A light ray in passing from a medium
reflected light wave. Such frequencies of light are said of lesser density (air) to one of greater
to be reflected.
density, the light is bent away from
3. ABSORPTION
normal.
When light falls upon an object and it neither
transmits nor reflected it is absorbed.
4. REFRACTION
 A ray of light which passes obliquely (at an
angle) from a medium such as air through a
substance of different density is refracted or
bent.
 Refraction occurs when the light ray changes
mediums. Light traveling through air and then
going through water is an example of a light
ray changing medium. The speed of the light
ray changes when it enters a different
medium. In most cases the direction of the
light also changes. We say the light bends.
Depending on the new medium the light will
travel faster or slower. It is the different MIRAGES – It is called refracted image. It happens
densities that causes the ray to slow down or when air near the ground is much hotter than air higher
speed up which then causes it to bend. Light up. As light from the sun passes from cool to warmer
rays slow down about 25% when passing air, it speed up and is refracted upward.
through water and 35% when passing through
glass. If the light travels slower then this Refraction
medium is called the denser medium. If the Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due
light ray travels faster then the medium is to a change in its speed or it is the change of the
called the rarer medium. When light enters a direction of light when it crosses a boundary from one
denser medium the ray bends toward the transparent material, such as air, to another such as
normal - when light enters a rarer medium it is glass, unless it is travelling exactly perpendicular to the
bent away from the normal. boundary.
This is most commonly seen when a wave passes
from one medium to another.
Refraction of light is the most commonly seen
example, but any type of wave can refract when it
interacts with a medium, for example when sound
waves pass from one medium into another or when
water waves move into water of a different depth.
Refraction is described by Snell's law, which states that
LAW OF REFRACTION the angle of incidence is related to the angle of
a. If the light ray refraction by
hit
perpendicular 5. DIFFRACTION
to the surface Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the
between two edge of an object.
Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp
edges cast shadows that are not as sharp. Light seems

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to bend a little bit around the edge of the object, creates long shadows and emphasizes the
producing a fuzzy boundary between light and texture and shape of the subjects.
darkness.  This may be very good or very bad,
depending on the situation. Side
lighting puts shadows on the unlit side
of the subject. These shadows are
often essential to bring out the fine
texture that is found in a cloth
sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try
to use side lighting in all such
situations.
 On the other hand, when you shoot
into a subject, the shadows obscure
The intensity pattern formed Colors seen in a spider web are important interior details. When
on a screen by diffraction from partially due to diffraction, subjects such as automobiles,
a square aperture according to some analyses handbags and closets are side lit, even
large objects inside them may not
appear on the negative. You usually
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING DIRECTIONS, COLORS
want to avoid side lighting in these
AND DAY LIGHT ILLUMINATIONS
situations.
LIGHTING (outdoor lighting)  Side lighting is perfect when you want to
 Lighting is critical in photography. The emphasize texture, dimension, shapes, or
patterns. Side lighting sculpts a subject,
direction from which the light comes revealing contours and textures. Use side
lighting to exaggerate dimension and depth. At
determines where shadows fall. Sometimes a 45-degree angle to the side, it's one of the
these shadows completely obscure details in most flattering types of portrait lighting.
the picture. On the other hand, shadows may  Advantage

 Can separate the subject from the background.
reveal details which would otherwise be
 Conveys depth, as in a landscape at sunset.
invisible. Here are basic rules that will help you  Conveys texture, as in a weathered tree, fence,
to understand lighting and judge how each or plowed field.
scene should be lit:  Disadvantage

 May be too severe for some subjects, creating
some areas that are too bright, and some that
Direction are too dark. (See Fill flash to compensate.)
 The angle of light on your subject as seen from

camera is one of the most important concerns
in portrait photography. Although direct sun is
hard light source, its angle, rather than the
quality of the sun that causes the problem.
BASIC TYPE OF LIGHTING DIRECTION

3. Front Lightning – lightning from the
1. Top Lightning – is the most common form
direction of the camera – gives little
of lightning direction. It often gives high
contrast, because there are very few
contrast unless the subject is on a light –
shadows. Referred to as FLAT because it
tone base. This helps fill in shadows.
gives a shadow less effect that is safe but
Strong shadows particularly around eyes
somewhat dull.
and under the nose and chin. Top lightning
 The sun is in back of the photographer
is generally not good for people because
 This is essentially shadowless. It,
eyes disappear in pocket shadows.
therefore, gives the best
2. Side Lightning – from either side of the
representation of most crime scenes.
subject is sometimes known as HACHET
When you do not have a specific need
lightning because of tendency to divide
for shadows in a scene, you will
the image half. Contrast is often high.
normally be wise to light it from the
Light coming from one side of the subject
front. In daylight, be sure that the sun

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is behind you or at least over your

shoulder-- Right or Left, it does not
matter.
 This over-the-shoulder lighting was
probably the first photographic
advice you ever received. It may seem
to be a universal recipe for good
photography, but it is not. The case
against over-the-shoulder lighting is
that it produces a flattened effect,
doing nothing to bring out the
detail or to provide an impression of
depth.
 Front lighting illuminates the portion of the
subject facing the photographer. Your camera's
flash is the most common type of front lighting.
 Advantage
 Provides the most information to the camera by 5. Bottom Lightning – is rarely encountered
lighting the entire scene. in natural conditions. It can thus seem
 Easiest type of light to deal with photographically
because there are fewer shadows to confuse the
unusual and sometimes bizarre. Portraits
camera's light meter. lit from below, for instance, can look
 Disadvantage
menacing, but, more frequently, recall the
 Can be a bit boring—pictures lack volume and
depth. over – use of the technique in low –
 Textures and details are minimized. Scenes budget horror movies.
appear flat with few shadows.
 Flash pictures may result in very bright subject
areas and very dark backgrounds, if the
background is beyond flash range.
 Advantage
 Most of the scene is well lit.
 Bright sunny days bring out the colors of
a scene.
 Disadvantage
 Sunlight may cause your subjects to
4. Back Lightning – offers the most dramatic squint.
effect, as it can add dimension of
 Very high sunlight (seen at noon) will
excitement to the eventual image. The create deep shadows under eyes and
subject can be silhouetted, or surrounded chins, unless you use fill flash.
by a HALO through rim lightning contrast
is extreme. Light coming from behind the
subjects, cast shadows toward the
camera, produces a bright edge around
the subject and makes translucent
subjects like leaves seem to glow.
 Light directed at the subject from 6. High front light (sunlight) - High front
behind the subject.
 Light that comes from behind your subject light is the best type of light, and often it
 This has little value is by far the trickiest to use, but the
in crime scene
dramatic results may be worth the effort.
is.
photography. A light directly behind
Advantage
the subject creates a silhouette.
 Simplifies a complicatedThe scene by TYPES OF DAYLIGHT ILLUMINATIONS
emphasizing
subject may be entirely the subject, as in aby
concealed silhouette.
 Provides a flattering halo of light in
its own shadow. portraits.
Furthermore, any 1. Bright Sun – the sun is shining with a blue sky
light shining directly
 Addsinto
strongthe
shadows lens can
in landscapes. or the sun is covered with a thin haze. The sun
cause "FLARE". This may make the
Disadvantage is unobstructed and clearly defined, though
whole picture foggy, streaked
 Lack of detail in a dark subject.or scattered clouds may be present. Shadows are
spotty in appearance.
 Causes lens flare resulting in low contrast sharp and distinct.
and strange light spots across the picture.
Using exposure compensation to

overcome backlighting results in too-
26 bright background
Police Photography Instructional Material
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2. Weak or Hazy Sun – the light from the sun is subject are people in light – colored
weakened by a heavy haze and the sun’s disk clothing on a white and sandy beach, a
is visible but diffused. Shadows are weak and white sailboat against a blue sky and white
soft but readily apparent. Since there are no building of a desert village.
harsh shadows, these conditions are
wonderful for photographic people. COLORS
3. Cloudy Bright – the sun is hidden by light Light is made up of different colors known as
clouds. The sky may be completely overcast or the primary colors which are Red, Green and Blue.
there may be scattered clouds. You can’t see As light passes through these things each color
the sun disk, but you can tell where it is by a is hear or a slightly different amount. Emerging at the
bright area in the sky. There are no shadows. other side of a band of rainbow colors. This is called
spectrum. The colors always appear in the same sides.
4. Heavy Overcast/Open Shade – the sky is filled
with heavy clouds and there’s no bright area Production of Color
to show the location of the sun, there are no
extremely dark areas to indicate an 1. Absorption – The color of most ordinary
approaching storm and there are no shadows. objects are due to the fact that they do
- This is kind of lightning you have when not absorb the same amount of light at
your subject is in the shadow of a nearby large each wavelength.
objects such as a house or a building. But you can 2. Scattering – The color of the sky is due to
still see a large area of open sky overhead, in front the scattering of light by the atmosphere.
of the subject. Open shade usually requires an Thus sky is bluest when it is clearest and
exposure increase of 3 stops over that for bright white when it is less clear.
sunlight. 3. Interference – color can also be produced
by inference of light waves in thin film like
5. Bright Sun on Light Sand or Snow – the sun in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in
and sky conditions is the same as for the first water. this phenomenon is also
lightning condition given above, but the responsible for the color pattern known as
subject are on very light send or snow. Since “Newton ‘s ring” which sometimes cause
these bright surfaces reflect a lot of light, the trouble in color printing works.
recommended exposure is 1 stop less than the 4. Florescence – this happens when
basic exposure for average subjects. molecules of the florescent material
absorb energy at one wavelength and
TYPES OF SUBJECT BRIGHTNESS radiate it at another wavelength.
5. Dispersion – Color may arise from
1. Dark Subject – reflects about 9% of the differences in the refractive or bending
light striking it and absorbs the remainder. power of a transparent medium of light of
Included in this category are vehicles and different wavelength. The rainbow is a
weapon, people in dark-tone clothing, etc. good example of this phenomenon.
2. Average Subjects – is one that reflects
approximately 18% of the light striking it FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCE
and absorbs the remainder. Examples are
people in medium colored clothing, most 1. UV Lamp – comes in a variety of shape,
building, street scenes, etc. size and power. Some units are portable
3. Bright Subject – reflects twice as much as battery operated and are easily carried
an average subjects (36 %). Typical and can meet the rugged and rigorous
subjects in this category are fair – skinned demand for field works.
and light haired person, people in light 2. LASER – Light Amplification through
clothing and light colored building Simulated Emission Radiation – provide a
4. Brilliant Subject – reflects about four way for the criminalist to finally see,
times as much light as an average subjects locate, and visually records evidence that
and absorbs very little light. Some or these they know that they had missing. The only

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draw back of LASER is cost, they are quite

expensive. Known as a coherent light.
3. Alternative Light Source (ALS) – Was
developed in mid 1980’s as a far more
expensive alternative to forensic laser. It
uses a variety of band pass filters to
provide a high intensity beam of non –
coherent light.
4. Forensic Light Source – is a term applied
to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive
light sources which used filtered white A handheld digital incident-light
lights. meter, showing an exposure
setting of aperture f/5.6 at a
framing rate of 24/s and ISO 500
LIGHT METER speed. The light sensor is on top,
A light meter is a device used to measure the under the white integrating
amount of light. In photography, a light meter is often sphere.
used to determine the proper exposure for a
photograph. Typically a light meter will include a
computer, either digital or analog, which allows the
photographer to determine which shutter speed and f-
number should be selected for an optimum exposure,
given a certain lighting situation and film speed.
Light meters are also used in the fields
of cinematography and scenic design, in order to
determine the optimum light level for a scene. They are
used in the general field of lighting, where they can
help to reduce the amount of waste light used in the
home, light pollution outdoors, and plant growing to
ensure proper light levels. An automatic light meter/exposure
unit from an 8 mm movie camera,
based on a galvanometer
mechanism (center) and
aCdS photoresistor, in opening at
left.
CHAPTER 4
CAMERA PARTS AND FUNCTRIONS
The camera is essentially a light tight box with

an optical system at one end and an image support at
the other.
Additions to the basic camera have been made

Amateur analog light meter
to improve focusing the image, viewing, controlling
(1968, USSR)
the amount and duration of light entering the box,
film changing or rolling and range and exposure
calculators. While these improvements are valuable,

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they are not absolutely essential to the

photographic process.
A camera is a device that records and stores

images. These images may be still photographs or
moving images such as videos or movies. The
term camera comes from the camera obscura (Latin for
"dark chamber"), an early mechanism for projecting
images. The modern camera evolved from the camera
obscura
CAMERA OBSCURA – THE ORIGIN OF CAMERA
CAMERA OBSCURA
 A device used by early artists (centuries before
Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an
otherwise-darkened room so that it could be
more-easily copied. In a manner similar to the
pinhole camera, a small hole placed in an
opposite wall permitted light to enter the
room (the “camera”), and the scene outside
became transmitted inside, and was shown
inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a
screen. The camera obscura is the origin of the
modern camera.
CAMERA LUCIDA
The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr.

William Wollaston, was an aid to drawing It was a
reflecting prism which enabled artists to draw outlines
in correct perspective. No darkroom was needed. The
paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and the artist
would look through a lens containing the prism, so that
he could see both the paper and a faint image of the
subject to be drawn. He would then fill in the image.
However, as anyone who has tried using these will
know only too well, that too required artistic skills, as
Fox Talbot also discovered.
A camera lucida is an optical device used as a
drawing aid by artists.
The camera lucida performs
an optical superimposition of the subject being viewed
upon the surface upon which the artist is drawing. The
artist sees both scene and drawing surface
simultaneously, as in a photographic double exposure.
This allows the artist to duplicate key points of the
scene on the drawing surface, thus aiding in the

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accurate rendering of perspective. At times, the artist The camera lucida that commercial

can even trace the outlines of objects. comprehensive ("comp") layout artists used from the
early 1950s to late 1980s used lenses positioned over a
platform where the original reference material (like a
photo) was placed. A bellows arrangement and two
cranks allowed the artist to expand or reduce the size
of the image. The artist could step up and place his or
her head under a shade canopy to see the image. The
image was projected upward onto a sheet of glass
parallel to the floor, where the artist could place a
translucent sheet of white layout paper on which to
draw. This machine provided the artist a means of
quickly and accurately drawing products and of using
other photos in the composition.
DAGUERREOTYPE
Description
The name "camera lucida" (Latin for "light The daguerreotype /dəˈɡɛrətaɪp/ (French: da
chamber") is obviously intended to recall the much guerréotype) was the first commercially
older drawing aid, the camera obscura (Latin for "dark successful photographic process. The image is a direct
chamber"). There is no optical similarity between the positive made in the camera on a silvered copper
devices. The camera lucida is a light, portable device plate. The raw material for plates was called Sheffield
that does not require special lighting conditions. No plate, plating by fusion or cold-rolled cladding and was a
image is projected by the camera lucida. standard hardware item produced by heating and
In the simplest form of camera lucida, the rolling silver foil in contact with a copper support. The
artist looks down at the drawing surface through a surface of a daguerreotype is like a mirror, with the
half-silvered mirror tilted at 45 degrees. This image made directly on the silvered surface; it is very
superimposes a direct view of the drawing surface fragile and can be rubbed off with a finger, and the
beneath, and a reflected view of a scene horizontally in finished plate has to be angled so as to reflect some
front of the artist. The instrument often includes a dark surface in order to view the image properly.
weak negative lens, creating a virtual image of the Depending on the angle viewed, and the color of the
scene at about the same distance as the drawing surface reflected into it, the image can change from a
surface, so that both can be viewed in positive to a negative.
good focus simultaneously.
If white paper is used with the camera lucida, The very first daguerreotypes used Chevalier
the superimposition of the paper with the scene tends lenses that were "slow", and the light sensitive
to wash out the scene, making it difficult to view. When material was silver iodide made by fuming the plate
working with a camera lucida it is often beneficial to with iodine vapour. This meant that the exposure in
use black paper and to draw with a white pencil. the camera was too long to conveniently take portraits,
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and the first subjects taken were street scenes and light reaching the image plane and consequently
architectural studies. When Petzval lenses were reduced exposures, and a small metal camera that
introduced, with lenses of a larger diameter and the produces small circular images was made by
plate was sensitized with iodine and bromine forming Voigtländer.
light sensitive crystals of silver iodide and silver
bromide, the exposures were reduced so that portraits The image is formed on the surface of the
could be taken. Usually, it was arranged so that the silver plate (resembling the surface of a mirror) and is
sitters leant their elbows on a support, or else head unstable; it can easily be rubbed off and will oxidize in
rests that did not show in the picture were used to help the air, so from the outset daguerreotypes were
the sitters sit motionless, and this led to most mounted in sealed cases or frames with a glass cover.
daguerreotype portraits having stiff, lifeless poses.
There were exceptions with lively expressions full of When viewing the daguerreotype, a dark
character by photographers who saw the potential of surface is reflected into the mirrored silver surface, and
the new medium, and these are represented in the reproduction of detail in sharp photographs is very
museum collections and are the most sought after by good.
private collectors today.
Although daguerreotypes are unique images,
Daguerreotypes were mounted in cases under they could be copied by redaguerreotyping the
glass with a cover, or else in a frame that could be hung original.
on a wall. Photographic processes that were invented
soon after: ambrotypes and tintypes were mounted in
similar cases, but were made by the later wet
plate process using collodion on glass or on a bitumen
coated iron plate. These can be distinguished from
daguerreotypes by the image quality. The polished
silver surface of a daguerreotype gives a feeling of
presence where the image appears to be floating in Daguerreotype camera
space. built by La Maison Susse
Frères in 1839, with a
The process was developed by Louis lens by Charles Chevalier
Daguerre together with Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.
Niepce had produced the first photographic image in
the camera obscura using asphaltum on a copper plate
sensitised with lavender oil that required exposures as Advertisement for a
long as eight hours. traveling Daguerreotype
photographer, with
The image in a daguerreotype is often location left blank
described as being formed by the amalgam, or alloy,
of mercury and silver because mercury vapor from a
1840-1841 Camerae
pool of heated mercury is used to develop the plate;
obscurae and plates for
but using the Becquerel process (using a red filter and
Daguerreotype called
two-and-a-half stops extra exposure) daguerreotypes
"Grand Photographe"
can be produced without mercury, and chemical
produced by Charles
analysis shows that there is no mercury in the final
Chevalier (Musée des
image with the Bequerel process. This leads to
Arts et Métiers)
questioning the theory that the image is formed of
amalgam with mercury development.
Exposure times were later REDUCED by
sensitizing the plate with other silver halides: silver Daguerreotype Process
bromide and silver chloride, and by replacing the The daguerreotype, along with the Tintype, is
Chevalier lenses with much larger, faster lenses a photographic image allowing no direct transfer of the
designed by Joseph Petzval. A reduction in camera size image onto another light-sensitive medium, as
and the size of the image will always result in more opposed to glass plate or paper negatives. Preparation

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of the copper[9] plate prior to image exposure resulted 1800-1877), the first process to employ a NEGATIVE to
in the formation of a layer of photo-sensitive silver produce a positive image on paper. The
halide, and exposure to a scene or image through a earlier daguerreotype process employed no negative.
lens formed a latent image. The latent image was made
visible, or "developed", by placing the exposed plate Calotype or talbotype is a photographic
over a slightly heated (about 30°C / 90°F) cup process using paper coated with silver iodide. The term
of mercury.[9] Daguerre was first to discover and calotype comes from the Greek καλός for 'beautiful',
publish (in the publication of the process and the and τύπος for 'impression'.
English patent of 1839) the principle of latent image
development. How does it work?
The mercury vapour condensed on those The sensitive element of a calotype is silver
places on the plate where the exposure light was most iodide. With exposure to light, silver iodide
intense (highlights), and less so in darker areas of the decomposes to silver leaving iodine as a free element.
image (shadows). This produced a picture in Excess silver iodide is washed away after oxidizing the
an amalgam, the mercury washing the silver out of the pure silver with an application of gallo-nitrate (a
halides, solubilizing and amalgamating it into free silver solution of silver nitrate, acetic, and gallic acids).
particles which adhered to the exposed areas of the As silver oxide is black, the resulting image is
plate, leaving the unexposed silver halide ready to be visible. Potassium bromide then is used to stabilize the
removed by the fixing process. This resulted in the final silver oxide.
unfixed image, which consisted of light and dark areas In the case of salted paper, the sensitive
of grey amalgam on the plate. The developing box was element is silver chloride formed when the salt (sodium
constructed to allow inspection of the image through a chloride) reacts with silver nitrate.[3] Silver chloride
yellow glass window to allow the photographer to decomposes when in contact with light forming silver
determine when to stop development. and chlorine evaporates. Excess silver chloride is
washed out of the paper and the silver oxidizes in
The next operation was to "fix" the contact with gallo-nitrate. The silver oxide is stabilized
photographic image permanently on the plate by on the paper with hyposulphite of soda.
dipping in a solution of hyposulphite of soda,[9] often Silver chloride is sometimes favored over
called "fixer" or "hypo", to dissolve the unexposed silver iodide because it is less sensitive to temperature.
halides. Initially, Daguerre's process was to use a During long exposures in direct sunlight the
saturated salt solution for this step, but later adopted temperature on the paper can be quite high.
Herschel's suggestion of sodium thiosulphate, as did The calotype created a negative image on the silver
W. H. F. Talbot. iodide from which positives could be printed (onto
silver chloride paper). This made the calotype
The image produced by this method is SUPERIOR in one aspect to the daguerreotype which
extremely fragile and susceptible to damage when only made one positive image (whereby it was difficult
handled. Practically all daguerreotypes are protected to get multiple copies)
from accidental damage by a glass-fronted enclosure. It
was discovered by experiment that treating the plate
with heated gold chloride both tones and strengthens What is Camera?
the image, although it remains quite delicate and
requires a well-sealed enclosure to protect against  A light- tight box equipped with a lens, written
touch as well asoxidation of the fine silver deposits diaphragm and a mechanism which controls
forming the blacks in the image. The best-preserved the film.
daguerreotypes dating from the 19th century are  A device that records/stores images. These
sealed in robust glass cases evacuated of air and filled images may be still photographs or moving
with a chemically inert gas, typically nitrogen images such as videos or movies. The term
camera comes from the camera obscura (Latin
CALOTYPE for "dark chamber"), an early mechanism for
projecting images.
Calotype - An early photographic process, it  The camera refers to a light tight (proof) box
was patented in 1840 by William H.F. Talbot (English, with a means of forming the image (lens or

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pinhole), with a means of holding sensitized

material at one end (film-holder), and with a
means of controlling the amount of light
needed to affect the film at the other end
(shutter). It is a box designed to keep out all
light except the light allowed by the
photographer.
 A camera is a device used to take pictures
(usually photographs), either singly or in
sequence, with or without sound recording,
such as with video cameras.
 A camera that takes pictures singly is
sometimes called a photo camera to
distinguish it from a video camera. The name is
derived from camera obscura, Latin for "dark
chamber", an early mechanism for projecting
images in which an entire room functioned
much as the internal workings of a modern
photographic camera, except there was no
way at this time to record the image short of
manually tracing it. Cameras may work with
the visual spectrum or other portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 All cameras use the same basic principles to

form an image. Light reflects from the scene
being photographed and strikes the lens of the
camera. The light passes through the lens and
forms an inverted (upside down) image on the MAIN PARTS OF THE MODERN CAMERA:
film at the back of the camera. The image can
be sharpened by adjusting the distance 1. Body – a light-tight box; light-proof chamber in
between the lens and the film. Many cameras which film is held and exposed.
have a focusing mechanism by which the  The casing of the camera which holds and
photographer moves the lens a short distance encloses the camera parts.
to sharpen the image. Other cameras
automatically adjust this distance by means of 2. Lens - function is to focus rays of light
a focusing mechanism that is sensitive to light, reflected by (or diverging from) the subject. A
infrared rays, or sound waves. specially shaped piece of glass which refracts
light from outside on to the back of the
 A shutter opens allowing the light to enter the camera and creates a reversed, upside down
camera. The shutter may be behind the lens, image on the film of the back of the camera.
between 2 lenses, or directly in front of the  It draws the light into the camera and
film. The speed of the shutter's opening and focuses it on the film plane.
closing determines how long the film is
exposed to light. By opening and closing 3. Diaphragm - a circular aperture behind the
rapidly, the shutter can ‘freeze’ an image in lens operates in conjunction with the shutter
motion to admit light into the light-tight chamber.
 A small opening in a camera usually
C3 Manual: Parts of your camera circular in shape and usually variable in the
form has diaphragm and regulates the
intensity of light which passes through the
lens.

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- Moves the lens back and forth which

4. Shutter - the barrier of the light rays that allows the photographer to create a sharp
enters and affects the film inside the light tight image of the subject
box; basic function of the shutter is to control b. Distance Scale - the focus index or
when and how long light falls on the film. range of sharp focus; a set of number
 An adjustable mechanism that regulates which determines the appropriate
the amount of light reaching the film by depth-of-field
varying the length of time light is allowed
to pass through the lens. 2. Film Transport Mechanism - the mechanism
 It open and closes to control the length of that is manipulated to move new, unexposed
time light strikes the film. There are two film into position for the next picture
types of shutters:
a. Leaf shutter, located between or 3. Shutter Speed Control
just behind the lens elements, a. Shutter Speed Dial (SSD) - used to
made of small overlapping metal control the opening and closing of
blades powered by a spring and the shutter; a dial which sets
generally place either in between the length of time in which the light is
the lens known as the central allowed to enter the camera; default
plane shutter or after the lens of shutter speed for cameras without
a camera. SSD are:
b. Focal plane shutter, located in 125 - (or 1/125 of a second) - without
front of the film plane or adjacent flash; and
to the film; made of black cloth of 60 - (or 1/60 of a second) - with flash
small sheet of metal which is also - It will control the length of time
powered by a spring and when light is allowed to strike the sensitized
generally found in the film plane. material.
b. Shutter release button - the ‘click’ of
5. Film holder - function of this part is to hold the camera which releases the
firmly the light-sensitive material at the correct shutter. The part of the camera when
plane during the exposure interval. press will strike the film and the image
 It holds the film firmly inside the will form through the action light.
camera. It is always located at the - The button that releases or "trips" the
opposite side of the lens. shutter mechanism.
6. Viewfinder or viewing system - used to 4. Diaphragm control

determine what will be included or covered in a. Lens aperture or diaphragm - the
the picture; shows the entire scene coverage ‘window’ and sometimes called the eyes
that can be recorded in the film inside the of the camera; used to control how
camera. Viewing instrument attached to a much light reaches the film;
camera used to obtain proper composition. 99. It dilates and contracts to control the
diameter of the hole that the light
passes though, to let in more or less
THE SUB-COMPONENTS OF THE CAMERA: light. It is controlled by the f-stop ring.
b. F-stop ring – also called diaphragm ring or
1. Focusing Mechanism/Control – the aperture ring
mechanism that estimates the appropriate c. F-stops or F-numbers - the number
object's distance from the camera to form a indicating the size of lens opening
sharp or clear image on the photograph. located at the inner ring of the focusing
a. Focusing Ring - the outer ring of the mechanism.
lens which is rotated or adjusted to The lower the f-stop, the bigger the
obtain a clear and sharp photograph; opening. The biggest lens opening in most
enables the photographer to adjust cameras F-1.2. The proper combination of
focal range. shutter speed and size of opening (f-stop) is

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the key in taking pictures under various light

conditions. This combination is however
affected by the speed of the film being used.
5. Film speed control – also called ISO dial or ASA

dial
- This know controls the length of time the
shutter remains open. Typical shutter speeds
are measured in fractions of a second, such as:
1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 and 1/1000 of a
second.
6. Timer (self timer) - The time setting of the

camera which is automatically operated to
allow the photographer to participate in
photo-taking
- This mechanism trips the shutter after a short
delay - usually 7 to 10 seconds - allowing
everyone to be in the photograph.
7. Film Advance Lever – A part of the camera
that is twisted to advance the film inside and
to check the number of exposure. It transports
the film from one frame to the next on the roll
of film
8. Film Rewind Knob -This knob rewinds the film

back into the film cassette.
9. Accessory Light Shoe – It is where the flash

bulb is inserted for indoor photography, in the
dark, or in a shaded area of object to be
photographed.
10. Flash Terminal – It is where the flash bulb cord

is plugged for synchronization to the camera.
11. Flash Shoe - This is the point at which the flash

or flash cube is mounted or attached.
12. ISO/ASA/DIN Dial – A camera device in which

when adjusted it will conform with the
sensitivity of the film to light.
13. Viewfinder - The "window" through which you

look to frame your picture.

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EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA
1. PINHOLE CAMERA – a camera of simple design and

construction usually home-made consisting of a box
having a small aperture functioning as a lens at one
end, the image being projected on the film of the other
end.
A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens. An
extremely small hole takes its place, which should be in
very thin material. An image's light from a scene passes
through this single point, and because there is no lens,
the image will be clear at all distances from the pinhole. Principle of a pinhole camera: Light rays from an object pass
The smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the through a small hole to form an image
more exposure will be required. Also, in order to
produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the
pinhole, or aperture, size to the distance between it
and the screen should be 1/100 or less. The shutter of a
pinhole camera is usually manually operated because
of the lengthy times, and consists of a flap of some
light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole.
Typical exposure times range from 5 seconds to hours
and sometimes days.
2. BOX CAMERA – a simple camera is little more

than a particle camera. It has a lens and a
shutter. In the box camera, the pinhole is
replaced by the lens to enable the photographs
gather more light to be recorded.
For more than several decades the box camera
(viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the
casual amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple,
it was, nevertheless, capable of excellent results under
many conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted
with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture
control, and a single-speed leaf shutter.
The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole
camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box
camera is shaped more or less like a box, hence the
name. A box camera has a simple optical system, often
only in the form of a simple meniscus lens. It usually
lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of
aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for
daylight photography only. In the 1950s, box cameras
with photographic flash were introduced, allowing
indoor photos.

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4. FOLDING-ROLL FILM CAMERA - The Folding-

Roll Film Camera Second in popularity only to
the box camera, the folding camera was
manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically,
though, it was a box camera whose lens was
incorporated into a movable bellows that
could slide back and forth on a rail, allowing
the lens to change focus. Lenses and shutters
were often one-piece units. More elaborate
models were first-rate instruments with high-
quality optical systems and precision shutters.
Many were fitted with coupled rangefinders.
The most significant advantage they have over
3. CAMERA OBSCURA – Is a box used for the box camera, however, was their compact
sketching large objects. The term means dark design when folded, which made them easier
chamber. The box contains a mirror set at 45 to pack and transport. There has been
degrees angle. A double convex lens like in something of a minor renaissance in folding-
photographic camera is placed in the front roll film cameras in recent years, with
end. The image of the object is transmitted appearance of several new professional
through the lens and appears on the mirror. instruments. They are appreciated for their
The mirror reflects it upward to a ground glass large negative size and compact design.
screen on the top of the box. There it can be
sketched easily.
5. RANGE FINDER CAMERA - A rangefinder

camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder: a
range-finding focusing mechanism allowing
the photographer to measure the subject
distance and take photographs that are in
sharp focus.
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 Similar to a Viewfinder type camera

this camera does not use a lens to
view the subject but instead relies on
a separate viewing system in the
camera for aiming and for focus. The
range finder camera allows for
accurate focus, however, by using
two views of the same subject to
adjust focus. In this camera there are
two images in the viewfinder. One is
usually only a portion of the viewer
area and is usually slightly yellowish in
color. The photographer adjusts the
focus ring on the lens and as they do
the two images move. When both on
directly on top of each other they
blend together and almost disappear
signifying the camera is in focus. The
rangefinder is accurate and usually
very quiet and very light weight. It is
useful for taking pictures in low light
conditions or for candids when quiet
is important. These cameras can easily
be identified by their double view
windows in the front.
6. REFLEX CAMERA - A camera that has a mirror

directly in the path of light traveling through
the lens that reflects the scene to a viewing
screen.
7. VIEW CAMERA - A large format camera - a

term that applies to cameras that produce an
individual image size of 5" X 4" or larger. It is
most often found in a studio, and is sometimes
even called a "studio camera," although the
view camera can be transported and set up in
the field.
 View Cameras and Technical

Cameras Cameras in this category are
used almost exclusively by
professional photographers. The most
common film formats are 4 x 5 or 8 x
10 inches, the latter often used in the
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very large cameras found in portrait

studios. Film for these cameras is
loaded in the darkroom into two-sided
holders, which are inserted at the
back of the camera. Both the
camera's back and front can be tilted
in various positions, to permit the
photographer to make certain types
of corrections in the image. By raising
the lens in relation to the film plane,
when photographing a tall building,
for example, the tendency for parallel
lines to look as if they converge is
eliminated.
 It has a lens in the front and a viewing
screen in the back with flexible
bellows sitting between them. This
type of design was founded back in
the early days of photography and is Kodak View Camera No.2-D 8x10 Large Format 1921-
still being used today. Though it is 50
simple, this camera is very flexible and
it's capabilities are not seen in any
other type of camera. The lens
produces an inverted image on the
ground-glass plate located in the rear
of the camera. The image is composed
and focuses on this plate. To take an
image with this camera you must
place the film (emulsion side up) on
the plate when taking the exposure.
Then under a dark lightless cover
remove and replace the film, while
placing the exposed film in light-tight
casing.
DIY digital view camera
 This camera typically uses a
sheet of film measuring 4" x 5"
8. VIEWFINDER CAMERA - Camera with a
or sometimes larger. This size of viewfinder that is separate from the lens used
film allows for great detail and in taking the picture. A simple point-and-shoot
resolution. The camera must be disposable camera is an example of a
placed on a tripod when taking a viewfinder camera, but not all viewfinder
picture. It is relatively slow to cameras are simple.
operate. Ideal applications for  The VIEWFINDER CAMERA is the most
this camera are indoor and popular type of camera.
 These cameras view their subjects
outdoor portraiture and product
through a very small hole that has a
advertising. simple lens that provides an image of
how the final picture will look. The
light from the subject, however,
travels separately through the lens to
the film and through the viewfinder to
the eye. Therefore the viewfinder and
the camera lens are actually viewing

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the subject from two different levels Land, who unveiled the first commercial
resulting in parallax error. What you instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1947, 10
see in these cameras is not always years after founding the Polaroid Corporation.
exactly what you wanted.
 The parallax error is not the  Instant Cameras An instant camera
greatest disadvantage to using will produce a finished print in from 20
seconds to about 4 minutes. The film,
this type of camera. Most of
after exposure, is passed between
these cameras do not support two stainless steel rollers inside the
special lens. These cameras are camera. These rupture a chemical pod
using quite inexpensive and on the film and spread developing
today they even make disposable agent evenly over the film's surface.
versions. In the original Polaroid system it was
necessary for the user to peel the
finished print from the base material.
An electronic circuit in the camera
measures the time required for the
sound to be reflected back from the
object photographed. This time
measurement is converted into a
measurement of distance, and an
electrical mechanism coupled to the
focusing circuit sets the lens for the
proper exposure.
Plastic viewfinder camera meyer domiplan 2 8 45

lens and priomat
11. COMPACT CAMERA/Instamatic Camera -

Commonly refers to a point-and-shoot camera.
 Point and Shoot Cameras is a
viewfinder type camera with added
focus abilities that make it an ideal
camera for vacation and travel
snapshots. Most of them use
9. SINGLE-USE CAMERA - Camera that is used autofocus or focus free lenses for
only once. It is disposed of after the film is focusing and automatic systems for
removed for processing. exposure as well. These cameras will
often have an infrared focus system in
10. INSTANT CAMERA/POLAROID - An instant them that bounces infra red light out
camera is a type of camera with self- of the camera like radar and
developing film. The most famous are those determines the distance to the
made by the Polaroid Corporation. Polaroid no subject. Point and shoot cameras
longer manufactures such cameras. The usually have a fairly wide angle lens
invention of modern instant cameras is and require you to get close to the
generally credited to American scientist Edwin subject to make a dominant
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photograph. For doing a group shot

or a scenic or snap shot where there is
a lot of material to include in a frame
these cameras are ideal. For the SCHS
photo class this type of camera will
work for assignments that do not
require using special exposure or
shutter techniques because these
cameras are usually fully automatic.
For a quick photo these are tops.
12. MINIATURE CAMERA – This group consist of a

large variety of makes and models taking very
small pictures. The miniature cameras are
small, compact ones, with size measuring as
disc Cam
small as 3 x 1 5/8 x 1 ½ inches and a weight as
low as 3.3 ounces. 14. Digital camera (or digicam) - is a camera that
 Generally speaking, the term takes video or still photographs, or
“miniature” includes cameras using both, digitally by recording images via
films in size from 8-mm, 9.5-mm, 16- an electronic image sensor. It is the main
mm to 35-mm film cartridges. device used in the field of digital photography.
Most 21st century cameras are digital.
Digital cameras can do things film
cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen
immediately after they are recorded, storing
thousands of images on a single small memory
device, and deleting images to free storage
space. The majority, including most compact
cameras, can record moving video with sound
as well as still photographs. Some
can crop and stitch pictures and perform other
elementary image editing. Some have
a GPS receiver built in, and can produce Geo -
tagged photographs.
13. DISC CAMERAS - Since its introduction in the

1880s, flexible film has usually been rolled
onto a spool or loaded into a cassette. In 1980
the Eastman Kodak Company introduced a
new format for mass-market cameras. Fifteen
images, each 5/16 x 3/8 inches, can be
photographed on a piece of circular film about
2 1/2 inches in diameter, which is housed in a
thin, light-tight film disc. Disc cameras are
exceptionally compact, and most are fitted
with an electronic flash and a motor that
advances the disc after each exposure.

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MAIN KIND OF A CAMERA glass, but the addition of a

pentaprism mounted over
1. BOX CAMERA – a simple camera is little more the ground glass allows the
than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and camera to be used at eye
shutter. In the box camera, the pinhole is level, with the image seen
replaced by the lens to enable the upright and in proper
photographer gather more light to be left/right orientation. An
recorded instant before the exposure
2. VIEW CAMERA – Are large version of large is made, the mirror swings
camera. They have movable lenses, can be upward, and the shutter is
focused by moving either the front or the rear activated. A single control
of the camera and are equipped with long cocks the shutter for the next
bellows. The back can be moved or swung exposure, advances the film,
both horizontally or vertically. The view and returns the mirror to
camera is used for architectural, group and focusing position.
general outdoor photography.  These types of cameras are probably
the most widely used by professional
3. REFLEX CAMERA photographers. Light taken by these
cameras is seen directly through the
Types: same lens that takes the image final
a. SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA – The picture. Light from the lens is
term “single lens” means that only reflected by a mirror inside the
one lens is used for both viewing the camera upward into the viewing
scene and taking photograph of it, system.
thereby preventing PARALLAX, the  When the photographer presses the
difference between what is seen shutter release mechanism, the mirror
through the viewfinder and what is quickly swings up and allows for light
exactly recorded on the film. to pass through the shutter and
expose the film and quickly swings
 SINGLE LENS REFLEX - (SLR) back down. This makes parallax error
a camera with one lens only impossible.
for both viewing and picture-  The viewing system contains a prism
taking. The image is reflected that takes the inverted image from
onto a viewing screen by a the lens and reverts it for the viewer
moveable mirror in the eye. Thus the viewer sees the scene as
camera. The mirror flips out it would be normally.
of the way just before the  These cameras usually take 35mm
shutter opens, permitting film. Some more expensive cameras
light to strike the film. take larger film sizes. The largest
advantage of these cameras is there
 Single-Lens Reflex often ability to have special lens put
Cameras One of the most on them for special viewing, such as
popular designs available telephoto, wide angle, and zoom lens.
today, the single-lens reflex These cameras come in a wide variety
(SLR) both views and and are the largest supported type of
photographs through one camera in photography.
lens. Light passing through
the lens is reflected by a
mirror and brought to focus
on a ground glass. The mirror
causes a reversal of the
image seen on the ground

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SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA OPERATIONS
In the SLR
camera the light
passes through
the lens and is
reflected off a
mirror cover the
film shutter. The
light then passes
through a
Pentaprism
where it is
reverted. The
mirror remains in
the same
position until the
shutter release
button is
pressed.
When the
shutter release
button is
pressed the
viewing mirror
rises allowing for
the light to pass
through to the
film plate.
After the shutter b. TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERA –

closes the mirror employs two separate lenses. One for viewing
returns to its and focusing, and the second, usually mounted
normal position under the first, transmit light to the focal plane
which allows for for recording. The camera has permanently fixed
viewing. When lenses and an automatic parallax adjustment.
the
photographer  TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR) A camera
takes the picture having two separate lenses of the
while looking same focal length - one for viewing
through the and focusing; the other for exposing
viewfinder, he or the film. The lenses are mechanically-
she will see coupled so that both are focused at
nothing while the same time.
looking through  Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras A medium-
the viewfinder format camera--one that uses film
for the amount larger than 35mm--the twin-lens reflex
of time set on was immensely popular after World
the shutter War II. It is fitted with two lenses of
speed. identical focal length, one mounted
atop the other. The lower, or taking,
lens focuses its image directly on the

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film, while the image produced by the

upper viewing lens is reflected
through 90 degrees by a mirror, and
brought to focus on a horizontal
ground-glass focusing screen. The
light paths to the film plane and the
focusing screen are equal, so that if
the photographer brings the scene on
the focusing screen to sharp focus,
the image
on the film plane will be equally
sharp.
 The predecessor to the SLR camera,

this camera almost like a hybrid of the
viewfinder and the SLR. The camera
has two separate lenses. One is used
for viewing and focusing; the other,
for taking the picture itself. The image
is composed and focused on a ground-
glass viewing screen on the top of the
camera.
 The camera is called a reflex because
the light that form the image on the
ground glass is reflected off a mirror
to turn the image right-side up. Twin-
lens reflexes generally use roll film,
and often larger than 35mm.
4. POLAROID STILL – 3 ¼ to 4 ½ - this camera is in

its uses but it is ideal in instant photograph
where there is no requirement for
enlargements. Ex. Photos of offenders.
Video or Movie Camera vs. Still or Photo camera
Cameras that capture many images in

sequence are known as movie cameras or as ciné
cameras in Europe; those designed for single images
are still cameras. However these categories overlap, as
still cameras are often used to capture moving images
in special effects work and modern digital cameras are
often able to trivially switch between still and motion
recording modes. A video camera is a category of
movie camera which captures images electronically
(either using analogue or digital technology)
CHAPTER 5
LENS DIFINITION AND FUNCTION

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 LENS HOOD: used on the end of a lens to block

the sun or other light source in order to
A lens is a prevent glare and lens flare.
transparent  LENS COVER: covers and protects the lens
material, such a during storage
glass, that has  LENS ELEMENT - a piece of transparent
either one curved material, usually glass or plastic, in a lens
surface or one flat  LENS GROUP – One or more lens element that
surface or two are mated together
curved surfaces.  COMPOUND LENS – Lens constructed of more
As with mirrors, than one element which enables various
these two lenses optical corrections to be made.
are either convex  PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS – Is a metal or plastic
or concave. tube that holds one or more of these lens
elements in place, with a mount at one end to
A device connect it to a camera.
used for focusing
light ray reflected
FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS
from an object to
a. To gather light rays from a scene and
form an image of
focus them sharply onto the film in
the subject being
the element
photographed in
b. It controls the amount of light that
the film plane. It is
reaches the film
usually made of
c. It controls the magnification of the
one or more pieces of glass or clear acrylic. Each piece
image
of the lens is called ELEMENT.
d. It controls the filed of view that you
record on the film.
Is a transparent piece of material (usually glass
e. It controls the depth-of-field
or high tech plastic) having two opposite surfaces that
are curved, or one surface that is curved and one that is
TYPES OF LENS
flat.
a. Simple lens – Is made of glass or other
A spherical and symmetrical piece of polished
transparent substance, having two
glass and refracts light rays so that a clear, sharp image
opposite regular surfaces
is projected on the rear wall of a camera.
b. Camera Optics – are lenses which are
spherical and symmetrical piece of
A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other
polished glass, the purpose of which is to
transparent substance) having one or more curved
gather light rays, refract and project that
surfaces used in changing the convergence of light
rays in such a way that a sharp, clear and
rays. What we commonly call a photographic lens is
without distortion image is produced on
more accurately and technically called an “objective,”
the rear ward of the camera
an optical device containing a combination of lenses
that receive light rays from an object and form an
image on the focal plane. However, dictionaries have
TYPES OF CAMERA LENSES:
come to accept the usage of the term “lens” to mean
the entire photographic objective itself. A
A. Positive/Convergent Lens – Convex - A convex lens
photographic lens will always be called a lens, even
is a converging lens which works much like a concave
though it is not a lens, but has a lot of lenses in it. A
mirror. This kind of lens is thicker in the middle and
camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form
thinner towards the edges, like the lens in a magnifying
an image on film.
glass. The image is changed by the position of the
object in relation to the focal length and the radius of
curvature. If the object is beyond 2F, the image is real,
DIFINITION OF TERMS
inverted and reduced, at 2F real, inverted and the same
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height, between F and 2F real, inverted, and magnified, Flare is particularly caused by a very bright
at F there is no image, and in front of F, the image is light source either in the image – which produces
virtual, erect, and magnified. visible artifacts – or shining into the lens but not in the
image – which produces a haze. Most commonly, this
B. Negative/Divergent Lens – Concave - A concave occurs when shooting into the sun (when the sun is in
lens is a diverging lens which works similar to the frame or the lens is pointed in the direction of the sun),
convex mirror. This lens is thicker towards the edges and is reduced by using a lens hood or other shade.
and thin in the middle and are used in helping
correction of nearsightedness. All images produced by LENS HOOD
concave lenses are virtual, erect, and reduced. There is
an error in lenses, most notably in concave lenses An attachment to the lens which shades the
called chromatic aberration, referring to the fact that lens front from non-image forming light which can
the focal length of a lens can vary with the wavelength cause flare.
of light that is passed through it. This can be corrected
by cementing two lenses together (one convex, one In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a
concave) into a single lens. device used on the end of a lens to block the sun or
other light source in order to prevent glare and lens
This lens used to bend the light rays which will flare.
change the focal point - point of focus. They are used in
eyeglasses, contacts, microscopes, telescopes and The geometry of the lens hood can vary from a
cameras etc. plain cylindrical or conical section (much like a lamp
shade) to a more complex cut sometimes called a
CAMERA LENS petal, tulip or flower hood (as shown in some of the
A camera lens (also known as photographic pictures), which produce a reasonable good shade
lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or without blocking the field of view of the lens and thus
assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera producing vignetting. Properly petal shaped lens hoods
body and mechanism to make images of objects either produce more shade than normal lens hoods with the
on photographic film or on other media capable of same end diameter. Square lens hoods may be even
storing an image chemically or electronically. better.
LENS FLARE Lens hoods are more prominent in long focus

Light reflected inside a lens or camera, causing lenses because the field of view has a smaller viewing
noticeable differences of exposure in certain parts of angle than of wide-angle lenses. For wide angle lenses,
the picture, also the effect of this light is visible on the the length of the hood (away from the end of the lens)
film. There is usually caused by a direct light source cannot be as long as those for telephoto lenses
within or very close to the lens field of view. A lens because of the viewing angle.
hood is the best protection against flare.
Non image forming light reflected from the Lens hoods are often designed to fit onto the
lend supply which degrades quality of image. matching lens facing either forward, for normal use, or
backwards, so that the hood may be stored with the
Lens flare is the light scattered in lens systems lens without occupying much additional space. Some
through generally unwanted image formation lens hoods are flexible and collapse for storage.
mechanisms, such as internal reflection and scattering
from material in homogeneities in the lens. These In addition, they offer some physical
mechanisms differ from the intended image formation protection for the lens due to the hood extending
mechanism that depends on refraction of the image farther than the lens itself.
rays. Flare manifests itself in two ways: firstly as a haze
across the image, making the image look "washed out" LENS SPEED – is the largest opening of the diaphragm
by reducing contrast and color saturation (adding light that he light can pass through; it determines the
to dark image regions, and adding white to saturated maximum intensity of the light entering the light tight
regions, reducing their saturation), and secondly as box. It is the light transmitting power of the lens at its
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1. FAST LENS – Is a lens that transmit a light, angle) of 45 degrees which corresponds to the
it has a large maximum aperture; used viewing angle of the human eye.
during nighttime or when there is dim
light available. Lens with a focal length
approximately equal to the diagonal of the
2. SLOW LENS – is used during daytime or film format. A scene viewed through a normal
when the lighting condition is very bright, lens appears to have the same perspective as
or in taking pictures of fast moving if it was being viewed “normally” without a
objects. lens, just the way your eye sees it. Most 35 mm
cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of
In terms of focus, there are 2 types of lenses sold approximately 50 mm.
today.
In 35mm photography, lenses with a
1. AUTOFOCUS (AF) LENSES focal length of 50mm are called "normal"
2. MANUAL FOCUS LENSES because they work without reduction or
magnification and create images the way we
FOCAL LENGTH – The distance between the see the scene with our naked eyes (same
rear nodal point of the lens and the focal plane, when picture angle of 46°).
the focus is set at infinity.
2. WIDE ANGLE LENS – for wide angle (but
The determining factor of how wide is the area smaller images. the wide angle lens has a
of coverage of a lens as well as the size of the image shorter focal length than the normal lens. As a
that it will produce. result, it covers a picture angle of 60 to 90
degrees. It enables photographing a widely
extended scene from a close proximity or
within a confined area. The rage for wide
angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm,
21 mm, 24 mm, 28mm, and 35mm. The 28mm
and 35 mm are the most important for general
wide angle for police work.
A lens with an angle of view that is

wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the
human eye. A wide-angle lens has a focal
GROUPS OF LENSES ACCORDING TO ANGEL OF VIEW length which is less than the diagonal of the
AND FOCAL LENGTH film format. angle of view wider than 60° and
focal length shorter than normal.
Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres
Wide angle lens is one that projects a
(mm), but older lenses marked in centimetres (cm) and
substantially larger image circle than would
inches are still to be found. For a given film or sensor
be typical for a standard design lens of the
size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may
same focal length; this enables either large tilt
be classified as
& shift movements with a view camera, or
lenses with wide fields of view.
1. NORMAL OR STANDARD LENS – for normal
distance, It produces an image, which appears In photography and cinematography,
to have a normal perspective and angle of a wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal
view. By international standards, a 50 mm length is substantially shorter than the focal
lenses with focal lengths from 45 to 55 length of a normal lens for the image size
millimeters are referred to as normal lenses produced by the camera, whether this is
because they produce an image that dictated by the dimensions of the image frame
approximates the view angle of the human at the film plane for film cameras (film
eye. The normal lens has a picture angle (view format) or dimensions of the photo sensor for
digital cameras.

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lens). They are commonly used

3. TELEPHOTO OR NARROW LENS – for long with still, video, motion
distance; lens with longer focal lengths that picture cameras, projectors,
constrict the field of view and decrease the some binoculars, microscopes, telescopes,tele
depth of field while greatly magnifying the scopic sights, and other optical instruments.
image. For a 35-millimeter camera, lenses with
focal lengths of 85 millimeters or more are A true zoom lens, also called
considered telephoto. Lenses beyond 58mm a parfocal lens, is one that maintains focus
are included in the group of telephoto lenses. when its focal length changes. A lens that
For identification shots in the police work, loses focus during zooming is more properly
lenses of 85 to 135 focal length are frequently called a varifocal lens.
used. Long Tele-Lenses are those beyond
200mm. 5. FISH EYE LENS – A lens that has the shortest
* The longer the focal length, the larger local length, lens with extreme wide a angle,
the image, and the smarter/narrower the view lens that provides field of view that produces a
angle (field-of-view). circular image or film, rather than the normal
rectangular or square image.
In photography and cinematography, In photography, a fisheye lens is
a telephoto lens is a specific type of a long- a wide-angle lens that takes in a broad,
focus lens in which the physical length of the panoramic and hemispherical image. Originally
lens is shorter than the focal length. This is developed for use in meteorology to study
achieved by incorporating a special lens group cloud formation and called "whole-sky lenses",
known as a telephoto group that extends the fisheye lenses quickly became popular in
light path to create a long-focus lens in a much general photography for their unique,
shorter overall design. The angle of view and distorted appearance. They are often used by
other effects of long-focus lenses are the same photographers shooting broad landscapes to
for telephoto lenses of the same specified suggest the curve of the Earth. Hemispherical
focal length. Long-focal-length lenses are photography is used for various scientific
often informally referred to as telephoto purposes to study plant canopy geometry and
lenses although this is technically incorrect: a to calculate near-ground solar radiation.
telephoto lens specifically incorporates the
telephoto group.[2] 6. MACRO LENS – Are lenses that have extended
focusing mounts so they can be extended
Telephoto lenses are sometimes farther than regular lenses and therefore are
broken into the further sub-types of medium able to focus on much closer subjects than
telephoto: lenses covering between a 30° and regular lens, to provide ½ life size images of
10° field of view (85mm to 135mm in 35mm film subjects on the film. A lens that will focus to a
format), and super telephoto: lenses covering magnification ration of approximately 2:1
between 8° through less than 1° field of view without additional equipment.
(over 300mm in 35mm film format).
A lens with the ability to focus from
4. ZOOM LENS – a special type of camera lens infinity to extremely closely, allowing it to
with variable focal length (focal length can be capture images of tiny objects in frame-filling,
changed); a fourth generic lens type designed larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a
to have a variable focal length, which can be "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is
adjusted continuously between two fixed usually a lens attachment for close-ups and
limits. This lens allows quick adjustment to does not generally have the ability to focus on
give a wider or narrower field of vision. infinity.
A mechanical assembly of lens It has an angle of view narrower than

elements for which the focal length (and 25° and focal length longer than normal. These
thus angle of view) can be varied, as opposed lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images
to a fixed focal length (FFL) lens (see prime of the same size as the object. They usually
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feature a flat field as well, which means that center; Inability of all rays to focus at the same
the subject plane is exactly parallel with the point. Marginal rays (at the edge) through the
film plane. lens come to focus closer to the lens than do
paraxial rays (rays parallel to the axis or
7. QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS - The Quasi-fish-eye lens center). This causes the focus to drift as you
produces an image on the film that covers the stop down the lens. This may be part of the
entire frame, whereas a True fish-eye lens has XL1 focusing problems. However, it's just my
its circular image wholly within the film frame. opinion.
8. VARIABLE FOCUS LENS - A zoom lens - one in 2. Chromatic aberration – the failure of different
which focal length is variable. Elements inside colored light rays to focus after passing
a variable focus lens shift their positions, through a lens; focusing of light of different
enabling the lens to change its focal length - in colors at different points resulting in a blurred
effect, providing one lens that has many focal image. In chromatic aberration the image is
lengths. surrounded by colored fringes because light of
different colors is brought to different focal
Typical focal lengths and their 35mm format points by a lens.
designations:
Two Types:
1. < 20mm - Super Wide Angle 1. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - also
2. 24mm - 35mm - Wide Angle known as Transverse chromatic
3. 50mm - Normal Lens aberration - variation in the
4. 80mm - 300mm – Tele magnification at the sides of a lens
5. > 300mm - Super Tele (this aberration type used to be
termed “lateral color”) or lateral
ABERRATION displacement of color images at the
focal plane (CCD). Caused by different
LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION sizes of images by produced by
1. Something that prevents light from being different colors even though the
brought into sharp focus, disenabling the image is all on the same plane (CCD).
formation of a clear image. Produces color fringing of red or blue.
2. Lens flaw - the inability of a lens to Not improved by stopping down.
reproduce an accurate, focused, sharp
image. 2. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration -
The inability of a lens to focus all
ABERRATION in optics is the failure of light colors (wavelengths) at the same
rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or plane on the lens axis (shorter
reflect from a mirror it is an optical imperfection wavelengths come to focus in front of
responsible for image distortion. the CCD, longer behind). This defect is
There are 6 main forms of optical aberration: not improved by stopping down the
lens. This is normally only noticeable
1. Spherical aberration – the focusing at in long telephoto lenses. It is reduced
different points of rays passing through by the use of special glass elements,
different parts of spherical lens. This referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.
aberration occurs because light hitting the
outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply 3. Astigmatism – the inability of the lens to bring
and comes to a focus sooner than that passing horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to
through the middle. In spherical aberration, the same plane of focus in the image.
the image is blurred. Astigmatism occurs at the edge of the image;
then image appears elliptical or cross-shaped
Variation in focal length of a lens from because of an irregularity I the curvature of
center to edge due to its spherical shape - the lens.
generally all parts of the image, including its

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The inability of the lens to bring to from the CCD). This defect is not improved by
focus both vertical and horizontal lines on the stopping down the lens.
same plane. Lines in some directions are
focused less sharply than lines in other 6. Distortion – curvilinear, which is the inability to
directions. produce the same enlargement in the image
formed by the edges of the lens as in that part
Astigmatism is caused by axial rays formed by the center of the lens.
(not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear
that lines of equal density (darkness) are less Distortion causes the image of a straight
dense horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or
improved by stopping down the lens (smaller out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel
lens opening, larger F number). distortions. Produced by variations of
magnifications over the field of the lens,
4. Coma – Coma occurs when light falling particularly at the ends of its range (max wide
obliquely on the lens and passing through angle, max telephoto). It does not effect
different circular zones is brought to a focus at sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not
different distances from the film plane. A spot improved by stopping down. Very common in
of light appears to have a tail, rather like a extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.
comet.
DISTORTION - Misrepresentation of
The image of a point source of light proportions of objects or of their arrangement in a
cannot be brought into focus, but has instead scene. The two main types of lens distortion are:
a comet shape. Coma causes parallel oblique (1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near
rays passing through a lens to be imaged the edges of the viewframe appear bowed
(focused) not as a point, but as a comet outward from the center, like a barrel-shape; and
shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved (2) Pincushion distortion in which the same lines
by stopping down the lens. bend in towards the center.
Coma is an aberration which causes

rays from an off-axis point of light in the object OTHER LENS DEFECTS
plane to create a trailing "comet-like" blur
directed away from the optic axis. A lens with These defects are usually corrected when the
considerable coma may produce a sharp image lens is designed, however, the can occur if the lens is
in the center of the field, but become misused or through normal wear.
increasingly blurred toward the edges. For a 1. Flare or Optical Flare – is a result of double
single lens, coma can be partially corrected by refraction from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits
bending the lens. More complete correction self as a misty hazy or cloudy semi-circular
can be achieved by using a combination of patch of light. This double reflection may form
lenses symmetric about a central stop an image called ghost image.
Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces

5. Curvature of field – a curved, concave or contrast and color saturation. Flare is caused
saucer shaped image of an object which was by very bright subject areas and produces
flat surface. The image distance is different for internal reflections in the lens. Stacking of
different points of the object due to their filters can increase flare. Lens coatings by the
differing distance from the axis. Mfg. keeps flare to a minimum. The use of a
suitable hood (not the stock hood) can also aid
The plane of sharpest focus becomes in reducing flare.
curved, not flat. It is caused by rays from the
outer limits of the subject plane coming to FLARE - Light that doesn’t belong in an image,
focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays often taking the shape of the aperture,
(image comes to focus in curved shape, away generally caused by shooting towards the light
source. The source may appear in the image as

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a reflection from the interior of the camera or which is red in color due to its blood vessels –– and the
from the lens. Flare often results in an overall camera capturing that redness on film.
reduction of image contrast. Red-eye is the phenomenon where people
have glowing red eyes in photographs. This is caused
2. Mechanical Flare – are bright spots on the film by the close proximity of the flash (especially built-in
caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of flash) to the camera lens, which causes light from the
the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens mount subject to be reflected directly back at the camera.
or from inside the camera itself. When the flash fires, the light reflects off the blood in
the capillaries in the back of the subject ’s eyes and
3. Light Loss – most corrected lenses is coated back into the camera lens. People with blue eyes are
with a substance which will reduce one type of particularly susceptible to the red-eye phenomenon
flare (optical) and which will also increase the because they have less pigment to absorb the light.
optic’s ability to transmit light, thus reducing RED EYE REDUCTION
light loss.
RED EYE REDUCTION - A feature of some cameras
4. Stray Light – can be reduced or eliminated by or flash units that is meant to reduce the effect of red
using the proper lens shade places on the eye by emitting multiple bursts of light immediately
front of the lens or shield. before the picture is taken. The intended result is a
forced reduction in the size of the subject's iris.
5. Ghost Images - Not a true defect but is seen
quit often and sometimes confused as one. There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-
Distinct images, usually in the shape of the eye in your pictures. Some cameras provide a red-eye
diaphragm or a very bright light source reduction feature that fires a preflash, forcing the irises
included in the scene. Caused by high intensity in your subject ’s eyes to close before you take the
light producing rays which bounce around in picture. The main problem with this methodis that it
the lens and form an image. Often multiple often forces subjects to involuntarily close their eyes
images appear in a row across the scene, before the image is taken, and it doesn’t always
starting at or near the source. Ghost images completely eliminate the red-eye effect.
can be reduced by the use of a suitable lens
hood. A more effective method is to use an external flash
via the camera ’s hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with
GHOST IMAGE - In time exposure an extension bracket. An external flash radically
photography, an object that is only partially changes the angle of the flash, preventing the lens
recorded on the film and therefore has a from capturing the reflection of the blood in the back
translucent, ghost-like appearance. Ghosting of your subject ’s eyes.
also occurs when using electronic flash at a
slow shutter speed, and a second image is While you can also fix the red-eye effect using
captured on the film by ambient light. Some Aperture, there is no way to accurately reproduce the
people also refer to “flare” as a ghost image. original color of your subject ’s eyes. Preventing the
problem before it occurs is the preferred solution.
6. Diffraction - Again, not a true defect, but a
property of light. Diffraction is the bending of Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction
light rays as they pass a small opening or past
a sharp edge. Common when a very small 1. Simple miniscus lens – this lens is usually found in
diaphragm (F16, F22, etc.) is used. Diffraction simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and
causes a point to be less sharp. therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
RED EYE 2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two

RED EYE - An image in which a subject’s irises achromatic lens with almost the same focal length. This
are red instead of black. The red eye effect is caused by is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on
light from a flash traveling through the iris and astigmatism.
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A rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that

yields images where straight features, such as the walls
of buildings, appear with straight lines, as opposed to
being curved. In other words, it is a lens with little
barrel or pincushion distortion.
3. Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat)– a lens
designed to correct astigmatism. A lens which is free
from astigmatism and other types of lens defects. It
has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at
the same time.
4. Achromatic Lens – a lens which is partly corrected for

chromatic aberration.
An achromatic lens or achromat is a lens that is

designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical
aberration. Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring
two wavelengths (typically red and blue) into focus in
the same plane.
5. Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism.

It has a better color correction and has the ability to
produce the best definition of image in the
photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens – a lens use in all fixed focus

camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and
greater depth of field.
CHAPTER 6
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
These are colored disks of glass or gelatin

which are placed in front of the camera lens to improve
the quality of pictures. A filter placed in front to the
lens changes the color of light that reaches the film.
For example, a red filter darkens blue sky and green
foliage considerably, and lightens red objects. A filter
maybe used to change the composition of available
light, increase or decrease contrast, exclude certain
colors, and highlight a certain subject or color.
Filters defined:

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1. A homogenous medium which absorbs The polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or

differently wavelengths of eliminating reflections and darkening blue
electromagnetic energy skies. It works by transmitting light that travels
2. Are dyed gelatin sheets cemented in one plane while absorbing light that travels
between carefully selected glass. in opposing planes.
3. NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – used to cut down
Components: light transmission. They are designed to cut
down (reduce) amount of light that reaches
1. Gelatin – these are simply thin sheets of the film during exposure. Neutral density
gelatin dyed to the designed color and filters are very handy when using a high speed
intensity. Used in color photo. film under bright sunlight condition, or where
the use of a slow shutter-speed is desired for a
2. Glass Sandwiched – these are made by creative effect in the photographs. In other
sandwiching a gelatin filer between two words, the use of these kinds of filters is very
sheets of color glass. significant if the capability of ht camera is very
limited. Neutral; density (gray) filters provide
3. Dyed Glass – these are discs of optical glass exposure control by reducing high intensity
dyed to the desired color while in the melted without affecting color balance.
stage.
4. HAZE FILTER – It is used to eliminate aerial
FILTERS USEFUL IN POLICE WORKS: mist
1. UV FILTER OR ULTRA VIOLET FILTER – This is 5. SKYLIGHT FILTER - removes excess bluishness
not a filter for ultraviolet photography rather; from distant view outdoors.
it is a filter which screens out the violet end of
the spectrum hence give fine details in 6. COLOR FILTERS – increases contrast in black-
photographing subjects under direct sunlight. and-white photographs. It lets light of its own
UV filter give fine details definition and is color pass through the lens to the film but
generally used in photomicrography where the holds back certain other colors. As a result,
study of minute details is important in objects that are the same color as the filter
establishing relationships. Reduces haze; appear light in the picture, and the blocked
useful for photographing distant subjects and colors are dark.
for taking pictures at high altitudes. Colored filters such as blue and green can give
better emphasis to the color of blood in black and
2. POLARIZER – Polarizing Filter – reduces white photography. In color photography, these
reflections from some surfaces and increases eliminate the color of the object the same as the color
color saturation by reducing glare and of the filter and the grass will loose detail and color
scattered light; used primarily to reduce with a green filter. A green filter also emphasizes a stop
reflection from the surface of shiny subjects. sign; red being complementary to green in the color
Polarizing filter is also used in color wheel.
photography to increase color saturation and
to reduce reflections in the photographs. A Yellow filters will make white colored objects
polarizing filter screens out glare from shiny stand out. To a certain extent, yellow filter can act as
surfaces, such as water and glass. It can help in haze filter in outdoor photography. A dark yellow filter
preventing the appearances of flares in the will also accentuate the marks. On the whole; yellow
photographs. The polarizing filter is very filters aid in giving details in vehicular accident
convenient filter for taking pictures of many photography.
different vehicles in vehicular accidents.
Is an adjustable filter, with an inner

ring that screws onto the lens and an outer
ring that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring
reduces or increases the filter’s effectiveness.

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CHAPTER 7
FILM OR SENSITIVE MATERIALS

(3rd Element)
A sheet or roll film of thin material coated on

one side with a light-sensitive emulsion capable or
recording and image when exposed in a camera.
* A type of light sensitized material that produces

negative after development
* Cellulose tape of plate where silver salts are
suspended capable of recording light.
The surface of a film and photographic paper

capable of retaining a latent image is called EMULSION
– A light-sensitized layer of finely divided silver salts,

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suspended in gelatin, which is spread on a permanent Is the light-sensitive portion of a film

support such as glass, acetate, or paper or paper that records the image. composed of
silver compounds which are light sensitive, but
FILM - A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose for photographic purposes, halogens such as
acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips or bromide; chloride; and iodide (used in small
sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for amounts, seldom more than 5% with silver
taking photographs. bromide in fast film emulsion) is added to
silver halides, a rare compound that forms a
COMPONENTS OF FILM latent image.
A. BASE – A strong flexible plastic
(usually cellulose acetate) onto which To be useful in photography, the silver
the emulsion is coated halides are suspended with gelatin; a colloid
B. EMULSION – A thin layer of light extracted by boiling animal bones, hooves,
sensitive material, usually silver horns, and hides. The gelatin used in films
halides, coated on a transparent base, generally comes from the ears and cheek
used for photographic film and paper. section of calf hides because hides of calves
1. Is the light sensitive and cows contain sulfur compounds, which
coating of film or aids in the photochemical reaction that creates
photographic paper where latent images.
the latent image is form.
LATENT IMAGE - is the invisible image left 3. GELATIN ADHESIVE
by the action of light on photographic film 4. FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose
or paper. When processed, the latent acetate or other materials such as paper,
image becomes a visible image either as a plastic, or glass which such supports the
negative or a positive black and white emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curl
print. anti-halation backing.
FILM STRUCTURE 5. ANTIHALATING BACKING – a black dye applied

Film contains minute grains of silver halides on the rear surface of the film. Its function is
suspended in animal gelatin and coated with celluloid to absorb light that may penetrate the
material. It has major layer/parts, the emulsion and the emulsion layer to prevent it from reflecting
base. back the emulsion thus making the image
sharper since it suppresses double image. It
prevents the appearance of halo formation in
the photograph. The dye is remove during
STRUCTURE OF BLACK AND WHITE FILM processing by one of the chemicals in the
developer. Its second function is to control the
1. TOP COATING – top layer, scratch resistant film from curling inwards (towards the
coating; gelatin coating; an over coating emulsion surface).
composed of a thin transparent layer of hard
gelatin which helps protect the silver halide In KODAK “Safety” films, the base used in
emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The celluloid nitrate. This compound is fire resistant. It
hard gelatin, which is derived from cows, doesn’t make the film easily burned or destroyed
contains sulfur. The sulfin is very much by fire or heat.
compatible with silver halides.
STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM
2. EMULSION LAYER – composed of silver halides 1. TOP COATING – scratch resistant coating; is
and gelatin. A silver compounds, when sensitive to blue light only; BLUE FILTER -
combined with a halogen, becomes SILVER sensitive to blue light only; green and red
HALIDE. Silver halides are rare compounds light passes through it without exposing
that are responsible in forming the latent the color halides.
image in the photographic film. 2. YELLOW FILTER – Carey – Lea silver
suspended in gelatin – it is coated between

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the top and second layer to absorb any are not very sensitive to light, and so
penetrating blue light but allowing green require bright lighting conditions, long
and red lights to pass through. exposure times, or large opening.
3. MIDDLE LAYER/ GREEN FILTER – is an Slow films produce very sharp, very
orthochromatic layer, which is sensitive to fine-grained images of relatively light
blue (which cannot reach it) and green, but contrast and are ideal when very large
not to red. So the red light passes on to the blow-ups are desired. Not for action
bottom emulsion layer. subjects or in dim light and camera
4. BOTTOM LAYER/ RED FILTER – is a needs to be mounted on a tripod
panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue when using show films
(which cannot reach it) and red. It is also 2. MEDIUM SPEED FILMS – ISO 64-200 –
somewhat sensitive to green light but to film for general purposes. They
such a slight degree that it is not important. require less light that the slow speed
Exposure is made simultaneously in films and produce sharper, fine
the three layers, each layer responding to grained images than the fast speed
one and only one of the additive color films
primaries. After exposure, the yellow color 3. FAST-SPEED FILMS – ISO 400-1000 –
of the filter layer is destroyed during Are good for shooting in dim lighting,
processing of the film. or when you need to use a fast
5. GELATIN ADHESIVE shutter speed to “FREEZE” first
6. FILM BASE – Plastic film base moving subjects of small apertures for
7. ANTIHALATION COATING BACKING maximum depth of field, wide
exposure latitude for the film. Fast
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FILM film are not as sharp or fined grained
as slower films, so you can’t enlarge
1. FILM SPEED – A rating of the sensitivity of a their images as much, but they still
film to light, used to determine the required offer quality images.
exposure 4. SUPER FAST SPEED FILMS – ISO 1600-
3200 – Are only very few. They use for
It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, special purposes. They are designed
which is measured and expressed in a numerical for use on very poor lighting
rating called ISO formerly known as ASA/DIN. This conditions when you can’t or don’t
means that the higher the ISO number, the more want to add artificial light or they are
sensitive the film is to light, and that pictures can used for obvious grain effects.
be taken indoors under dim light conditions. 5. CHROMOGENIC FILMS – Are black
and white films that are processed in
One film may be rated ISO – 100 and another the same chemical used to develop
film ISO – 200. This means that the 200 film is twice color negative films. Rather than in
as fast (twice more sensitive to light) than the 100 standard black and white chemicals.
film. Hence, would only require half the amount of IT can be exposed at a variety of
light to produce a satisfactory negative. Each time speed ratings with good results.
the film speed is doubled, it is equal to one f/stop
in exposure. For instance, in the example given, if 2. FILM SENSITIVITY – Is the ability of an
ISO – 100 is exposed at f/8, then ISO – 200 would object of the film to react to energy and
be exposed at f/11 to produce the same negative stimulus
quality. Any film above ISO – 200 can be
considered high speed and anything less is usually TYPES OF FILMS ACCORDING TO FILM
slow speed and fine-grain. SENSITIVITY
Different Speed of Film All photographic emulsion is sensitive

to the colors of blue violet, and ultraviolet.
1. SLOW SPEED FILMS – Those with ISO The film’s sensitivity to the other color is
rating lower than ISO 61, slow films

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obtained by adding dyes to the emulsion negative and print. The darkest tone
during manufacture. maybe pure white, depending on its
subject, lighting, exposure and
a. Monochrom development
atic – Sensitive to ultraviolet and blue  HIGH CONTRAST FILM – Will record
violet colors only. This film may be mostly black and white without the in-
used when natural rendition is not between grays. They are especially
important. For example, it is used to useful in copying lines, drawings,
copy black and white originals and to documents and other printed
photograph colorless subjects when material.
extreme contrast is needed.  LOW CONTRAST FILM – Record little
differentiation in negative densities
b. Orthochrom resulting in softer tones, they are
atic – Sensitive to blues and greens, used in portraits and general
but not to reds. Reds are recorded as snapshots.
dark tones, while greens are light
tones when printed. 4. FILM LATITUDE – Is the ability of a film to
compensate within somewhat narrow
c. Panchromat limits for mistakes of exposure and or
ic – Sensitive to all colors and are development.
further subdivided according to their EXPOSURE LATITUDE – The margin of
degree of sensitivity to each color. error within which over or underexposed
This film is most commonly used in negatives or print are still acceptable.
investigative photography because it 1. SLIDE FILM – can tolerate I stop
produces the most natural recording overexposures and 1 stop under
of colors. 2. COLOR NEGATIVE FILMS – can
tolerate 2 to 3 stops over and 1 to
d. Infrared – 2 stops under
Sensitive to blues and infrared 3. BLACK and WHITE FILMS – can
radiation. The human eye’s sensitivity. tolerate 3 to 4 stops over and 1 to
It is useful in penetrating haze 2 stops under
because of its longer wavelength. IN
investigative photography, it is useful 5. FILM GRAININESS – Is a fine,
in laboratory analysis of questionable granular texture that appears in a
documents; in the discovery of old or negative print resulting from the clumping
faded tattoos or areas where small of silver grains during development of the
object are hidden under the skin; and film. It is influenced by film speed,
in the construction of camera traps. negative density and degree of
enlargement. It is also influenced by film
e. Colored exposure and development
films DENSITY – The blackness or
Types darkness of an area in a negative, that
1. Color negatives – for prints, ends determines the amount of light that pass
in the word “color through it.
2. Color transparency – for slides, - The ability of a
ends in the word choice developed silver deposit to block
transmitted light in photographic emulsion
3. FILM CONTRAST – The degree to which a 6. FILM RESOLVING POWER – Is the

film is capable of recording closely related ability of a film to reproduce fine
tones in gradation of black and white. detail
It is the degree of difference between
the darkest tone and the lightest tone in a

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RESOLUTION – The ability of the film 110 – For cartridge loading pocket
to distinguished between closely objects, cameras
also known as Resolving Power 126 – For older and larger cartridge
DETAIL – means the degree of loading type.
sharpness of the image. Slow, fine grain 120 – Variation of the 2 ¼ inch –wide
films have higher resolving power than roll film that was first introduced for
fast ones. box cameras decade ago, and now
used into professional medium format
7. FILM SHARPNESS – Is the cameras like the Hasselbald or
impression of fine detail, texture Mamiya.
and definition in a photographic 135 – Commonly known as the 35mm,
image. It is affected by the so named because
chemical and physical properties
of the emulsion, especially the AIMING THE CAMERA
thickness of its coating on the
film backing 1. Hold the camera with your left hand as shown press
1. The camera must be on the left elbow against the side of you; chest, relax your
tripod right hand and press the Shutter Release gently down.
2. The lens must be sharp one
(good quality) 2. When shooting with the camera held vertically, try to
3. Focusing must be accurate keep it extra steady because it will be less stable in that
4. Exposure and development position.
must be exact
3. The film is advanced with the right thumb and the
Shutter Release is depressed with the right forefinger.
FILM SPEED RATING
LOADING THE FILM:
1. ASA rating (American Standards Association)
2. DIN (Dentene Industrie Normen) rating
Use cartridge-packed 35mm roll film.
3. ISO Rating
The suggested uses of the following film under 1. Open the Camera Back by pulling the Film Rewind
varying conditions are: Knob all the way out. (It will not open unless the knob
is fully pulled out.)
1. ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit
for best color and sharpness 2. Drop the film cartridge into the Film Chamber with
2. ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose the spool head (protruding portion of the cartridge)
3. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving pointing to the camera bottom, then push the Film
subject Rewind Knob down to its original position.
4. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light
conditions 3. Pull out the film tip and insert it deeply into the slot
of the Take-up Spool, but make sure it doesn't go
through the spool hub.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF FILM
4. Wind the film with a stroke or two of the Film
1. Black and White - negative ending with PAN Advance Lever and make sure the Sprocket Teeth catch
2. Color Print – Color negative ending with color the film perforations.
3. Color Slide- Color Transparency/positive
ending with chrome 5. Erect the Film Rewind Crank and turn it in the
direction of the arrow to take up any slack in the film,
FILM SIZE make sure the film is properly positioned between the
guide rails, then close the Camera back.

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6. While watching the Exposure Counter, wind the film stop turning, release film catch (small silver button
with the Film Advance Lever and press down the next to film counter dial). Close camera back, making
Shutter Release. Repeat until the second white dot sure the back cover lock slides over the catch and
from the letter "S" (first white dot from the red "O") securely engages it.
appears in the center of the Exposure Counter. The film
has now been positioned for the first shot. Turn winding knob as far as it will go without forcing.
Hold down film catch, and turn winding knob about a
quarter turn. Release film catch and wind as far as knob
* The film is advancing properly if the Film Rewind will turn. Repeat this operation once more in order to
Knob turns while the Film Advance Lever is winding. take up enough film leader.
* The white dots between the numbers in the Exposure Set counter dial by turning it counter-clockwise (to the
Counter represent odd numbers. left) until '0' is opposite index line. The counter dial
counts upwards, indicating the number of pictures
taken. The camera is ready for the first picture.
* You can position the film faster by setting the Shutter
Speed Selector to 1000 because the shutter will trip
The 'B' and 'I' dial around the shutter release must be
faster.
set to 'I' at all times, unless you are taking a time
exposure.
7. Film identification The Film Confirmation Window in
the camera back will tell you at a glance whether there
EXPOSURE CONTROL AND CONTROLS OF A CAMERA
is film in the camera or not. If you have Fuji film in your
camera, it will also tell you the film type and the
EXPOSURE- The amount of light that reaches a film, the
number or exposures it will yield.
combined effect of how much light strikes the film,
controlled by the aperture or effect of how much light
The procedure is the same as that described in (j) to A). strikes the film, controlled by the aperture of the stop,
To wind the film, close the Camera Back, switch the and for how long, controlled by the shutter speed. The
auto winder switch to SINGLE or CONT. and press exposure required in any particular situation varies
down the Shutter Release. according to the speed sensitivity of the film used.
- The time that a given amount of light requires
* If the film does not advance, turn off the auto winder to create an image of the desire density on an
and switch it once again to SINGLE or CONT. emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE- is a balancing act in which
* For further information, read the Auto Winder you use an exposure meter, or light meter, to measure
instruction manual. the amount of available light, to relate it to the
sensitivity of the film, and to express the relationship
LOADING YOUR CAMERA as a combination of aperture in f-stops and shutter
speed in seconds.
1. Open the camera by depressing the catch at FOUR 4 BASIC EXPOSURE CONTROLS OF AN
the end of the camera. ADJUSTABLE CAMERA
2. Pull out rewind knob on the bottom of the 1. ISO Film Speed Dial
camera, and insert the 35mm cartridge. Then push the 2. Shutter Speed Dial/Ring
rewind knob in (it may be necessary to turn it slightly). 3. Lens Opening/Aperture Ring
4. Focusing Ring
3. Thread end of film completely through the 1. ISO FILM SPEED DIAL- combination of shutter
slot on the takeup spindle. Turn wind knob speed and f-number- This control is utilized by
approximately one-half turn until film folds under itself manipulating the ASA dial of the camera.
and is secure on shaft. Give winding knob a couple of Basically, the shutter and f-numbers are both
turns to make sure film is secure on takeup spindle. controlling system of the rays of light that
Make sure sprockets engage holes in film. If sprockets enters, reaches and affects the film inside the
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camera. However, their effects in making film, the amount of light is

photographs are different. In photographing controlled by the speed of the
of objects, the photographer can select any certain and the width of the.
combination of the shutter speed and f-
number that will give the right amount of light 3. APERTURE/LENS OPENING/DIAPHRAGM
needed to normally expose the film. As the CONTROL- The diaphragm works like pupil of
shutter speed increase, the f-number the eye. It may enlarge or contracted. If it is
decreases, For instance, the same amount of enlarged, it allows more light to enter, on the
light will be admitted by F-16 at one half of a contrary, when it is contracted or small, it
second. allows lesser light to enter. The adjustment is
done by moving the ring of the diaphragm
- When SET TO the ISO/ASA speed of towards the desired size of the opening. It is
the film you’re using, it tells the generally represented by number known as
exposure meter how sensitive the film the f-stop. F-stops are numbers found on the
is to light. ring outside the lens barrel. The usual f-stops
printed in the diaphragm ring are:
2. SHUTTER SPEED CONTROL- The length of time 1.2, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22,
needed by the light to reach and after the film 32’
inside the camera is restricted by the shutter * Where 1.2 is the biggest aperture
speed control of the camera. The common and the 32 is the smallest aperture.
shutter speeds exhibited in the shutter speed
dial are: DIAPHRAGM - An adjustable mechanical
device in the lens assembly which controls the
SHUTTER- An adjustable mechanism that regulate amount of light passing through the lens to
the amount of light reaching the film by varying the film.
the length of time light is allowed to pass through
the lens 1, 1/12, ¼ , 1/8, 1/5, 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, 1/500, DEPTH OF FIELD- The distance between the
1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000, 1/5000, T/B nearest object and the farthest object that
appear to be in focus.
“T” stands for time
Pressure on the button causes the shutter to APERTURE- The opening in a lens which
open. It will remain open until the shutter release controls the amount of light passing through
button is pressed a second time to close it. the lens; usually variable in diameter. This is
known as the light gathering power of the
“B” stands for bulb lens.
 When you press the shutter with the setting
“B”, the shutter remain open as long as the A circular opening in the camera,
shutter is press down between lens and film. Most cameras have
 For long exposure, this is usually required in adjustable aperture to control the intensity of
dim places to permit enough light to light striking the film.
accumulate to make satisfactory pictures.
Importance
Kinds of Shutter
1. It regulates the amount of
a. Between the lenses shutter- light that reaches the film
employs a number of metals that during the time shutter is
overlapped and arranged in a open.
circle; these blades are open and 2. It determines the depth in
closed pins on movable ring. the picture that will be in
b. Focal plane shutter- it consists of sharp focus.
a light the certain containing a
narrow slit which passes across
the focal p[lane in front of the
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DIAPHRAGM- An assembly of overlapping, fan- Infinity- all distant object are in focus regardless of
like blades, that permits adjustment of the lens different in then the is termed infinity focus or
aperture. simply infinity. When the lens is set at infinity, the
lens to film distance is at the shortest distance
F/stops- are diaphragm opening represented bring the distant object into focus.
by f-numbers on the lens aperture ring.
Represent the capacity of the lens to transmit Focusing Scale- Indicates the distance at which the
light to the focal plane. lens is focused
F-numbers- are numbers marked on the Depth-of-Field Scale- It indicates the range of
aperture ring indicating the ratio of the focal depth of-field at a certain lens opening focused at
length to the diameter of the aperture. a certain distance using a lens at certain focal
length.
F-stop or f-number - the designation of lens
aperture settings; also, the camera control Infrared Focusing- A focusing mark to help the
that determines f-stop. The standard series is photographer using an infrared film to focus it
f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, accurately.
f/32. Some lenses do not cover the full range
of settings; other may extend to higher Selective Focus- The technique of focusing on one
number. The lower smaller the number stop to particular part of a photograph and using a large
the next lower f-number doubles the amount lens aperture to limit the depth of field in the
of light passing through the lens; changing to picture to that area. Selective focus is used to
the next higher f-number halves it. emphasize the most important subject by blurring
other objects partially or completely.
LENS APERTURE RING – it control the amount
of light that reaches the film by adjusting the Critical Focus- The technique of focusing on the
size of the opening in the lens. most important part of the subject when depth of
field is very limited, thus retaining visual meaning
4. FOCUSING CONTROL – The most important on in the photograph. Critical focus is most often used
a camera is the focusing control. FOCUS is the for the close-ups, where depth of field is
means by which the object distance is extremely limited and speed is not required.
estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear
images. TYPES OF FOCUSING AIDS/SYSTEM
Focus- the means by which the object6 distance is a. Non-Ranger Finder Type
estimated or calculated to form sharp image
- Is the point at which light rays 1. Fixed Focusing- Focused to 8 feet.
from the lens converge to a clear 2. Zone Focusing- A lens which is
sharp image of the subject. focused by means of symbols as
- Is the point at which the image of mountains, people, head, etc.
the subjects is made as sharp as 3. Distance Focusing Scale- Critical
possible by the lens. Guest estimation- A lens which is
Focusing- System of moving the lens in relation to focused by estimating the
the image plane so as obtain the required degree distance in feet or meter to the
of sharpness of the film. subject.
- Is adjusting the lens to form the
clearest image possible b. Rangefinder Type
Focusing Ring- Is used to focus the image by 1. Super-imposed Focusing Aid or

turning the focusing either clockwise or counter Coincidence Direct Optical
clock wise until the image is clear and sharp Viewfinder Cameras
2. Split Image Focusing Aid- SL/TLR
Focusing Screen

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Components: -Device used in measuring the intensity of light

as a basis for the correct setting for the allowance of
a. Ground glass/Matte- A piece o glass photographic rays to strike the film.
with a matte finish onto which the -are devices which accurately measure the
camera projects the same image as it light value of scene or object and provide a means of
projecting at the film plane, converting the information into usable shutter speeds
permitting the photographer to and f-stops. The light energy is converted into electrical
compose and focus. energy by a photo-electric cell. The cell is connected to
b. Micro - prism- A circular area in the a meter movement which actuates a pointer needle.
center of a camera’s focusing screen The needle indicates the light value of the scene or the
consisting of a microscopic pattern of object to which the meter is pointed. A calculator dial
prisms. When the picture is out of assembly coverts this reading into f/stops and shutter
focus condition more apparent. speeds. Most cameras today have built-in light meters.
c. Split image rangefinder- A small
portion of the view finder is optically GETTING THE RIGHT EXPOSURE
split, except when the camera is Most cameras today have built-in light
correctly focused. Matching he split metering system. These should enable the
halves indicate precise focus. photographer to get the correct exposure every time.
However, in many situations the metering system is led
A piece of glass generally a small circle in the astray by the general level of light, so that the subject
view finder onto which two fragments of an image are of the photograph is over-or underexposed. This is
projected by the camera’s lens. When the two because many systems take an average reading of the
fragments are projected by the camera’s lens. When illumination over the whole frame. If you are
the two fragments are aligned, the image is in focus. photographing a person against a while wall, or if there
is a lot of sky in the frame, these big light areas will
have the greatest influence on the meter. Conversely, if
you place a person against a dark background the
metering system will read mainly for this area, and if
DISTANCE SCALE you do not make an adjustment the person will come
out overexposed.
Stamped on the surface around the focusing When using a meter, you must first remember
ring series of number called distance scales. These to make a basic adjustment to fit the ISO rating of your
scales are in feet ft and meters m. It indicates distance film.
that the camera is focused. A typical footage in feet
and meter scales reads, in ascending orders THE AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE LOCK
This problem can be resolved by using the
2 2.25 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 7 10 15 30 ft. camera’s automatic exposure lock. This sets itself when
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10 m. the shutter release is slightly pressed. It holds the
current exposure setting until the release is pressed to
The lens marking shown above cannot be fire the shutter. So you can go up close to your subject,
focused closer that 2 feet or 0.6 meter. The top series take their accurate reading from their flesh tones, hold
of numbers are in feet and bottoms are in feet and the down the shutter release and go back to your chosen
bottom are in meter. The symbol at the end of the viewpoint for the composition. If you want to take
series is infinity. several shots you will have to follow the same
procedure.
To focus- hold the camera to your eye in level; with the
viewfinder, turn the focusing ring clockwise or STEP IN USING PHOTOELECTRIC EXPOSURE METER
counterclockwise until a sharp intake of the object
appears in the center of the viewfinder. 1. Set ISO speed index
2. Aim meter at subject and read arrow on
EXPOSURE METER OR LIGHT METER light scale
3. Turn dial; to much on light scale

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4. Choose from among these speed-aperture front of the subject. Open shade
pairing usually requires an exposure increase
of 3 stops over that for bright
sunlight.
5. Bright sun on light sand or snow- The sun and sky

METERING AND EXPOSURE conditions is the same as for the first lighting
1. Spot metering condition given above, but the subject are very light
2. Center metering sand or snow. Since these bright surface reflect a lot
3. Matrix metering light, the recommended exposure is 1 stop less than
the basic exposure for average subject
Spot Metering- If your camera has a variable
metering system, you can use spot metering in such
cases. This restricts the meter to measuring the light
falling on a small spot in the center of the view finder. TYPES OF SUBJECT BRIGHTNESS
Flash Meter- used in studio or on location 1. Dark/Shaded subject- Dark subjects only reflect
indoors to measure electronic flash out put. about 9 of the light striking it and absorbs the
remainder. Included in this category are
EXPOSURE WITHOUT LIGHT METER vehicles and weapons, people in dark-toned
Exposure is determined by following clothing etc,
the manufactures suggested general guidelines 2. Average subject- Is one that reflects
supplied with the film. The information is only a guide it approximately 18 of the light striking it and
does not guarantee a perfect exposure absorbs the remainder. Examples are people
in medium-colored clothing most building,
TYPES OF DAYLIGHT LUMINATIONS street scenes, etc.
1. Bright sun- The sun is shining with a blue sky or 3. Bright subject- Reflects twice as much is an
the sun is covered with a thin haze. The sun is average subject. Typical subject in this
unobstructed and clearly defined, though category are fair-skinned and light haired
scattered clouds may be present. Shadows are person people in light clothing and light
sharp and distinct. colored building.
2. Weak of hazy sun- The light the sun is 4. Brilliant subject- Reflect about four times as
weakened by a heavy haze and the sun’s disk much light as an average subject and absorbs
is visible but diffused outlined. Shadows are very little light. Some or these subject are
weak and soft but readily apparent. Since people in light-colored clothing on a white and
there are no harsh shadows, these conditions sandy beach, a white sailboat against a blue
are wonderful for photographic people. sky and white buildings of a desert village.
3. Cloudy bright- The sun is hidden by light
clouds. The sky may be completely overcast or BASIC DAYLIGHT EXPOSURE GUIDE TABLE
there may be completely overcast or there
may be scattered clouds. You can’t see the sun Film Speed- ISO 100
disk, but you can tell where it is by a bright Shutter Speed- 1/125
area in the sky. There are no shadows
4. Heavy overcast/open shade- The sky is filled
with heavy clouds and there’s no bright area DAYLIGHT CONDITION APERTURE
to show the location of the sun, there are no Bright sun in seashore / f/16
extremely dark areas to indicate an snow
approaching storm and there are no shadows. Bright Sunlight f/11
Hazy Sunlight f/8
- This is the kind of lighting you have Cloudy Bright f/5.6
when your subject is in the shadow of Cloudy Day or Open Shade f/4
a nearby large objects such as a house
or a building. But you can still see a DAYLIGHT
large area of open sky overhead, in

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PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING through a glass bulb containing a gas. The

electricity can come either from the
DIRECTION- The angle of light on your subject as seen electric can come either from the
from camera is one of the most important concerns in electrical wiring or from batteries.
portrait photography. Although direct sun is hard light 3. Photo floods- the most economical
source, it’s the angle, rather than the quality of the sun artificial light to use and the one that can
that causes the problem. produce the most careful results. Comes
in several varieties and range but 150 and
BASIC OR TYPES OF LIGHTING DIRECTION 500 watts.
1. Top lighting- Is the most common from of Flash Synchronization

lighting direction. If often gives high contrast
unless the subject is on a light-toned base. This It is important that the flash happen at exactly
helps fill in shadows. Strong shadows the same moment in line that the camera shutter is
particularly around eyes and under the nose open. This is called synchronization.
and chin. Top lighting is generally not good for Synchronization is a problem usually
people because eyes disappear in pocket of encounter by a photographer when using a flash.
shadows.
2. Side lighting- From either side of the subject is
sometimes known as “HATCHET” lighting Types
because of tendency to divide the image half. 1. X-synchronization- fires flash at the instant
Contrast is often high. Light coming from one the shutter is fully open.
side of the subject-creates long shadows and 2. M-synchronization- fires flash bulbs above
emphasizes the texture and shape of the 1/10th of a second before the camera
subject. shutter is fully open.
3. Front Lighting- Lighting from the direction of 3. Syncho-sun exposure- using flash to fill in
the camera-gives little contrast , because there the same shadows is called “Syncho-sun”
are very few shadows. Referred to as “FLAT” in photography because flash and sunlight
because it gives a shawdowless effect that is are synchronized together
safe that is safe but somewhat dull.
4. Back lighting- Offers the most “DRAMATIC”
effects, as it ca add dimension of excitement
to the eventual image. The subject can be
silhouetted, or surrounded by a “HALO”
through rim lighting contrast is extreme. Light
coming from behind the subject, cast shadows
toward the camera produces a bright edge
around the subject and makes translucent
subjects like leaves seem to glow.
5. Bottom Lighting- Is rarely encountered in
natural condition. It can thus seem unuscal and
sometimes bizarre. Portraits fit from below,
for instance, can look menacing but more
frequently, recall the over-use of the
technique in low-budget horror movies.
TYPES OF FLASH
1. Flash Bulb- are artificial light sources that

make the light by burning certain metals in
an atmosphere of oxygen.
2. Electronic Flash- is a method of making
light by passing an electrical current

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CHAPTER 8
CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND PRINTING
(4th Element)
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
FILM DEVELOPMENT
When a photographic emulsion is exposed to

light with a camera, there is produced an invisible
image (latent image) in minute crystal of silver halide.
To obtain a visible image, the exposed emulsion has to
be treated in a solution known as a DEVELOPER. This
solution converts the light affected halides to black
metallic silver particles which form the visible image.
 During exposure the light falling on the

sensitized material affects the silver salts in the
emulsion and forms a latent image.
 This latent image reacts with the developer
during the development process which coverts
into black silver
 Developing photographic film requires a series
of chemical baths that cause the latent image
on the exposed film to become visible as a
negative.
THEORY FILM DEVELOPMENT
The theory of film development refers to the

principle in photography that explains how the LATENT
IMAGE in the exposed film is covered into a NEGATIVE
IMAGE (visible image). This theory provides that there
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are five (5) stages of chemical processing needed to 2. STOP BATH RINSE BATH- an intermediate
make the latent image become visible such that it can be bath between the developer and the fixer.
printed to produce a photograph. It is usually a combination of water plus
acetic acid or just plain water. It function is
STAGES OF FILM DEVELOPMENT to prevent the contamination of two
chemicals.
1. DEVELOPMENT (ACTUAL)- This is
performed by soaking the film in the When a negative is removed from the
DEVELOPER (developing solution). developer solution, small amount of
developer remains in the emulsion and on
- it is the process of reduction. the surface of the film which must be
Exposed silver halides are reduced removed or neutralized to stop its action
into metallic silver. There is a and prevent stains. To remove the
separate developer for film (D-76) developer from the negative, it should be
and another for paper (Dektol) immersed in a rinse bath. Rinse bath are of
three (3) general types, each has its
The chemical content of the developing specific purpose and should be used
solution are: accordingly.
a. REDUCER/DEVELOPER
(developing agent)- Elon; a. Water Rinse Bath- Helps retard
hydrquione- The basic and most the action of the developing
versatile and popular of all agent and remove the excess
developers. Although Amidol, developer from the film thus
Glycin, paraphenylene diamine preventing contamination of the
and uryo are also used. fixing bath.
b. ACCELERATOR- borax; sodium b. Acid Rinse Bath- more effective
carbonate; sodium hydroxide are than water rinse, as it instantly
some of the alkalis used to neutralized the action of the
increase the rate of oxidation of developer and prolongs the life of
the reducing agent and speeds up the fixing bath. To prepare an
solution penetration. acid bath mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic
c. RESTRAINER (fog preventer)- acid in 32 oz of water
potassium bromide- Without the
restrainer most developing 3. FIXING BATH- The fixing bath is employed
solution act too fast and develop to fix or to make the developed image
unexposed silver halides near the permanent by removing all the unaffected
surface of the emulsion which silver salt from the emulsion. These silver
causes fog, steaks and image salts are still sensitive and if they are
lacking in contrast. allowed to remain in the emulsion high
d. PRESERVATIVE- sodium sulfite, ultimately darkens them and observe the
sodium bisulfate- All organic image thus making the negative useless.
developing agents in an alkaline
state have a strong chemical FIXATION/ FIXING BATH – the process of
attraction to oxygen, so removing unexposed silver halide
preservative is added to prevent remaining in the emulsion after the first
excessive oxidation thus stage of development of the latent image
prolonging the useful life of the
developing solution and prevents - ingredients of the fixing solution are
the formation of colored
oxidation products which causes a. FIXER (Dissolving Agent)- (Hypo/
stains. Sodium Thiosulfate)- commonly
termed hypo which is taken from
its other chemical name hypo

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sulfate. Its function is to convert cotton. Second is drying either by

the silver salts remaining in the evaporation or forced air.
emulsion after development into
compounds that is soluble in (1st) LATENT IMAGE to NEGATIVE IMAGE
water. Latent
Image
b. NEUTRALIZER- (boric acid; acetic
acid) After development the
pores of the swollen emulsion
retains a considerable amount of
developer and if allowed to (2nd) NEGATIVE IMAGE to POSITIVE PRINT
remain it will continue its action
cansing uneven stains in the
gelatin of the emulsion rendering
the negative until for use. Acetic
acid is added to the fixing bath to
neutralized the action of the
developer remaining in the
emulsion when the film is PROCESSING PROCEDURE:
immersed in the fixing bath 1. Tank method
2. Tray method
c. PRESERVATIVE- sodium sulfite is
added to the fixer as preservative PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING:
to prevent oxidation of the 1. Contact printing (contact printer)
developing agents that are 2. Projection Printing or Enlarging (Enlarger)
carried over into the fixing bath
by the film prevent FILM PROCESSING:
decomposition of the hardening Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, or
agent. mechanized equipment. Panchromatic materials must
be handled in total darkness. Other materials like blue
d. HARDENER- During development films and orthochromatic films and printing papers are
the emulsion become soft and handled under a safelight.
swollen filling and scratching may
occur if processing is continued FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPING TIME:
without hardening the solution. 1. Characteristics of the negative material
The potassium alum is the 2. Strength and composition of the developer
hardening agent used to stop the 3. Temperature of the developing solution
swelling and toughen the gelatin 4. Agitation or stirring during development
leaving the emulsion expanded
but firm for the washing process. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
4. WASHING- Washing negatives with fresh - Printing Papers/Positive Paper

water is the last solution to be used. The
purpose of washing is to remove the STRUCTURE OF PHOTOGRAHPIC PAPER
soluble chemicals or solutions of the fixing 1. EMULSION LAYER- contain silver halides
bath. suspended in gelatin the layer making the
paper light sensitive emulsion maybe
5. DRYING- The final step in processing film is composed of silver chloride silver bromide or
to dry the wet negative which is done in silver chlorobromide
two phases. First removal of the excess
water on the film surface with the use of 2. BARYTA LAYER- gelatin layer containing baryta
wet viscous sponge or wet absorbent crystals to increase the reflectivity of the
paper the layer that makes the film glossy.
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 Velox Number 0 and 1 –are used on over-

3. BASE- made of hard paper which must be exposed or low contrast negative.
chemically pure chemical content does not  Velox Number 2 – are used on normal exposed
change or react will or other chemicals during negative.
printing.  Velox Number 3 to 5 – are used in under-
exposed or high contrast negatives.
SAFELIGHT- Darkroom light of a color and intensity that
will not noticeably affect particular light-sensitized Latitude - Is the degree or amount of which you can
photographic materials. At least 15 watts and 1.2 deviate from the ideal exposure or development
meters or 4 feet from the photo paper. without appreciable loss of print quality
Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag. Light PAPER WEIGHT
excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of light-
sensitized photo materials inside. Lightweight, (LW) - Intended for the purpose
which involve folding
Single Weight (SW) - Used for all ordinary
photographic purposes.
THE POSITIVE OR PRINT Double Weight (DW) - Generally used for large
prints because they stand up better under rough
After the process of producing the negative treatment.
has been completed a positive image is produced from
the negative which is a true representation of the PRINTING PHOTOGRAPHS
relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now
called a print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is Contact Printing – it is a method of making a
coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is photographic paper print in which the sentisized material
much the same as the one which must be used to cover is exposed in contact with the negative
the film.
Projection Printing – an enlarger is needed.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING PAPER
1. Chloride Paper- Have a slow speed

emulsion containing silver chloride are fine PRINTING
grain and produce deep blacks used for In Photography, printing is the term used to describe
contact printing. the process of making positive images from negatives
2. Bromide Paper- have a faster emulsion (and, in some instances, from film positives). The most
speed than chloride paper achiever familiar example is the print made on a paper base.
sensitivity through the use of bromide
halides. Because of the relatively high Photographic print is made by passing light through
sensitivity to light these emulsion are the negative onto a piece of paper that is coated
particularly suitable for projection with a light-sensitive emulsion very similar to film.
printing.
3. Chlorobromide Papers- Contain both TYPES OF PRINTING
silver chloride and bromide halides.
Emulsion speed lies between that of 1. CONTACT PRINTING. It is the process of making
chloride and bromide papers used both positive prints by placing a sheet of printing paper in
for contact and projection printing. direct contact with the negative, emulsion to emulsion.
PRINTING PAPER GRADES Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most
Because of the fact that all negatives do not economical method of producing photographic prints.
print best on one kind paper and in order to permit For making proof prints and small volume printing, all
printing for special effects photographic paper is made you need for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a
of several different grades of contrast and glossy (F) light source, and some sort of padding.
surface.

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For making contact proof prints and the occasional  The negative is placed between an enclosed light
contact print job, a glass and a supporting pad are all source and a lens.
that are necessary. “Contact printers,” consisting of a  The lens receives the light that passed through
sheet of glass hinged to a metal frame and a pad the negative and projects the image onto the
assembly, are generally known as proof printers. If such paper.
a device is not available or is not large enough for the  Changing the distance between the lens and the
negatives to be contact printed, a piece of 1/4-inch plate paper controls the size of the image.
glass and a soft padding (such as a rubber typewriter  The image is focused on the paper by adjusting
pad) can be used. Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy the distance between the negative and the lens.
enough to keep the negatives and paper flat and in  It is possible to enlarge or reduce the size of
contact during exposure. The glass must be free of the projected image by changing and adjusting
flaws, scratches, bubbles and dirt. these distances.
Contact Print - A print made with the negative in

contact (held tightly against) the photographic paper
so that both negative and print are the same size.
A contact print is produced by exposing a sheet of
photographic printing paper through a negative
with the paper emulsion and the emulsion side of the
negative in contact with each other. Light is directed
through the negative that controls the amount of
light transmitted to the paper. The dense areas of the
negative pass less light than do the more clear or less
dense areas. The image densities formed (after
development) in the emulsion of the paper make a
positive print that represents the tonal values of the
*ENLARGER:
original subject. Furthermore, since the paper is in
Generally the machine used in making an
direct contact with the negative, the print produced
enlargement is the enlarger. Like the camera the parts
is exactly the same image size as the negative.
of the enlarger are manipulated and controlled so as to
produce a good positive print or photograph.
2. PROJECTION PRINTING. Generally refers to
enlarging.
PARTS OF AN ENLARGER:
- It is the process of making positive prints by 1. Enlarger head – the main working part of the
projecting the negative image onto photosensitive machine, it contains the light source, the condenser
paper. lens, the negative holder and the lens.
2. Lamp – this supplies the light that passes through
The projected image may be enlarged , the same as the negative that exposed the photographic paper.
the negative image, or reduced in size. When the Condenser lens – this lens spreads the light coming
print images are larger than the negative images, the from the lamp of the enlarger.
process is called enlarging. 4. Film (Negative) carrier – holder of the negative.
When the print images are smaller than the 5. Lens aperture – opening of the lens that controls the
negative images, the process is called reducing. rays of light that passing through it.
Because projection printing is usually used to make 6. Lens – responsible in forming the image, it bends the
positive prints with images larger than the negative, rays of light that passes through it.
projection printers are usually referred to as 7. Focusing mechanism – it moves the lens up and
enlargers. down to focus the projected image.
8. Enlarger column – holder of the enlarger head
Projection printing differs from contact printing 9. Easel – the part that controls the image size, holder
because the negative is separated from the paper and of the photo paper.
the image is projected by a lens onto the sensitized 10. Baseboard – part that supports the entire unit.
material.

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EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat 12. Transfer the developed print in the stop bath
while exposing it to light from an enlarger. An easel for about 30 seconds.
creates a white border surrounding a print because its 13. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing
"arms" block light from striking the print paper's time is about 20 to 30 minutes.
edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted vertically and 14. Wash the print in running water for about 20
horizontally in order to create prints of specific to 30 minutes.
measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and so on. 15. Drying.
Advantages of Projection Printing
The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing
is that large prints can be made, and there are several
other important advantages:
The advantages of projection printing are as follows:
1. CROPPING (selecting the main area of interest

in a negative) can be done and enlarged to any
suitable size.
This gives you the opportunity to eliminate

unwanted and distracting elements from around
the point of interest of the picture.
Cropping - excluding or omitting some images on the

An EASEL holds paper flat while exposing it to light negative from the final print, can be achieved by either
from an enlarger. burning-in or dodging.
ENLARGING TECHNIQUE:
After processing an exposed film into a negative, the
next step would be to turn the negative into a positive
print or copy. This could be done by either contact
printing or projection printing.
1. Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and
the enlarger. CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve
2. Put off white light, switch on red light. its composition
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with 2. DODGING
the dull side of the negative facing down. - the holding back of some lights to a
4. Insert the negative holder into the enlarger. specific area to make it lighter in
5. Switch on the enlarger’s light. density
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the - Blocking a portion of the light when
photograph. printing a photograph so that an area
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger. Focusing is of the print will be made lighter.
done by first opening the lens diaphragm fully.
If after the image has been focused, and the BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in."
density of the negatives permits, the lens of - is the adding of exposure time on a
the enlarger must be stopped down a little bit. specific area to bring out details
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger. - In a darkroom, providing extra
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel exposure to an area of the print to
with the shinny side facing up. make it darker, while blocking light
10. Make the exposure. from the rest of the print.
11. Immersed the exposed photographic paper in
the developer. The usual developing time for a RELEVANT TERMS:
normally exposed paper is about 1 to 1 ½
minutes.

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Agitation – Method used to keep fresh processing Vignetting – Printing technique where the edges are
solution in contact with the emulsion surface during faded out toward the border of the print.
photographic processing.
Air Bells- are small air bubbles that adhere to the film
surface and prevent the processing solution from CHAPTER 9
acting on the film during the developing process,
living small clear spots. TECHNIQUES IN
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Changing Bag – Opaque, light tight fabric bag. Light
excluding sleeves allow the safe handling of light- Definition of Terms
sensitized photo materials inside. • CRIME SCENE – is a location where an
illegal act took place and the area from
Dodging – Local control of density in photographic
printing achieved by shading to reduce the exposure to which most of the physical evidence is
specific areas of the printing paper gathered or retrieved by trained law
enforcement personnel.
Easel – Alternative name for masking frame. Flat board
on which printing papers are held during enlargement. • POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY - the study of the
general practice methods and steps in
Etching – Scraping or dissolving away unwanted areas taking pictures of the crime scene,
from an image or image printing surface. physical things and other circumstances
that can be used as criminal evidences or
Enlarger/Projector-a machine which is essentially a
for law enforcement purpose.
camera in reverse that is, it projects rather than
receives the image.
• FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY - The process
Masking – System of controlling negative density, of photographing crime scene or any
range or color saturation through the use of light let other objects for court presentation.
king mask (usually sharp).
• CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPH – is a picture
Printing- the process whereby the negative is used to (still or motion) made of the subject at
make the positive or exposing an image to a sensitized such a distance that only head and
material by permitting light to pass through a negative
shoulders or other separate parts of the
or through a positive transparency.
body are shown
Retouching – The purpose is to remove blemishes on
the negative or one that treat particular subject areas • MUG SHOT – is a photographic shot of a
to improve the final effect. suspect/witness from head to elbow level
taken in various views – front whole body,
Safelights- are enclosed lights sources equipped with a and quarter view from head to elbow
filter for transmitting maximum amount of light that (front, right and left side view)
can be used safely without damage to the sensitized
material being processed. TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
• The CARDINAL RULE in crime scene
Shading – method of concealing the final quality of a
print as varying the exposure given to different areas of investigation states that the ‘crime scene
the print through selective masking tape enlarging. should not be touched, altered, or remove
unless it is sketched, measured and
Spotting – method of retouching blemishes or photographed’.
unwanted details are removed from negatives or prints
by brush and dye or pencil. • Sketching, measuring and photographing,
all of these acts must be reflected on the
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photographic log and photographic sketch

indicating position of the camera, weather – The front whole body, front, left
condition, type of lens, film, camera, and right side quarter view from
aperture and shutter speed that had been head to elbow.
used.
• The ideal view of subject /object to be

photographed depends upon the type of
crime committed. Each case of crime
demands different requirements of how it
should be photographed but definitely a
close-up photograph is often required,
especially on the object attacked, weapon
used or tools, significant clues such as
fingerprints, blood stain, footprints, skid
marks, broken glass, wounds or any other
physical evidence.
• As a general rule in crime scene

photography, photograph the entire
scene or the general view of the scene to
include nearby surroundings, the address
of the crime scene, case number, time and
date and initial of the photographer.
• An overlapping photograph or shots of

the immediate scene, at least in FOUR
different angles must be performed.
• Photograph the body showing the
location , direction where it tends.
MUG SHOT
• MUG SHOT – is a photographic shot of a
suspect/witness from head to elbow level
taken in various views – front whole body,
and quarter view from head to elbow
(front, right and left side view)
• It is taken from suspects of crime.
• The proper procedure:

– The subjects is placed at the
background (with height
measurer) barefooted, without
eyeglasses and holding at breast
level the board with
corresponding name, and other
data.
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 They are typically taken by shooting from

the four corners of the crime scene.
 These four photographs will often capture
the entire scene.
 If not, additional photographs from an
appropriate vantage point can be taken as
well.
Shooting the Four corners
TYPES OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS

1. Overall photographs /General View depict
an overall view of the scene, buildings,
approach and escape routes, witnesses,
etc.
2. Medium-range photographs depict the

relationship between objects,
concentrates more on the immediate
scene.
This general view photograph depicts
3. Close-up photographs depict individual the overall crime scene
items of evidence.
Overall Photographs
 Overall photographs are exposed with a
wide angle lens or in a fashion that allows
the viewer to see a large area in the scene.
 Their function is to document the
condition and layout of the scene
as found.
 They help eliminate issues of
subsequent contamination (e.g.
tracked blood, movement of
items)

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Macroscopic photographs depict details of

objects, and are taken at extreme close range
Photographs should contain rulers or objects to

help establish the size of the evidence. (In this
instance, the known length of the bill can be used
as a scale to determine the length of the knife.)
This medium-range photograph depicts the
actual scene and relationship of evidence. PURPOSES OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY:
1. To record the original scene and related
areas
2. To record the initial appearance of
physical evidence
3. It will provide investigators and others
with this permanent visual record of the
scene for later use
4. Photographs are also used in court trials
and hearings.
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Generally the crime scene is of vital importance
in the establishment of proofs. A permanent
This close-up photograph depicts a single record of it can be considered indispensable to a
item of evidence. successful investigation and presentation of a
case in court.
Therefore, to secure and permanently
preserve the crime scene, the first thing to do in
the investigation of any crime is to photograph
completely and accurately all aspects of the crime
before the removal or alteration of any evidence
found in the scene of the crime.
The photographs taken must serve its
purpose of recording the crime scene. Useful
information maybe establish in a series of
photographs, it will enable the viewer of the
photograph to understand where and how the
crime was committed.
Photograph of the general view of the scene

of the crime must be supplemented by a close-up
photograph that produces important details. All
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objects or traces of evidence must be in such

manner that the location of it can be clearly seen 1. Secure the scene
in the over-all photograph. This will enable the 2. Take preliminary notes
viewer to gain clear ideas of its position with 3. Take overview or preliminary
regard to the other objects at the crime scene. photographs
4. Make a basic sketch
FIELD NOTES 5. Record each item of evidence
a. Record the date and time of arrival
at scene as well as the of (Each is important in its own way. Each supports
departure from the scene. and adds to the value of the other.)
b. Specifically record the location
area, street number, name of Incomplete Documentation Issues
building, type of scene.  Incomplete documentation occurs when
c. Write down the names and badge the crime scene team fails to capture
numbers of all investigative pertinent scene details.
officers present during  Too few photographs are
photography. exposed.
d. Total and record the number of  Critical areas of the scene are
exposures, which necessitates forgotten.
that bad negatives be saved for  Methodical scene processing techniques
the record. helps eliminate this issue.
e. Record specific information on
each exposure. This should PHOTOGRAPHS TO RECORD ITEMS OF EVIDENCE
included the time of taking each
picture, which can be expressed 1.Take two photographs of each
either using AM or PM or an item of evidence.
military type 24 hours scale on
which 3:00 PM becomes 1500 a.One should be an orientation (midrange)
hours. shot to show how the item is
related to its surroundings.
Additionally:
1. Direction camera pointed b.The second photograph should be a close-
2. General statement of what is up to bring out the
photographed details of the object itself.
3. Exposure & ASA rating 2. Measuring and marking devices.
4. Kind of film a. Take two photographs if a marking or
measuring device is used.
DOCUMENTING (1) One photograph without the
device, the other with the device.
There are four key elements in Crime Scene (2) So the defense can't claim that
documentation. They are: the scene was altered or that the
device was concealing anything
1. Field notes important.
2. Photographs
3. Sketches RULES IN CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
3. Reports Rule 1 - Do Not Disturb the Scene
This is the cardinal rule of crime scene
Five steps in recording the crime scene. photography. Both later investigators and judges
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need to see the scene, as it was when the police

arrived
As far as possible, plan your pictures
before you shoot. Make sure to cover the whole
scene before it is touched or altered in any way.
After the scene has been photographed in its
original state, you may shoot a second series of
pictures with minor changes. You can add
measuring scales, remove obstacles blocking the
view or do anything else which will make the
scene clearer. If you are working with a partner,
take pictures of him moving objects or adding One practical way to assure complete coverage
them to the scene. This will show the jury exactly and to provide correct perspective is to follow the
what was done and why. FOUR CORNER APPROACH.
Rule 2 - Get a Complete Series of Pictures Rule 4 - Record all Data

You must move around the scene to see You will often want to stress key details in a
everything. So must the camera. Generally picture. If you do that by marking on the print
speaking, each important object in the scene itself, a defense lawyer may accuse you of altering
should appear in at least three pictures: an it. For this reason, it is wise to do your marking on
overview; a mid range shot; a close-up. a transparent overlay that can be removed to
The overview (using wide angle lens) show the untouched print.
should cover the entire scene to bring out the
relationships between the objects. The mid range Another way to avoid possible objections
(using normal lens: 50mm) shot shows and is to label the negatives from which your prints
important object and its immediate surroundings. were made and take them with you to Court.
Finally, each close-up (using close-up lens) shows
a key detail clearly. Finally, you may want to support your
All of these pictures are important. A prints with a "sketch map" of the crime scene and
close-up alone does not indicate where the object indicate the camera position for each shot.
was located. An overview alone does not bring
out all items sharply enough to permit a detailed
examination.
Rule 3 - Pay Attention to Camera Angles POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN CRIME SCENE

Relationships of size and distance may be PHOTOGRAPHY
distorted by the wrong viewpoint. Examine the
scene in the viewfinder. This shows the scene, as 1) Always take preliminary photographs
your camera will see it. before the scene is altered in any way.
Ask yourself questions such as: 2) Take a complete set of pictures (Overall,
• Does this picture reveal the true position Mid Range & Close - up). Shoot from
of the witness to the crime? different angles and distances. Film is
• Do the skid marks seem longer or shorter cheaper than lost cases.
in the viewfinder than they are in real life? 3) Use fresh film and keep it away from heat.
• How large is the lead pipe used as a 4) Keep your pictures sharp. Use a tripod if
weapon? possible. Focus carefully. Be sure your lens
• Shoot most pictures with the camera at is clean.
eye level.
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5) Avoid back lighting. It creates silhouettes use of flash fill, the brightness level in the
and may cause flare. If you must shoot shadow areas can be raised to the overall
toward a light, shade the lens as best you brightness of the scene.
can.
6) Use side lighting to bring out texture,
accident damage, tool marks and any other
irregularities on a surface. Avoid it when
shooting recesses, containers and closets.
7) Front lighting is normally the best in police
work. Use it unless three dimensional
details need to be recorded(then use side
lighting).
8) The flash provides portable and easily
controlled light. In sunlit scenes, it fills in
the shadows and brings out details that
they might otherwise hide.
9) Aiming your flash at a highly polished
surface may cause "glare". Point the
camera/flash at the surface from a 45
degree angle.
10) Cover the flash with a clean white
handkerchief for close subjects to prevent
the flash from "burning" the subject in with
overexposure or harsh light.
11) When some important objects are near you Without flash fill, detail in shadows is lost.
and others are far away, use your flash but
expect those objects closer to you to be
overexposed and those further away to be
underexposed. Try taking an extra shot
without a flash if there is some "available"
light but you will most likely have to use a
tripod or rest the camera on some solid
stationary object to prevent a blurred or
unclear image.
12) Keep all your equipment in good condition
and readily available. It will then give
maximum usefulness and minimum
trouble.
FLASH FILL IN CRIME SCENE AND EVIDENCE

PHOTOGRAPHY
 When to Use Flash Fill
In scenes illuminated by bright

sunlight there will usually be dark shadow
With flash fill, detail in the shadow area is
areas. Detail in the deep shadow areas will
recorded.
be lost when the exposure is based on the
overall brightness of the scene. With the
SUICIDE PHOTOGRAPHS
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• a suicide case should be photographed as the suspect’s person or clothing. When

though it was a homicide, but the photographing evidence, include a data
photographer should not assume that it is sheet and a ruler.
one or the other.
Photographing the victim
A. Suicide by Shooting • Photograph evidence of resistance of the
• Photograph both the entrance and exit criminal act (sex offenses), marks and
wounds. Place identification alongside discoloration of the body, conditions of
each wound as well as a ruler for affected parts and presence of foreign
measuring. hairs, fibers, biological stains.
• Entrance wound is always larger than the
diameter of the bullet. ROBBERY
• Hair surrounding the entrance wound and Photograph the following:
the skin burned to a reddish or grayish • a) The exterior of the building in which
brown color. burglary occurred
• If shot is fired from range of less than 8 • b) The point of the entry and close-up shot
inches, a smeary black residue may be to show forcible entry
evident. • c) The point of exit should be
• If possible, photograph close up the photographed
wound in color to show various • d) Rooms in the house or building which is
discoloration disturbed
• e) Take shots of all furniture or articles
which show evidence of being ransacked
• f) Photograph what has been left by the
B. Suicide by Hanging burglar such as hat, gloves, scarf, cigarette
• Strangulation by hanging is the common butts at the scene
form of suicide. • g) physical evidences such as finger prints,
• Photograph the subject at a distance from footprints, tire prints, crepe sole prints,
four views, showing the whole body. heel prints and tool marks
• Then move in close and show the knot, • h) if merchandise stolen is discovered, it
bruise mark and discoloration of the body should be photographed
SEX OFFENSES ARSON

• The crime of rape may be taken as typical • In arson cases, it is always recommended
of class of offense photograph indications to use colored films in taking photographs
of victim’s efforts to resist, such as bruises because of its importance in determining
or black and blue marks. the origin of the fire. Origin of fire can be
distinguished through the color of smoke,
Photograph of the suspect and color of flame.
• The suspect’s body may show evidence of
the physical struggle, such as scratches or Photograph the following:
bruises. • a.)Shoot the entire operation of the fire as
• Foreign hairs, pollen granules or fibers it progresses
maybe discovered by the physician. • b)Always use a color film
• The garments may contain weeds, seeds • c)Use flood lights to produce the effect of
or soil. “painting with light” or photo flash
• If crime took place indoor, materials illumination known as “bouncing flash”
peculiar to the premises may be found in
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HOMICIDE CASES • Angles to take shots should be taken from

• Photograph the victim from different the four points of the compass and twenty
sides: top view, close-up shot of the face, five feet.
wounds (with and without scale) and any • Close-up shots are needed
identifying marks, and after removal of • Order of photographs must be established
the body with white outline to indicate from the photographer’s notes.
place where the victim was lying.
Summarily the following must be done: What to photograph:
• View of the room with ingress and egress • All vehicles in their original positions
to the room • Victims
• Evidence of struggle • Debris
• Cigarette butts, bloodstains, broken glass • License plate of vehicles
• Various views of the body , including close- • Skid marks and tire marks, patches of oil
up shots of wounds and bruise marks or water
• Weapon and the place which it has been • Marks in soil of soft beam when vehicle
taken has gone off the road
• Texture of road
Photographing the corpse • Vicinity of the accident scene
• Several pictures of the conditions at the
time of discovery including the
environment of the corpse must be taken
from various photographic directions
• General condition of the corpse, if as
being deformed as a whole
• If indoors, the corpse is covered with a CHAPTER 10
quilt or something, photograph in order to
show procedures of inspection PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
• When photographing a damaged part of a
corpse, consider the range of Admissibility of photographic evidence.
photographing to show the damage part,
clearly Three major points of qualification of a
photograph in court.
AUTOPSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
• If the corpse is anatomized, picture must 1. Object pictured must be MATERIAL OR
be taken of its front and rear views in the RELEVANT to the point in issue.
nude
• With respect to important external and 2. The photograph must NOT APPEAL TO
internal findings from the corpse, THE EMOTIONS or tend to PREJUDICE the
photograph so as to clearly reveal the court or jury.
conditions in detail
3. The photograph must be FREE FROM
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT PHOTOGRAPHY DISTORTION and not misrepresent the
• It requires quickness. scene or the object it purports to
• Avoid photographing unnecessary reproduce.
surroundings
• In taking photograph, “see through the You do not need to be an expert in photography
driver’s eye ”. to take crime scene photographs or testify about
them.
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Nervousness is a normal emotion to

everyone especially for beginners but you
can control it with several deep breaths
The Recommended size and avoiding eye contact with the lawyer
or anyone in front who affects yourself
of photograph in court is confidence.
5” X 7” or 8”X10” or 4. Show your respect to everyone by addressing

bigger… the lawyers “sir” and the judge “your Honor”
5. Speak in a clear and distinct voice loud enough
to be heard by the judge, the lawyers , and the
people at the gallery.
D. TESTIFYING IN COURT
One day, you will be in court to give 1. The lawyer and the court will see to it that
testimony to photographs that you have taken. the case is properly developed.
This is inevitable and expected. One must prepare Preliminary question are usually asked first
for it to be able to give a good and credible before question on the issue of the case.
testimony. He should always consider himself to
be a neutral witness with no personal interest in 2. Questions which require a plain “yes “ or
the outcome of the case. His only concerns is his “no” answered must be done so. Answer
objective desire to present an accurate questions directly and completely but do
photograph for the court consideration. He must not volunteer additional information
always keep in mind the quotation of the words of unless necessary.
P. Brouadel.
3. Before answering a question, be sure that
A man of science you understand it clearly. If not, politely
“If the law has made you a witness, remain a man request for clarification. If you fill or think
of science, you have no victim to avenge, no guilty that your answer to a certain question
or innocent person to ruin or save, you must be may give the lawyer or the court an
witness within the limit of science.” erroneous or wrong impression you must
immediately ask for permission to amplify
TIPS TO BE OBSERVED DURING COURTS or explain further his reply to a question.
APPEARANCES
1. Dress properly and appropriately when 4. If the answer to a question requires that
going to court. A formal attire like barong you consult your notes., also ask the
Pilipino or long sleeve with a necktie is permission of the court to do so. Be
highly advised. Wear your uniform if you prepared to submit said notes if the court
have one. so require.
2. When your name is called for the witness
stand, rise and walk with normal strides 5. If a question asked in regard to the
remain standing until you are sworn in, relevancy or materiality of the photograph
then wait for the instruction to sit down. being submitted in evidence, courteously
3. upon sitting down maintain a comfortable, state that you are leaving said issue to
relax but dignified posture. Do not slouch, your lawyers.
sit straight and avoid crossing your legs
and your arms should rest normally on
your lap

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11. When confronted by a question whether

you consider yourself an expert or not,
your response should be that you leave it
to the discretion of the honorable court.
Any attempt on the part of the witness to
claim or represent himself as an expert
may allow the opposing lawyer to ask
question on the extreme technical
subjects like physics of light or on the
chemical components and reactions
during chemical processing. If you are
confident however that your knowledge
on the subject is sufficient then you don’t
have to worry about it.
12. Avoid the use of harsh or vulgar words

during testimony. It does not only demean
the personality and character of the
witness but also honor and prestige of the
organization whom he represents.
13. Some lawyers in their desire to confuse or

excite a witness may ask a very personal
or insulting question or remarks. Under
such circumstances, show your
professionalism and earn the respect of
the lawyer in the court by not arguing with
him on the matter. Chapter 11
Digital Photography
14. At the end of your testimony, politely ask
for an excuse from the judge before
***Optional Chapter
standing. Leave the witness stand with
appearance of dignity and pride. The Admissibility of
Digital Photographs in Court
15. Try to remember the word of the famous
trial lawyer “ If you know the facts, then
When digital imaging is considered for law
you are ready for trial.”
enforcement, the concern of the admissibility of
digital photographic evidence in court is often
raised. The fact that digital photographs are more
easily altered than film-based photographs is
usually cited. Some even believe digital
photographs are not admissible in court.
Photographs as Evidence
The principal requirements to admit a

photograph (digital or film-based) into evidence
are relevance and authentication. Unless the
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photograph is admitted by the stipulation of both must not be replaced (overwritten) with a
parties, the party attempting to admit the new file.
photograph into evidence must be prepared to
offer testimony that the photograph is an Cases were Digital Photography admitted as
accurate representation of the scene. This usually Evidence
means someone must testify that the photograph
accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden, 1995:
witness. A homicide case was taken through a Kelly-Frye
hearing in which the defense specifically objected
Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs on the grounds that the digital images were
Are Admissible manipulated. The court authorized the use of
digital imaging and the defendant was found
 Develop a Standard Operating Procedure guilty. In 1998 the Appellate Court upheld the case
(SOP), Department Policy, or General on appeal.
Order on the use of digital imaging. The
SOP should include when digital imaging is State of California vs. Phillip Lee Jackson,
used, chain of custody, image security, 1995: The San Diego (CA) Police Department used
image enhancement, and release and digital image processing on a fingerprint in a
availability of digital images. The SOP double homicide case. The defense asked for a
should not apply just to digital, but should Kelly-Frye hearing, but the court ruled this
also include film-based and video unnecessary on the argument that digital
applications as well. processing is a readily accepted practice in
forensics and that new information was not added
 Most importantly, preserve the original to the image.
digital image. This can be done a variety of
ways including saving the image file to a
hard drive or recording the image file to a
CD. Some agencies elect to use image
security software.
 Digital images should be preserved in their
original file formats. The saving of a file in
some file formats subject the image to
lossy compression. If lossy compression is
used critical image information may be
lost and artifacts introduced as a result of
the compression process.
 If images are stored on a computer
workstation or server, and several
individuals would have access to the
image files, make the files read-only for all
but your evidence or photo lab staff. As an
example, detectives could view any image
files but they would not have rights to
delete or overwrite those files.
 If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced
the new image files created should be
saved as new file names. The original file

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Police Photography

-An Instructional Material-

WILLIAM C. DELA CRUZ JR

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which transmit almost all the light falling upon

In the field of criminal Investigation

The first known use of the camera for law

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Photography is method of picture making surface. It is based on the notion of a single

By 1800 a young English chemist, Thomas

Light shining through the paper burned an image into

To create a photogenic drawing, Talbot first

British amateur scientist William Henry Fox Talbot

Photography arrived in the United States due Using the collodion method, French painter

Architecture, travel views, and scenic

of daguerreotypes made by French photographers in Photographers using the collodion, or wet-

Personalities in the development of Photography

1. Aristotle – a famous Greek philosopher who

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Photography defined images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a

NOTA BENE: Sometimes referred to as forensic imaging or

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formation of images/objects. To make it  Photographs allow police investigators to

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3. Photomacrography – photographing of objects 2. Aerial photography.

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Mechanical results of Photography

1. Simplicity - The simpler, the better

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approximately 300 000 km per second in open space. It

"velocity of light", technically the word velocity is a

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3. Opaque objects - mediums that divert or

1. Natural Source - those coming from the nature

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Kinds of reflection 2. TRANSMISSION

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the picture. On the other hand, shadows may  Advantage

scene should be lit:  Disadvantage

 The angle of light on your subject as seen from

BASIC TYPE OF LIGHTING DIRECTION

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is behind you or at least over your

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draw back of LASER is cost, they are quite

The camera is essentially a light tight box with

Additions to the basic camera have been made

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they are not absolutely essential to the

A camera is a device that records and stores

CAMERA OBSCURA – THE ORIGIN OF CAMERA

The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr.

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accurate rendering of perspective. At times, the artist The camera lucida that commercial

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pinhole), with a means of holding sensitized